V-n Diagram

Date of Submission: August 19th, 2005

By

Jayender

AE02B007

M.Santhosh -

AE02B022

A.Sivaram

AE02B034

Introduction: The V-n diagram plays an important role in Aircraft design. The V-n diagram is a plot between the load factor and the velocity. Load factor is defined as the ratio of the aerodynamic load to the weight of the aircraft. Aircraft has to perform different loading conditions at different speeds, controls and high loads due to stormy weather. But at the same time, it is impossible to investigate all possible loading conditions. There are structural limitations on the maximum load factor allowed for a given airplane. There are two categories of structural limitations in airplane design: 1 Limit Load Factor: This is the boundary associated with permanent structural deformation of one or more parts of the airplane. If n is less than the limit load factor, the structure may deflect during maneuver, but it will return to its original state when n = 1. If n is greater than the limit load factor, then the airplane structure will experience a permanent deformation, i.e., it will incur structural damage. Ultimate Load Factor: This is the boundary associated with outright structural failure. If n is greater than the ultimate load factor, parts of the airplane will break. There are four main critical conditions: High Angle of Attack (+) Low Angle of Attack (+) Low Angle of Attack (-) High Angle of Attack (-) For airplane design, the limit load factor depends on the type of the aircraft. Some typical values for limit load factors are given below: Aircraft type Normal general aviation Aerobatic aviation Civil transport Fighter npositive 2.5 to 3.8 6 3 to 4 6.5 to 9 nnegative -1.5 to -1 -3 -2 to -1 -6 to -3

Courtesy: Anderson, Aircraft Performance and Design

A typical V-n diagram looks like this:

Ultimate load Factor n=1.5n1 Proof load Factor n= 1.25n1

A Positive Stall

+HAA

Maneuvering load factor

+LAA D1
n1 (limit load) Level flight

1.0 n=1.0 0 VA VC VD

n4

D2
n3

Flight Speed

-HAA

-LAA

Negative Stall

VA-Design Maneuvering Speed VC- Design Cruising Speed VD- Design Diving Speed

As mentioned Aircrafts can be classified into three categories, namely, Non Aerobatic Semi Aerobatic Aerobatic

Our aircraft being a civilian aircraft, it is Non-Aerobatic.

Table 1: Maneuvering Load Factors: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - -- - -- - - -- - - - - -- -- -- -- --- -- --

Aero plane Type Load factor -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Non Aerobatic Semi Aerobatic Aerobatic 11,000 + 4.5 + 6.0 W+ 4600 But need not be greater than (Group A) + 3.5 (Group C, D)+ 3.8 And shall not be less than + 2.5 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------n3 -1.0 -1.8 -3.0 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------n4 (Group A) 0.75 n1 + 3.5 + 4.5 But shall not be less than + 2.5 +2.5 (Group C, D) n1 + 4.5 + 6.0 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------n1 2.1 +

V-n diagram for take-off: Our first aim is to draw the V-n diagram for take-off. The maximum load factor during take-off is given by: n1 = 2.1 +
11000 W + 4600

W for our aircraft during take-off is 60852 kgf. So we get n1 = 2.268, which falls in the above mentioned range. n4 = 0.75 n1 Therefore, n4 = 1.701. n3 = -1 Clmax = 2.4 Vs1 = Stalling speed = 60 m/s VA =
n1 Vs1

VA = 90.4 m/s Now to calculate VB, we calculate VB by two different methods and take the minimum of the two values. The first method to calculate VB is as follows: VB = 1.6 Vs1 Therefore VB = 96 m/s Also VB can be calculated by equating the gust load factors. ng = 1 + n

n is given by
Also, ng =
0.5C l v 2 S WTO

C l UvS WTO

Thus, solving for VB we get VB = 88.526 m/s. So we take the minimum value which is VB = 88.526 m/s. VC , the cruise speed is, 236.2 m/s. VD , the diving speed is, VC + 31.39 for altitude less than 6 km. So the summary of the velocities along with the load factor is Point A C D E F G B C D E F G Velocity 90.43 236.2 267.59 267.59 236.2 88.53 88.53 236.2 267.59 267.59 236.2 88.53 Load factor 2.27 2.27 1.71 0 -1 -1 1.99 2.97 2.12 -0.12 -0.97 0.014

