ME 318

Manufacturing Techniques

CASTING
Casting is basically melting a solid material, heating to a special temperature, and pouring the molten material into a cavity or mold, which is in proper shape. Casting has been known by human being since the 4th century B.C. Today it is nearly impossible to design anything that cannot be cast by means of one or more of the available casting processes. However, as with other manufacturing processes, best results and economy can be achieved if the designer understands the various casting processes and adapts his designs so as to use the process most efficient. 1. Solidification of Melts

When a melt is poured into a colder mold, metal in contact with the mold solidifies in the form of roughly equiaxed fine grains, because cooling rates are high, and the wall induces heterogeneous nucleation. Solidification proceeds by the growth of a few favorably oriented nuclei, in the direction of heat extraction. This leads to be observed columnar structure. Because of the preferred growth direction of the large grains, the casting will have very anisotropic properties. Since most metals shrink on solidification, the liquid meniscus gradually drops and a shrinkage cavity (pipe) remains.

Figure 1. Solidification proceeds with (a) the growth of columnar grains in pure metals but, (b) with the growth of dendrites in solid solutions. (c) Dendrites grow in crystallograhically favorable directions [2]. 1

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Figure 2. Development of the macrostructure of a casting during solidification: (a) Nucleation begins, (b) the chill zone forms, (c) preferred growth produces the columnar zone, and (d) additional nucleation creates the equiaxed zone. 2. Casting Materials

Although some non-metals are cast, the process is primary importance in the production of metal products. The metals most frequently cast are iron, steel, aluminium, brass, bronze, magnesium, and certain zinc alloys. 3. Casting Procedure

In all casting processes six basic factors are involved. These are as follows: 1. A mold cavity, having the desired shape and size and with due allowance for shrinkage of the solidifying metal, must be produced. Any complexity of shape desired in the finished casting must exist in the cavity. Consequently, the mold material must such as to reproduce the desired detail and also have a refractory character so that it will not be significantly affected by the molten metal that it contains. Either a new mold must be prepared for each casting, or it must be made from a material that can withstand being used for repeated castings, the latter being called permanent molds. 2. A suitable means must be available for melting the metal that is to be cast, providing not only adequate temperature, but also satisfactory quality and quantity at low cost.

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3. The molten metal must be introduced into the mold in such a manner that all air or gases in the mold, prior to pouring or generated by the action of the hot metal upon the mold, will escape, and the mold will be completely filled. A quality casting must be dense and free from defects such as air holes. 4. Provision must be made so that the mold will not cause too much restraint to the shrinkage that accompanies cooling after the metal has solidified. Otherwise, the casting will crack while its strength is low. In addition, the design of the casting must be such that solidification and solidification shrinkage can occur without producing cracks and internal porosity or voids. 5. It must be possible to remove the casting from the mold so a permanent mold must be made in two or more sections. 6. After removal from the mold, finishing operations may need to be performed to remove extraneous material that is attached to the casting as the result of the method of introducing the metal into the cavity, or is picked up from the mold through contact with the metal. 4. CASTING PROCESSES

Much of the development that has taken place in the foundry industry has been directed toward meeting these six objectives with greater economy. Six major casting processes currently are used. These are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 6.1. Sand casting Plaster-mold casting Investment casting Centrifugal casting Permanent-mold casting Die casting Squeeze casting SAND CASTING

Sand casting is a flexible, inexpensive process. Sand is used as the mold material. The sand grains, mixed with small amounts of other materials to improve the moldability and cohesive strength, are packed around a pattern that has the shape of the desired casting. Products covering a wide range of sizes and detail can be made by this method. A new mold must be made for each casting, and gravity usually is employed to cause the metal to flow into the mold. The process is not so accurate as die casting or investment casting. 6.2. PLASTER-MOLD CASTING

Plaster-mold casting is somewhat similar to sand casting in that only one casting is made and then the mold is destroyed, in this case the mold is made out of a specially formulated plaster. 70 to 80% gypsum and 20 to 30% fibrous strengtheners. Water is added to make a creamy s1urry. This process is limited to non-ferrous metals, because ferrous metals react with sulphur in gypsum. The core boxes are usually made form brass, plastics, or aluminium.

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6.3.

INVESTMENT CASTING

Casting processes in which the pattern is used only once are variously referred to as "lostwax" or "precision-casting" processes. In any case they involve making a pattern of the desired form out of wax or plastics (usually polystyrene). A metal flask is placed around the assembled patterns and refractory mold slurry is poured to support the patterns and form the cavities. A vibrating table equipped with a vacuum pump is used to eliminate all the air from the mold. After the mold material has set and dried, the pattern material is melted and allowed to run out of the mold. When the metal is cooled, the investment material is removed by means of vibrating hammers or by tumbling. As with other castings, the gates and risers are cut off and ground down. 6.4. CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

Centrifugal casting consists of having sand, metal, or ceramic mold that is rotated at high speeds. When the molten metal is poured into the mold it is thrown against the mold wall, where it remains until it cools and solidifies. The process is being increasingly used for such products as cast-iron pipes, cylinder liners, gun barrels, pressure vessels, brake drums gears, and flywheels. The metals used include almost all castable alloys. Because of the relatively fast cooling time, centrifugal castings have a fine gram size. There is a tendency for the lighter non-metallic inclusions slag particles, and dross to segregate toward the inner radius of the casting where it can be easily removed by machining. Due to the high purity of the outer skin, centrifugally cast pipes have a high resistance to atmospheric corrosion. 6.5. PERMANENT-MOLD CASTING PROCESSES

