RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - Includes the lungs and system of tubes that link the sites of gas exchange with

the external environment Functions: 1. To provide for an intake of oxygen by blood 2. To eliminate CO2 [Excretory organ] 3. Phonation (larynx) 4. Receptor of sense of smell (Olfactory Neuro-epithelium) 5. GASEOUS EXCHANGE main function Generalities: All body cells need a constant supply of O2 to function. The body depends on the respiratory system to provide O2 for cellular metabolism and eliminate primary waste products of metabolism. Blood Vascular System provide the transport stem for gases b/w the body tissues and the lungs. 2 Divisions: Air conducting Respiratory Nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx, Respiratory bronchioles. Alveolar trachea, bronchi and large ducts, alveolar sacs and pulmonary bronchioles alveoli Warm humidity and clean the air Gaseous exchange Guided by: rib cage, intercostals muscles, diaphragms & elastic tissue of the lungs Lungs considered as excretory organs. (excretes H2O and CO2) NOSE Function: for conduction of air and also as efficient air condition and filtering units Cavity divided by midline septum into R and L nasal cavities or fossae. Gateway to the respiratory system Divided by a midline septum into the right and left nasal cavities (fossae) Extends from the nostrils (nares) to the choanae, through which it opens to the nasopharynx Nasal Cavity extends from the nares (nostrils) to choanae (lateral wall) through w/c it open into the nasopharynx Nasal Meatus space b/w conchae 3 regions: 1. Vestibule Stratified squamous non-keratinizing epithelium Contains Sebaceous gland, Sweat glands, Hair follicle Vibrissae first defense of respiratory system; traps the foreign bodies as the air passes the nostrils Transitional Zone - divides vestibule & respiratory region - no Sebaceous gland, Sweat gland, hair follicle 2. Respiratory Region (Schneidenian Membrane) Pseudostratified columnar ciliated w/ goblet cells Serous and Mucous Glands Abundant venous plexuses Plexus cavernous concharum - large plexuses of veins w/c humidifies the air - capable of engorgement which may block the nasal passages and the sinus openings Lymphocytes and Leukocytes 3. Olfactory Area Pseudostratified columnar, lacks goblet cells, no distinct basal lamina Houses the Olfactory mucosa Occupies small area in the roof of each nasal cavity extending down over the superior conchae and adjacent part of septum Receptors for the sense of smell are located in the Olfactory Neuroepithelium

Serous glands for moisturization, keeps the nasal cavity moist Mucous glands Olfactory Neuro-epithelium yellowish brown in contrast to the pink color of ordinary respiratory area Has 3 types of cell: a. Supporting or Sustentacular Cells - Tall, slender cylindrical cells w/c are broad at their apices and tapers basally - Ovoid nuclei, situated contrary and form a row lying more superficially than the nuclei of the sensory cells - Microvilli b. Basal Cells - Small conical cells with darkly stained ovoid nuclei and branching cytoplasmic processes, lying between supporting cells - Stem cells capable of differentiating into sustentacular cells c. Olfactory or Sensory Cells - Modified bipolar nerve cells which are evenly distributed between the supporting cells - Spherical nuclei which lie more basally than those of the sustentacular cells - Olfactory vesicles contains olfactory cilia (actual smell receptors) - Fila olfactoria pass superiorly through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone to enter the olfactory bulb of the brain - Bowmans gland provides solvent for orodiferous substance - Serous tubuloacinar glands PARANASAL AIR SINUSES 1. Frontal - paired 2. Ethmoid - paired 3. Maxillary - paired 4. Sphenoid - unpaired Pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium but only half as thick Less goblet cells and glands Basement membrane is very thin NASOPHARYNX Stratified squamous and pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium with some goblet cells Lymphatic tissue especially abundant in the superior part of the nasopharynx (Nasopharyngeal tonsils) LARYNX Function: 1. Phonation 2. Maintenance of an open airway 3. Prevent swallowed food or fluid from entering the trachea Consists of mucosa, poorly defined submucosa and a series of irregularly shaped cartilages held together by dense CT and a group of intrinsic skeletal muscles 2 Groups of Cartilages: 1. Thyroid, cricoid and arytenoids (hyaline) 2. Corniculates, cuneiforms and the tips of the arytenoids (elastic) Held together by 3 large flat membranes: thyrotoid, quadrates and unicovocal Mucosal layer forms 2 pairs of prominent folds: 1. False vocal cords (ventricular folds) upper pair 2. True vocal cords (vocal cords) lower pair - phonation 2 cores of elastic tissue controlled by the intrinsic muscles of the larynx Contraction controls the opening of the vocal cords, resulting in the production of voice when air passes through the larynx