V-n diagram for landing: The same procedure is followed for landing as well. The maximum load factor during take-off is given by: n1 = 2.1 +
11000 W + 4600

W for our aircraft during landing is 51115 kgf. So we get n1 = 2.297, which falls in the above mentioned range. n4 = 0.75 n1 Therefore, n4 = 1.723. n3 = -1 Clmax = 2.5 Vs1 = Stalling speed = 53.93 m/s VA = n1 Vs1 VA = 81.72 m/s Now to calculate VB, we calculate VB by two different methods and take the minimum of the two values. The first method to calculate VB is as follows: VB = 1.6 Vs1 Therefore VB = 86.288 m/s Also VB can be calculated by equating the gust load factors. ng = 1 + n

n is given by
Also, ng =
0.5C l v 2 S WTO

C l UvS WTO

Thus, solving for VB we get VB = 107.41 m/s. So we take the minimum value which is VB = 86.288 m/s. VC , the cruise speed is, 236.2 m/s. VD , the diving speed is, VC + 31.39 for altitude less than 6 km. So the summary of the velocities along with the load factor is Point A C D E F G B C D E F G Velocity 81.7 236.2 139.88 139.88 236.2 86.24 86.24 236.2 139.88 139.88 236.2 86.24 Load factor 2.297 2.297 1.723 0 -1 -1 2.11 3.29 1.678 -0.321 -1.29 -0.11

So all the critical velocities for take-off and landing and their corresponding load factors have been tabulated. The V-n diagram has been plotted in the following pages for take-off and landing with and without gust.

V-n Diagram
Date of Submission: August 19th, 2005

By

Jayender

AE02B007

M.Santhosh -

AE02B022

A.Sivaram

AE02B034

Introduction: The V-n diagram plays an important role in Aircraft design. The V-n diagram is a plot between the load factor and the velocity. Load factor is defined as the ratio of the aerodynamic load to the weight of the aircraft. Aircraft has to perform different loading conditions at different speeds, controls and high loads due to stormy weather. But at the same time, it is impossible to investigate all possible loading conditions. There are structural limitations on the maximum load factor allowed for a given airplane. There are two categories of structural limitations in airplane design: 1 Limit Load Factor: This is the boundary associated with permanent structural deformation of one or more parts of the airplane. If n is less than the limit load factor, the structure may deflect during maneuver, but it will return to its original state when n = 1. If n is greater than the limit load factor, then the airplane structure will experience a permanent deformation, i.e., it will incur structural damage. Ultimate Load Factor: This is the boundary associated with outright structural failure. If n is greater than the ultimate load factor, parts of the airplane will break. There are four main critical conditions: High Angle of Attack (+) Low Angle of Attack (+) Low Angle of Attack (-) High Angle of Attack (-) For airplane design, the limit load factor depends on the type of the aircraft. Some typical values for limit load factors are given below: Aircraft type Normal general aviation Aerobatic aviation Civil transport Fighter npositive 2.5 to 3.8 6 3 to 4 6.5 to 9 nnegative -1.5 to -1 -3 -2 to -1 -6 to -3

Courtesy: Anderson, Aircraft Performance and Design

A typical V-n diagram looks like this:

Ultimate load Factor n=1.5n1 Proof load Factor n= 1.25n1

A Positive Stall

+HAA

Maneuvering load factor

+LAA D1
n1 (limit load) Level flight

1.0 n=1.0 0 VA VC VD

n4

D2
n3

Flight Speed

-HAA

-LAA

Negative Stall

VA-Design Maneuvering Speed VC- Design Cruising Speed VD- Design Diving Speed

As mentioned Aircrafts can be classified into three categories, namely, Non Aerobatic Semi Aerobatic Aerobatic

Our aircraft being a civilian aircraft, it is Non-Aerobatic.

