SOLUTION

Solution is a homogenous mixture or uniform physical combination with out chemical changes of two or more substances Solute: Substance which is smaller in amount in a solution i.e. minor component. Solvent: Substance which is larger in amount in a solution i.e. major component / dominated component. Types of Solution: SOLUTE (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) Gas Gas Gas Liquid Liquid Liquid Solid Solid Solid + + + + + + + + + + SOLVENT Gas Liquid Solid Gas Liquid Solid Gas Liquid Solid SOLUTION Air Aerated water H2 in Pd Vapors in air Alcohol in water Hg in Na or Ag Carbon in air (black smoke) Glucose in water Alloys

Concentration expressions of solution:

I). i. ii. iii. iv. Percentage composition = Solute x 100 Solution

weight weight percentage or (w/w %) weight volume percentage or (w/v %) volume weight percentage or (v/w %) volume volume percentage or (v/v %)

II). Molarity (M)

No. of Moles of solute Volume of solution in liter Amount of solute in gm 1 gm mol. Wt. of solute Sum of Atomic mass of all atoms present in molecule

No. of moles of solute = 1 gm mol. Wt. of solute = Units: Molar or moles /liter

III). Molality (m) =

NO. of moles of solute Mass of solvent in kg

Units : Molal or moles/kg Molarity changes with temperature but molality does not change. IV). Normality (N) = NO. of gm equivalent of solute Volume of solution in liter/dm3 = Amount of solute in gm 1 gm eq. wt. of solute Molecular w.t of solute Acidity / Basicity / e- loss or gain

No. of gm equivalent of solute 1 gm eq. wt. of solute =

Units: Normal or gm equivalent per liter

V). Mole Fraction (x) Mole ratio of a component with whole solution. e.g. A solution composed of solute A & solvent B. Mole fraction of solute XA = nA nA nA + nB nB + nB

Mole fraction of solvent XB = XA + XB = 1 , no unit

VI). Parts per Million : (ppm) It is number of parts of solute which are present in a million parts of solution. ppm = Or ppm = ppm = Amount of solute in g Volume of solution in ml Molarity x Molecular w.t x 1000 NO. of moles Volume of solution in liter Amount in g Molecular w.t Amount of solute in mg Volume of solution in liter

Molarity = NO. of moles =

ppm ppm

= =

NO. of moles Volume in liter Amount in g Volume in liter Amount in mg Volume in liter

Amount in g x 1000 NO. of moles

x 1000

ppm

ppm

Normality x Equivalent wt. x 1000 = NO. of g eq. wt. Volume of solution in liter = Amount in g Equivalent wt. Amount in g x 1000 NO. of g eq. wt.

ppm ppm ppm

Normality

NO. of g eq. wt. = = =

NO. of g eq. wt. x Volume in liter

Amount in g x 1000 Volume in liter Amount in mg Volume in liter

 NUMERICAL It 24.5 g of H2SO4 has been dissolved in 250 g of water resulted 300 ml of solution. Write down names of solute & solvent and calculate Molarity, Molality, Normality, Mole fraction of solute, w/w %, w/v % and concentration of solution in ppm. Data: Amount of H2SO4 = 24.5 g (solute) Amount of water = 250 g = 0.25 kg (solvent) Volume of solution = 300ml =0.3 liter 1 gm Mol wt. of H2SO4 = 98 g 1 gm Eq. wt. of H2SO4 = 98 g = 49 g 2 Solution: NO. of mole of H2SO4 = 24.5 = 0.25 moles 98 NO. of mole of water = 250 = 13.88 moles 18 i. ii. iii. Molarity = 0.25 moles = 0.83 M or Molar 0.3 liter Molality = 0.25 moles = 1 m or Molal 0.25 kg Normality