EPIGLOTTIS Projects from the rim of the larynx, extends into the pharynx, thus has both lingual and laryngeal surfaces Stratified squamous non-keratinizing epithelium (Lingual surface) Pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium (Laryngeal surface) TRACHEA Continuous with the larynx and terminates by branching into the 2 primary bronchi Made up of 16-20 C or horse shoe-shaped hyaline cartilages Trachealis muscle - Bundles of smooth muscle fibers found posteriorly in the gaps between the ends of each cartilage - Oriented transversely and attached to the cartilage to diminish the diameter of the trachea during contraction 3 Layers: 1. Mucosa - Pseudostratified ciliated columnar w/ goblet cells - Lumen, D-shaped in transverse section 2. Submucosa - Loose CT w/ numerous small mixed glands & some serous secretory glands - Prominent blood and lymph capillaries 3. Adventitia - 16-20 C or horse-shaped hyaline cartilages - Loose areolar CT LUNGS Right lung is divided into 3 lobes, the left divided into 2 Root - Bronchus - Pulmonary artery and vein - Bronchial arteries and veins - Lymphatics and nerves Covered by visceral and parietal pleura Primary pulmonary lobule Secondary pulmonary lobule Pleural fluid preventing the friction b/w the 2 pleura Primary Bronchus Secondary Bronchus Tertiary Bronchus Terminal Bronchiole Respiratory Bronchiole Alveolar Ducts Alveolar Sac Terminal Pulmonary Alveoli Bronchopulmonary Segments Right Lung Superior Lobe - Apical - Posterior - Anterior Middle Lobe - Lateral - Medial Inferior Lobe - Superior - Medial-basal - Anterior-basal - Lateral-basal - Posterior-basal Left Lung Superior Lobe - Apico-posterior - Anterior Lingula of Superior Lobe - Inferior lingular - Superior lingular Inferior Lobe - Superior - Anteromedial-basal - Posterior basal - Lateral basal

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Primary Bronchiole goes to each lobule of a segment Terminal Bronchiole gives rise to 3 respiratory bronchioles Respiratory Bronchiole gives rise to 2-11 alveolar ducts Alveolar Ducts Alveolar Sacs Alveoli

Bronchus Primary bronchi - Resemble the trachea in structure and differs from it only in being of smaller diameter - Cartilage rings are incomplete Intrapulmonary bronchi - 3 Coats: 1. Mucosa - Marked longitudinal folding due to the contraction of the smooth muscle in the wall; disappear when the lung is extended - Pseudostratified columnar epithelium with motile cilia and goblet cells - Many elastic fibers arranged in the form of interlacing bundles arranged in open spirals around the bronchus, reinforced by an outer sheet of smooth muscle fibers - Lamina propria contains small blood vessels, lymphatics, nerves, ducts of glands and lymphoid tissue 2. Submucosa - Contains the bigger blood vessels, lymphatics, nerve trunks and glands 3. Adventitia - Composed of irregularly crescent-shaped adult hyaline cartilages arranged to surround the tube, held together by firm dense fibrous CT - Cartilage plates become smaller and irregularly distributed around the tube, while the muscular layer completely surrounds the bronchus - Cartilage disappears from the wall when the tube attains 1 mm in diameter or less Bronchioles Branches of a bronchi with a diameter of 1 mm and having no more hyaline cartilage in their wall Secreting glands and lymph nodules also disappear 3 Coats: 1. Mucosa - Lining epithelium of bigger bronchioles same as that of bronchi - Simple columnar ciliated epithelium with goblet cells in smaller bronchioles - Areolar CT containing blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves - Smooth muscle of bigger bronchioles is more highly developed 2. Submucosa (same w/ Adventitia) 3. Adventitia - Not sharply demarcated - Fused, appearing as a continuous layer of areolar CT containing blood vessels, lymphatics and nerves Terminal Bronchioles 0.5mm or less in diameter Simple columnar or cuboidal, both ciliated and non-ciliated epithelium No goblet cells or glands Elastic tissue and smooth muscle Respiratory Structures of the Lungs Primary pulmonary lobule - Functional unit of the lung