Table 1: Maneuvering Load Factors: - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - -- - -- - - -- - - - - -- -- -- -- --- -- --

Aero plane Type Load factor -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Non Aerobatic Semi Aerobatic Aerobatic 11,000 + 4.5 + 6.0 W+ 4600 But need not be greater than (Group A) + 3.5 (Group C, D)+ 3.8 And shall not be less than + 2.5 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------n3 -1.0 -1.8 -3.0 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------n4 (Group A) 0.75 n1 + 3.5 + 4.5 But shall not be less than + 2.5 +2.5 (Group C, D) n1 + 4.5 + 6.0 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------n1 2.1 +

V-n diagram for take-off: Our first aim is to draw the V-n diagram for take-off. The maximum load factor during take-off is given by: n1 = 2.1 +
11000 W + 4600

W for our aircraft during take-off is 60852 kgf. So we get n1 = 2.268, which falls in the above mentioned range. n4 = 0.75 n1 Therefore, n4 = 1.701. n3 = -1 Clmax = 2.4 Vs1 = Stalling speed = 60 m/s VA =
n1 Vs1

VA = 90.4 m/s Now to calculate VB, we calculate VB by two different methods and take the minimum of the two values. The first method to calculate VB is as follows: VB = 1.6 Vs1 Therefore VB = 96 m/s Also VB can be calculated by equating the gust load factors. ng = 1 + n

n is given by
Also, ng =
0.5C l v 2 S WTO

C l UvS WTO

Thus, solving for VB we get VB = 88.526 m/s. So we take the minimum value which is VB = 88.526 m/s. VC , the cruise speed is, 236.2 m/s. VD , the diving speed is, VC + 31.39 for altitude less than 6 km. So the summary of the velocities along with the load factor is Point A C D E F G B C D E F G Velocity 90.43 236.2 267.59 267.59 236.2 88.53 88.53 236.2 267.59 267.59 236.2 88.53 Load factor 2.27 2.27 1.71 0 -1 -1 1.99 2.97 2.12 -0.12 -0.97 0.014

V-n diagram for landing: The same procedure is followed for landing as well. The maximum load factor during take-off is given by: n1 = 2.1 +
11000 W + 4600

W for our aircraft during landing is 51115 kgf. So we get n1 = 2.297, which falls in the above mentioned range. n4 = 0.75 n1 Therefore, n4 = 1.723. n3 = -1 Clmax = 2.5 Vs1 = Stalling speed = 53.93 m/s VA = n1 Vs1 VA = 81.72 m/s Now to calculate VB, we calculate VB by two different methods and take the minimum of the two values. The first method to calculate VB is as follows: VB = 1.6 Vs1 Therefore VB = 86.288 m/s Also VB can be calculated by equating the gust load factors. ng = 1 + n

n is given by
Also, ng =
0.5C l v 2 S WTO

C l UvS WTO

Thus, solving for VB we get VB = 107.41 m/s. So we take the minimum value which is VB = 86.288 m/s. VC , the cruise speed is, 236.2 m/s. VD , the diving speed is, VC + 31.39 for altitude less than 6 km. So the summary of the velocities along with the load factor is Point A C D E F G B C D E F G Velocity 81.7 236.2 139.88 139.88 236.2 86.24 86.24 236.2 139.88 139.88 236.2 86.24 Load factor 2.297 2.297 1.723 0 -1 -1 2.11 3.29 1.678 -0.321 -1.29 -0.11

So all the critical velocities for take-off and landing and their corresponding load factors have been tabulated. The V-n diagram has been plotted in the following pages for take-off and landing with and without gust.