NO. of Eq w.t of H2SO4 = 24.5 = 0.5 equivalent 49 Normality = 0.5 equivalent = 1.66 N or Normal 0.3 liter iv. Mole fraction of H2SO4 X H2SO4 = v. vi. vii. w/w % w/v % ppm ppm = 24.5 g x 1000 0.3 liter ppm = 0.83 ppm = 1.66 x 98 x 1000 x 49 x 1000 = = = 81666 ppm 81666 ppm 81666 ppm = = 0.25 = 0.017 0.25 + 13.88 x 100 = 8.92 w/w % 24.5 24.5 + 250 g 24.5 g x 100 = 8.16 w/v % 300 ml

Physical Properties
Properties of a substance depend on the intermolecular forces, which depends upon internal structure. These properties do not involve chemical changes. 1. Additive property: When a property of a molecule is equal to sum of that property of constituent atoms. e.g. molecular mass. 2. Constitutive property: When a property of a molecule depends on the arrangement of atoms and bond structure in molecule. e.g. M.P, B.P, Optical activity. 3. Additive & constitutive property: An additive property which also depend upon the intermolecular structure e.g. Surface tension, Viscosity and vapour pressure

SURFACE TENSION

It is the measure of force per unit length acting at a tangent to the meniscus surface. Symbol = Units: In CGS system In SI system dyne/cm N/m

Methods for determination of Surface tension

1. Capillary rise Method:

acting along the inner circumference of the tube exactly supports the weight of liquid column. Upward force = Downward force
2r 2 r

= mg = vdg = r2 h d g 2 r rhdg 2

2. Drop formation method: Drop supported by the upward force of surface tension acting at outer circumference of the tube Upward force = Downward force 2 r = mg A. Drop weight method: For sample liquid For water Divide equations 2r 2r 2r

= mg w = mwg
= mg mwg = m mw = m mw

2 r w w

= 72.0 dynes/cm

B. Drop number method: Volume of one drop of liquid = v n

Mass of one drop of liquid = m = v d n

w w w

m mw

(v/n) d (v/nw)dw

nw d n dw

nw d n dw

VISCOSITY

It is internal frictional resistance force to flow F

A dV dx

F = A dV dx F dx A dV Force of resistance per unit area, which will cause unit velocity difference b/w two adjacent layers of a liquid at a unit distance from each other. Reciprocal of viscosity is called fluidity () = 1

Units :

F A

dx dV length2 length time-1 Kgm-1S-1 SI System

= mass length x time -2 length = mass x length-1 x time-1

gCm-1S-1 = poise CGS System

Measurement of viscosity by Oswalds method

dt

= kdt

w = k dw tw = kdt w k dw tw = dt w dw tw = d t w
dw tw

= 0.0101 poise

VAPOUR PRESSURE
Liquid Vaporization Condensation Gaseous

At equilibrium, Rate of vaporization = Rate of condensation

The pressure exerted by the vapours in equilibrium with its liquid at a specified temperature called vapour pressure at that temperature. It is the measure of tendency of the tendency of a substance to evaporate. Vapour pressure 1 Intermolecular force At 60 0C Ethanol = 350 torr, water= 150 torr Vapour pressure Temperature At 80 0C Ethanol = 730 torr, water = 410 torr Boiling point is the temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure or surrounding pressure So, Boiling point Atmospheric pressure e.g. high altitude areas, pressure cooker Glycerin B.P is 290 0C at 760 torr but it decompose B.P is 210 0C at 50 torr.

BUFFER SOLUTION
A solution which has tendency to reserve its pH Mixture of weak acid and its salts e.g. (CH3COOH + CH3COONa), (HCOOH + HCOONa), ( C2H5COOH + CH5COONa) Mechanism:

1)

Acid buffer:

Addition of OH H2O ___________________________________________________________ Acidic Buffer CH3COOH partially dissociated CH COO3 + H+

+ Na+ CH3COO ___________________________________________________________ Addition of H+ CH3COOH

CH3COONa completely dissociated

Case I : Addition of small amount of base (OH-) The OH- ions added will react with H+ to form H2O. CH3COOH will ionize to compensate deficiency of H+ ions and hence pH of the solution remains constant. Case II : Addition of small amount of acid (H+) The H+ ion added will combine with CH3COO- to form CH3COOH. CH3COOH is a weak acid, which is very feebly ionized, and hence the concentration of H+ ion almost remain same and therefore the pH of the solution remains unaltered.