As bronchus becomes bronchioles, the muscularis mucosa thickens. BRONCHIAL TREE 1. Primary Bronchus goes to each lung 2. Secondary Bronchus goes to each lobe of a lung 3. Tertiary Bronchus goes to each segment of a lobe

- Composed of: a. Respiratory bronchiole b. Alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs and pulmonary alveoli c. Blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics and connective tissue - Appears as network of large spaces separated by thin septa Respiratory Bronchiole Ciliated columnar epithelium in the first part; later it becomes cuboidal, non-ciliated Clara cells - Non-ciliated cuboidal cells which are secretory in appearance, provides moisturization of respiratory bronchiole Smooth muscle and elastic fibers well-developed but do not form thick layers Alveolar Ducts Thin tube with highly discontinuous wall giving off several branches, which in turn branch again Closely beset with thin-walled outpouchings, the alveolar sacs Last segments which present smooth muscle cells that are distributed around the opening of an alveolus but not extending to the walls Atria space b/w alveolar duct and alveolar sac Pulmonary Alveoli Thin walled polyhedral or hexagonal sacs where interchange of gas between the blood and air takes place Dense network of capillaries that anastomose freely Closely woven network of branching reticular and elastic fibers Interalveolar septum - formed between adjacent alveoli due to interdigitating arrangement of the alveoli - Functions: 1. Prevents overdistension of the alveoli 2. Intercommunicating channels between alveoli Lamberts Sinuses Intercommunicating channels in the lung Short openings in the walls of respiratory bronchioles leading into alveolar sacs Provide an alternative route for entry or escape of air into the terminal units and probably play an important role when lungs become fibrotic Lining of the Pulmonary Alveoli 1. Type 1 alveolar cells (squamous pulmonary epithelial cells, small alveolar cells or pneumocytes type 1) - Form a continuous layer in the alveolar wall interrupted only by occasional type 2 alveolar cells - Larger and form the majority 2. Type 2 alveolar cells (surfactant cells, septal cells, great alveolar cells or pneumocytes type 2) - Fairly numerous, taller - Presence of dense osmiophilic bodies with an internal structure consisting of parallel or concentric lamellae - PAS and Sudan black positive - Produces Surfactant lowers surface tension that prevents complete collapse in the expiration of lungs - Respiratory Distress Syndrome premature baby, lacks surfactant BLOOD-AIR BARRIER Barrier through which gases must pass in exchange between air and blood 3 Layers: 1. Alveolar epithelium 2. Interstitial space (Zona Diffusa) interposed b/w the 2 basal laminae

3. Capillary endothelium relatively thin, non-fenestrated, with numerous caveolae ALVEOLAR PHAGOCYTES or MACROPHAGES Dust cells - Free phagocytic cells which contain particles of inhaled dust - Macrophages engulf/ingest dust particles Heart failure cells - Hemosiderin-filled dust cells due to congestion - Numerous when there is stasis of pulmonary blood flow - Macrophages engulf/ingested blood LYMPHATICS 2 Sets: 1. Superficial - Set in the pleura - Outline the lobules - Numerous valves to prevent the backflow of lymph 2. Deep - Set in the substance of the lung - Bronchi and bronchioles No lymphatics beyond the alveolar ducts All lymphatic tissue drain towards the hilus nodes Efferent trunks from the hilus nodes anastomose to form the right lymphatic duct Connect with pulmonary and pleural lymphatic plexuses Important in the spread of carcinoma in the lungs REPAIR OF THE LUNG Regeneration - No available evidence to show that the pulmonary tissue can regenerate after destruction CT scar formation - Pulmonary Tuberculosis