Wing Design
By Jayender AE02B007

M. Santhosh AE02B022 A. Sivaram AE02B034

The structural design of the wing requires a complete quantitative knowledge of the different loads it will be subjected to during its flight regime. These loads can be briefly classified as 1) Distributed loads - Loads such as aerodynamic loads, weight of the wing and weight of fuel. 2) Concentrated loads Loads such as thrust, engine weight, landing gear weight and armament weight.

Where, S b C ell C cl - Wing gross area m2 - Span m - Chord of equivalent ellipse. - Local Chord

Cl
CL

- Local lift coefficient - Mean lift coefficient

To find lift distribution - Cla i) Draw actual plan form (one half) from taper ratio and semi span data. ii) Draw trailing edge as Y axis and chord as X ordinate. iii) Draw equivalent area elliptical plan form wing with span and wing area same as actual wingiv) Draw on the same base as (i).

We know, Lift = L =

1 v 2 S CL 2
1 v 2 (c C l ) 2

Lift per unit span =

= q cCl

(cCl )C =1
L

1 4S = c actual + 2 b c actual + 4 S b

2 y 2 1 b 2 y 2 1 b

C cCla = (cCl ) C L = L 2

(1)

Equation (1) gives cCl for a wing that has no twist and no change in the airfoil shape along the span. In case of wings with changing airfoil along the span, mo = Assuming linear variation,
b/2

dC l for each section. d

mo =

m c dy
o

2
2 y 2 1 b

cCla1 =

CL c i + 4 S 2 b

(2)

where
ci = m0 c actual mo

For wings with twist, we define

a = a W
R

(3)

where

a = effective angle of attack

a = absolute angle of attack (angle of attack to zero lift chord) from any
R

reference plane at each section of wing- linear variation from root to tip.

b/2

W =
O

m
o 0 b/2 o 0

aR

c dy

m c dy

If mo is constant, we get

b/2

W =
O

aR

c dy

C lb =

1 m o a 2

(4)

For the wing, we have

(cCl ) = cCl
For our aircraft wing, Root chord = 5.167 m Tip chord = 1.415 m Semi-span = 14.06 m

+ cClb

(5)

Hence, the chord varies as c actual = 5.167 0.267 y where y is measured from the wingfuselage intersection. The maximum load factor for the flight regime = nmax = 3.29 . 3.29 = Hence,

q S C L 0.5 0.3648 236.2 2 99.5 C L = 60852 9.8 W

C L = 1.937 =

6.556 aR + 3.99 57.3

At the root, aR = 12.965 0 . But due to a twist of 3 0 , aR varies as

a = 12.965 0.213 y
R

W =
o

2 99.5

14.06

(12.965 0.213 y )(5.167 0.267 y )dy

0

= 10.927

From (3),

a = 2.023 0.213 y
C lb =
From (1) we get 1 2 a = 6.35 0.67 y 2 2 y 2 1 28.13

cCla = (cCl ) C L =

1.94 4 99.5 5.167 0.267 y + 2 28.13 + (5.167 0.267 y )(6.35 0.67 y )

2 2y Lift per unit span = 10176.2 37.82 5.416 y + 0.178 y 2 + 4.369 1 28.13

Wing weight per unit span = (5.167 0.267 y ) Fuel weight per unit span = (5.167 0.267 y )

6446.51 9.8 = 1640.26 84.76 y 99.5 2

10418 9.8 = 2650.91 136.98 y 99.5 2

Net load per unit span acting upwards is

2y 380572.714 54892.56 y + 1811.36 y + 44459.8 1 28.13

2

14.06

Torque at cross section t =

14.06

1 v 2 c dy c c m 2

10042.28 (5.167 0.267 y) 3.8 0.05 dy

t

14.06

1908.03 (5.167 0.267 y) dy

t

The three graphs namely Shear force, Bending moment and Torque distribution along wing span have been plotted.