Henderson Equation for acid buffer:

CH3COOH

Ka

CH3COO + H+

Ka = [H+][CH3COO-] [CH3COOH] [H+] = Ka [CH3COOH] [CH3COO-] [H+] = Ka [Acid] [Salt] log [H+] = log Ka log [Acid] [Salt] pH = pKa log [Acid] [Salt]

pH =

pKa + log [Salt] [Acid]

pH

[Salt] [Acid] If [salt] = [Acid] then log [salt] [Acid] = log 1 = 0

So 2)

pH =

pka

Basic buffer : Mixture of weak base and its salt

e.g. (NH4OH + NH4Cl) Mechanism:
Addition of H+ H2O ___________________________________________________________ NH4OH partially dissociated NH4+ + OH

Basic Buffer

NH4+ + Cl ___________________________________________________________ Addition of OH

NH4Cl completely dissociated

NH4OH

Case I : Addition of small amount of acid (H+) The H+ ion added will combine with OH- to form H2O molecule. . NH4OH will ionize to compensate deficiency of OH- ions and hence pH of the solution remains constant. Case II : Addition of small amount of base (OH-) The OH- ions added will react with NH4+ to form NH4OH. Ammonium hydroxide is a weak base, which is very feebly ionized, and hence the concentration of OH- ions almost remains same and therefore the pH of the solution remains unaltered.

Henderson equation for Basic Buffer

NH4OH Kb
-

Kb
= [NH4+] [OH ] [NH4OH]
-

NH4+ + OH

[OH ] =
-

Kb [NH4OH] [NH4+] Kb [Base] [Salt]

[OH ] =

log [OH-] = log Kb log [Base] [Salt] pOH = pKb log [Base] [Salt]

pOH = pKb + log [Salt] [Base] pOH [Salt] [Base] If So [Salt] = [Base] then log [Salt] = log 1 = 0 [Base]

pOH = PKb NUMERICAL

A chemist desire to prepared 300 ml of a buffer solution at pH = 9. How many grams of NH4Cl have to be added to 0.20 M NH3 to make such a buffer. pkb value of ammonia is 4.75 .

Solution :
pH = 9 pOH = 14 pH = 14 9 = 5 pOH = pKb + log [Salt] [Base] 5 = 4.75 + log [NH4Cl] [NH3] 5 4.75 = log [NH4Cl] log [NH3] 0.25 = log [NH4Cl] log 0.20 log [NH4Cl] = 0.25 0.698 log [NH4Cl] = 0.448 [NH4Cl] = Antilog ( 0.448) [NH4Cl] = 0.356 M Amount = Molarity Mol w.t Volume (liter)

Amount of [NH4Cl] = 0.356 53.5 300 1000 Amount of [NH4Cl] = 5.71 g NUMERICAL Find out the pH of a 200 ml buffer solution containing 2.88 g of CH3COONa and 1.8 g of CH3COOH While ka for acetic acid is 1.8 x 10 -5 Solution: Volume of solution = 200 ml = 0.2 liter A. Sodium Acetate Amount of CH3COONa = 2.88 g = 0.035 mole NO. of mole of CH3COONa = 2.88 g 82 g/mole Molarity of CH3COONa = 0.035 mole 0.2 liter B. Acetic Acid Amount of CH3COOH = 1.8 g 1.8 g 60 g/mole = 0.03 mole = 0.175 M

NO. of mole of CH3COOH =

Molarity of CH3COOH = 0.03 mole 0.2 liter pH = pka + log [Salt] [Acid] pH = pka + log [CH3COONa] [CH3COOH]

= 0.15 M

pH = - log(1.8 10-5) + log 0.175 0.15 pH = 4.74 + log 0.175 log 0.15 pH = 4.74 0.69 + 0.82 pH = 4.87