Testing of material properties

Jayender R M. Santhosh A. Sivaram
INTROUCTION:

By AE02B007 AE02B022 AE02B034

In the design of any part of the aircraft it is essential to know accurately the properties of the material used. The aim of this exercise is to determine crucial properties such as Young's modulus, poisson's ratio, shear strength, yield strength, ultimate strength. Young's modulus: It is the ratio of stress to strain and is constant for and isotropic material in all directions. Poisson's ratio: It is the ratio of transverse strain to longitudinal strain on application of longitudinal stress. Yield strength: It is the maximum stress the material can take in the elastic region of loading. Ultimate stress: It is defined as the maximum stress the material can withstand beyond which it will completely fail. Shear strength: It is the maximum shear stress the material can withstand beyond which it will completely fail. There are two standards followed for testing a specimen. They are 1. American Standard for Testing Materials (ASTM) 2. Indian Bureau of Standards (IBS) The Aluminum specimens were tested in a Universal Testing Machine.

Results: From the graph of tensile load versus deflection, we get Young's modulus (E) = Ultimate stress =
100 9.81 57 = 10.355 Gpa 18 10 -6 0.3 10 9

270 9.81 = 147.15 Mpa 18 10 -6

Yield stress = 141.7 Mpa From the graph of shear load versus deflection, we get Shear strength =
14.6 20 9.81 = 71.61Mpa 40 10 -6

DESIGN PROJECT - II Assignment 6 Fuselage Design

Submitted by R.Jayender - AE02B007 M.Santhosh - AE02B022 A.Sivaram - AE02B034

Detailed Fuselage Design

Introduction:

Fuselage design is the most important part of an aircraft design as it is where the bulk of the payload is. So in this assignment we do a detailed design of the fuselage by considering the various loads on the aircraft. Safety is the most critical aspect of it and thereby we must consider the most adverse conditions that the fuselage may be subjected to while designing it for such loads. The analysis is done by assuming the fuselage cross-section as a thin walled closed section. The cross-section is usually elliptic with a low eccentricity. We have a circular cross-section of radius 1.81m. But then the cross-section alone cannot carry the desired loading and so must be reinforced with stiffeners (longerons) and bulkheads to carry the shear force, bending moments and torque. The method adopted to calculate the shear flows is similar to the method adopted in the previous assignment for wingdesign. To calculate the above mentioned quantities we must first identify the loads acting on the fuselage. The total load can be broadly classified as follows: (i) (ii) (iii) Static Loads Aerodynamic Loads Inertial Loads

(i)

Static Loads: Static loads are those which do not vary during flight (as the name itself suggests). This predominantly includes the (a) Structural weight i. Fuselage ii. Wing iii. Landing gear iv. Engine v. Flight instruments and controls (b) Payload weight i. Passengers ii. Cargo iii. Crew members and pilot (c) Fuel weight Fuel weight, though it varies in flight here we take it as we want only a conservative estimate for the fuselage design. So we do not take into account the variation of fuel weight during flight.

(ii)

Aerodynamic Loads: These loads are basically the loads that act on the aircraft due the airflow past it i.e. lift and drag. The aerodynamic load that we are interested in our case is the lift at the horizontal tail. The drag is neglected as the contribution due to it is relatively less. Inertial Loads: These are the loads that predominantly due to the maneuvering of the airplane. The magnitude of the load could be high depending on the application. Military aircrafts have higher inertial loads than civilian aircraft. We design our aircraft for the maximum inertial load possible during the flight as the safety is essential and also this is a preliminary estimate and thereby can be conservative. The maximum inertial load occurs when the plane is facing a gust wind while flying at cruise speed.

(iii)

Calculations: To calculate the shear flow, bending moment, torque etc, we first need the different loads that act on the fuselage and the shear force and bending moment distribution. To analyze this we regard the fuselage as two cantilever beams one in front of the front spar and one behind the rear spar.

Front part

Rear part

Since the distance between the two spars is less and this not going to be a critical region, we do not calculate the shear force and bending moment diagram between the two spars. Now we need to find the loads which are acting in front of the front spar and behind the rear spar. The loads are broadly classified into concentrated loads and distributed loads. For the concentrated loads, the load, the location of the load and the weight of the load are tabulated. Similarly for the distributed load, the load, the starting and ending points, the net weight due to the load are tabulated. From the load distribution, the shear force and bending moment at all points along the fuselage length are calculated. The table in the next page shows the load and their corresponding distribution.

Distributed Loads Uniform Loads Furnishing and equipment Passenger Crew Fuselage Miscellaneous Cargo Fuselage: Triangular Loads Trapezoidal Loads Total Fuselage weight Concentrated Loads Different loads Flight control(less auto pilot) Instrument Nose gear Pilot Auxilary power Avionic(incl auto pilot) Electrical Hydraulic and pneumatic Air conditioning Anti-icing Main gear Dry Engine weight Nacelle Propulsion(less dry engine) Load and handling Vertical Tail Horizontal Tail Location(in m) Weight(in N) 2 9864.851289 2 3048.199061 2.2555 3572.670462 2.694 1569.6 3 3859.829469 3 6931.52478 3.5 10772.12621 20 5181.308253 20 6281.109932 20 2060.92429 20.603125 20245.13262 30.93214294 35821.49689 30.93214294 8455.692915 30.93214294 10846.90572 34 111.2042014 35.42401294 7844.724115 37.45608404 8086.131252 Staring point Ending point Total Weight 3.964 3.964 3.964 3.964 3.964 3.964 0 23.696 27.927 47405.41394 27.927 117720 27.927 3924 27.927 47054.12833 27.927 6107.3136 27.927 46205.1 3.964 4726.397848 34 13821.49441 65602.02059

Calculating Lift at the tail: To calculate the lift at the tail, we basically need to solve the equations i.e.

LWing + LTail = W M ac + LWing ( xac,wing xcg ,ap ) + LTail ( xac,tail xcg ,ap ) = 0
W Take off weight of the airplane LTail Lift at the tail LWing Lift on the wing W = 60852kgf M ac = cmac 0.5 V 2 S c cmac = 0.2

= 1.225kg / cu.m
V = 236.2ms 1

So we get LTail = 140.779 KN

Expressions for shear force and bending moments: Note: V(x) denotes the shear force as a function of x & M(x) denotes the bending moment as a function of x This gives the shear force distribution from the nose to the front spar and from the rear spar to the end of aircraft. The front spar is located at x = 16.297 & the rear spar is located at x = 18.103

The shear force V(x) is given by:

300.7897 x 2 300.7897 x 2 + 12913.04677 300.7897 x 2 + 16485.72124 300.7897 x 2 + 18055.32124 300.7897 x 2 + 28846.67549 300.7897 x 2 + 39618.8017 11519.38738 x 1317.65204 11519.38738 x 276755 11519.38738 x 255819 101.231 x 2 + 16316.5 x 312650 101.231 x 2 + 7181.81 x 57544.9 101.231 x 2 + 7181.81 x 2420.85 124737.1158 124848.32 132693.0441 0

for 0 x 2 for 2 x 2.256 for 2.256 x 2.694 for 2.694 x 3 for 3 x 3.5 for 3.5 x 3.964 for 3.964 x 16.297 for 18.103 x 20 for 20 x 23.694 for 23.694 x 27.927 for 27.927 x 30.93 for 30.93 x 34 for x = 34 for 34 x 35.42 for 35.42 x 37.456 for 37.456 x 38.5

The Bending Moment M(x) is given by:

100.2632 x 2 100.2632 x 2 + 12913.04677 x 25826.09354 100.2632 x 2 + 16485.72124 x 33886.04714 100.2632 x 2 + 18055.32124 x 38114.54954 100.2632 x 2 + 28846.67549 x 70488.61229 100.2632 x 2 + 39618.8017 x 108191.054 5759.69369 x 2 1317.65204 x 30177.57618 5759.69369 x 2 276755 x + 2047071.851 5759.69369 x 2 255819 x + 1628351.851 33.7437 x3 + 8158.25 x 2 312650 x + 2077199.38 33.7437 x3 + 3590.91 x 2 57544.9 x 1484973.134 33.7437 x3 + 3590.91 x 2 2420.85 x 3189960 124848.32 x 4692290.532 132693.0441 x 4970150.66 0 for 0 x 2 for 2 x 2.256 for 2.256 x 2.694 for 2.694 x 3 for 3 x 3.5 for 3.5 x 3.964 for 3.964 x 16.297 for 18.103 x 20 for 20 x 23.694 for 23.694 x 27.927 for 27.927 x 30.93 for 30.93 x 34 for 34 x 35.42 for 35.42 x 37.456 for 37.456 x 38.5

Shear force variation:

200000

150000

100000 Shear force in Newtons

50000

Shear force before front spar "Shear force after rear spar"

0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

-50000

-100000

x in meters

Bending Moment variation:

1600000

1400000

1200000

1000000 Moment in Mewton meter

800000

600000

400000

Moment before front spar "Moment after rear spar"

200000

0 0 -200000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

x in meters

Designing of Longerons and Bulkhead:

From the above table and figure we find that the maximum Bending moment and Shear force occurs at the front spar i.e. x = 16.297. Now to calculate the number of longerons we proceed as follows. We take the spacing between the two longerons as around 0.7 meters, which implies we get the number of longerons as 16. (Because our radius being 1.81 meters, we get the circumference as 11.37256 meters) So the number of longerons is 16. Now we decided to remove the two stringers placed at = 0 &180 as they do not take any axial stress. So we get a total of 14 longerons

Radius of the cross-section = 1.81 m

Now to calculate the dimensions of the stringers, we proceed as follows. The maximum bending moment is 1473049 Nm The maximum shear force is 186102.8 N The design bending moment is 2209574 Nm The design shear force is 279154.2 N So =
My I

Maximum = 400 MPa Maximum M = 2209574 Nm

ymax = 1.81 m

So Moment of Inertia required is 9.998322 10-3 Youngs Modulus (E) = 80 GPa The maximum shear stress is 100 MPa The skin thickness is taken as 1 mm The shear stress in the panel between the = 90o and 67.5o is taken as 100/1.2 MPa So we can find the corresponding shear flow in the panel. Similarly for the other panels take the shear stress as 100/1.3, 100/1.4 and 100/1.5 And find the corresponding shear flows. Now we know the shear flows so we can calculate the shear flow jump across each longeron.

The shear jump q =

V y A I

So now we can calculate the Area (A) as other quantities are known. We get a different area for each longeron. We have assumed an I shaped longeron

Area = 3tl

Area = 3tl We have assumed the thickness of all stringers to be 2 mm except the top and bottom longerons which have a thickness of 8 mm So now we can calculate the length of the longerons. So the longeron geometry is specified. Now we calculate the normal stress taken by longerons. Thereby we can calculate the load taken the longerons by multiplying the normal stress by the area of each longeron. Now calculate the maximum length of each longeron so that it will not buckle by using the formula

Pcr =

2 EI . So the maximum length of each longeron is calculated. 2

L

Now take the minimum of the lengths got from the above calculations.

This will ensure that none of the longerons buckle. This therefore will be the bulkhead spacing. Now we need to calculate the shear flow due to the torque due to rudder deflection. The torque can be calculated as follows. Assume one engine failure. So we can find the force required by rudder deflection to balance the moment i.e. (Thrust) (Distance of engine from FRL) = (Force needed to be produced by rudder) (Distance of the rudder from CG of airplane) So we can find the Force produced by the rudder. Now to get the torque, we multiply the force produced by the rudder by the vertical height of the aerodynamic center of the rudder above the FRL. So this will give us the required torque.

qTorque =

T 2 A

Now add this shear flow to the shear flow got by shear force. And now calculate the shear stress. This is got by dividing the shear flow by the skin thickness. Now calculate the factor of safety. Factor of safety is defined as

Maximum allowable shear stress Net shear stress in each panel

Thereby we get the factor of safety. The factor of safety we got were all from 1.2 to 1.7

Conclusions:

The detailed fuselage design for our aircraft was carried out and we ended up with 14 longerons and the bulkhead spacing was calculated as 51.28 cms. In our design we have been very conservative on various parameters and hence this need not be the best design. But since this is where the payload is, our design may not be far from the optimum design. For any further parameters the table on the next page may be looked upon where all the values have been given in design.

All units in SI units Maximum Bending Moment Design Bending Moment Maximum Shear force Design Shear force Radius of the cross-section Theta Degrees 1473049.445 2209574.167 186102.7806 279154.171 1.81 Maximum Sigma allowed Young's Modulous Skin thickness Maximum Shear allowed 400000000 80000000000 0.001 100000000

Radians

Shear flow Shear flow Net shear Shear stress Factor of safety (Force) (Torque) -74074.07 -68965.52 -64516.13 64516.13 68965.52 74074.07 80000 80000 74074.07 68965.52 64516.13 -64516.13 -68965.52 -74074.07 5856.663 5856.663 5856.663 5856.663 5856.663 5856.663 5856.663 5856.663 5856.663 5856.663 5856.663 5856.663 5856.663 5856.663 -68217.41 -63108.85 -58659.47 70372.79 74822.18 79930.74 85856.66 85856.66 79930.74 74822.18 70372.79 -58659.47 -63108.85 -68217.41 -68217411.4 -63108854.6 -58659466.4 70372791.71 74822179.91 79930736.75 85856662.67 85856662.67 79930736.75 74822179.91 70372791.71 -58659466.4 -63108854.6 -68217411.4 1.465901416 1.584563698 1.704754683 1.421003737 1.336502092 1.251083176 1.164731972 1.164731972 1.251083176 1.336502092 1.421003737 1.704754683 1.584563698 1.465901416

Sigma

Area

Force

Inertia

Length

-157.5 -135 -112.5 -90 -67.5 -45 -22.5 22.5 45 67.5 90 112.5 135 157.5

-2.748894 -2.356194 -1.963495 -1.570796 -1.178097 -0.785398 -0.392699 0.392699 0.785398 1.178097 1.570796 1.963495 2.356194 2.748894

-1.672222 -1.279863 -0.692657 0 0.692657 1.279863 1.672222 1.672222 1.279863 0.692657 0 -0.692657 -1.279863 -1.672222

-0.692657013 -1.279863274 -1.672221954 -1.81 -1.672221954 -1.279863274 -0.692657013 0.692657013 1.279863274 1.672221954 1.81 1.672221954 1.279863274 0.692657013 1.704754683 1.164731972

69849083.02 129064276.3 168630603.6 182524450 168630603.6 129064276.3 69849083.02 69849083.02 129064276.3 168630603.6 182524450 168630603.6 129064276.3 69849083.02

0.000613 0.000286 0.000191 0.002553 0.000191 0.000286 0.000613 0.000613 0.000286 0.000191 0.002553 0.000191 0.000286 0.000613

42806.7 36902.33 32140.74 466040.7 32140.74 36902.33 42806.7 42806.7 36902.33 32140.74 466040.7 32140.74 36902.33 42806.7

3.55272E-07 3.61036E-08 1.07064E-08 1.61005E-06 1.07064E-08 3.61036E-08 3.55272E-07 3.55272E-07 3.61036E-08 1.07064E-08 1.61005E-06 1.07064E-08 3.61036E-08 3.55272E-07

2.55988 0.878908 0.512848 1.651592 0.512848 0.878908 2.55988 2.55988 0.878908 0.512848 1.651592 0.512848 0.878908 2.55988

Maximum Factor of safety Minimum Factor of safety Bulkhead spacing 0.512848