The process utilizes a metal casting die in conjunction with metal or sand cores. Molten metal is introduced at the top of the mold that has two or more parts, using only the force of gravity. After solidification, the mold is opened and the casting ejected. The mold is reassembled and the cyc1e is repeated. The molds are either metal or graphite and, consequently, most permanent-mold castings are restricted to lower melting point nonferrous metals and alloys. 6.6. DIE CASTING

Die casting differs from ordinary permanent-mold casting in that the molten metal is forced into the molds by pressure and held under pressure during solidification. Most die castings are made from nonferrous metals and alloys, but substantial quantities of ferrous die castings now are being produced. Because of the combination of metal molds or dies, and pressure, fine sections and excellent detail can be achieved, together with tong mold life. Special zinc-, copper-, and aluminium-base alloys suitable for die casting have been developed which have excellent properties, thereby contributing to the very extensive use of the process. Because die-casting dies usually are made from hardened tool steel, they are expensive to make. In addition, the die sections must contain knockout pins, which eject the casting.

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6.7.

SQUEEZE CASTING

Squeeze casting, also known as liquid-metal forging, is a process by which molten metal solidifies under pressure within c1osed dies positioned between the plates of a hydraulic press. Squeeze casting consists of metering liquid metal into a preheated, lubricated die and forging the metal while it so1idifies. The load is applied shortly after the metal begins to freeze and is maintained until the entire casting has solidified. Casting ejection and handling are done in much the same way as in closed die forging. The applied pressure and the instant contact of the molten metal with the die surface produce a rapid heat transfer condition that yields a pore-free fine-grain casting with mechanical properties approaching those of a wrought product. The squeeze casting process is easily automated to produce near-net to net shape highquality components. The process was introduced in the United States in 1960 and has since gained widespread acceptance. Advantages of squeeze casting With the current emphasis on reducing materials consumption through virtually net shape processing and the demand for higher-strength parts for weight savings, the emergence of squeeze casting as a production process has given materials and process engineers a new alternative to the traditional approaches of casting and forging. By pressurizing liquid metals while they solidify, near-net shape can be achieved in sound fully dense castings. Improved mechanical properties are additional advantages of squeeze cast parts. The micro structural refinement and integrity of squeeze cast products are desirable for many critical applications. Squeeze casting has been successfully applied to a variety of ferrous and nonferrous alloys in traditionally cast and wrought compositions. Applications include aluminum alloy pistons for engines and disk brakes; automotive wheels, truck hubs, barrel heads; brass and bronze bushings and gears; steel missile components and differential pinion gears; and a number of parts in cast iron, including ductile iron mortar shells. 7. CORE DESIGN

Cores are mold parts used to shape internal holes and cavities. They are also fortification parts of molds where wearing occurs. These parts are made of sand and organic-inorganic bonders such as cereal meals, dextrin, sodium silicate, cement etc. Some properties of cores must have are the followings: a. b. c. d. e. f. High-Temperature Resistivity Metal Erosion Resistivity Easiness of Deformation After Casting Gas Insertion Ability Smooth Surfaces Saving Physical Properties During Storage

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Internal Cavity 8.

Projecting Parts

Mold Fortification

MELTING AND CASTING

During melting process chemical content of the raw material is determined. Alloying is achieved at this stage where raw materials are in liquid phase. Most known furnace types to prepare the liquid metal are: a. b. c. d. e. Crucible Type Furnaces Coupol Type Furnaces Electric-Arc Furnaces Converters Siemens-Martins Furnaces

The most difficult and important part of melting & alloying process is the removal of impurities from the liquid. These operations differ according to the type of furnace. 9. Design of Castings When designing casting the most important consideration is the effect of shrinkage during cooling. Other important factors include metal flow, and porosity. Some general rules are, - Avoid sharp corners - they can lead to hot tearing during cooling. - Use fillets cautiously - they lead to stresses as they shrink a radius of 1/8" to 1" are acceptable. - Avoid large masses - they will cool more slowly, and can lead to pores and cavities in the final part. Cores can be used to hollow out these large volumes. Metal padding `chills' can also be placed inside the mold near large masses to help increase cooling rates. - Use uniform cross sections -this will keep the cooling rate relatively uniform and avoid stresses. - Avoid large flats - large flat areas tend to warp. - Allow some give as the part cools - by allowing the shrinkage of one part to deform another slightly, the internal stresses will be reduced. Figures of 1-2% shrinkage are common. - Put parting lines near corners - this will hide the flash. - Straight Parting Lines - where possible a straight parting line will allow easier mold making. - Use a Draft angle - A small angle of 0.5-2 on the vertical walls will make the pattern easier to remove. 6

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- Machining Allowances - allow excess material for later machining of critical dimensions - Wide Tolerances - because shrinkage occurs as the part cools it will be very hard to keep tight tolerances. - Stress Relieve When Needed - Stress relief can reduce the effects of non-uniform cooling. - Avoid thin sections - These will be very hard to fill, and will tend to harden quickly. - Avoid internal features - These will require extra steps in mold making, and may create metal flow problems. 10. When to Use the Casting Process

Design and manufacturing engineers must often decide when it is advantageous to use the casting process or when it may be better to use some other method of fabrication. Given below is a list of some of the main considerations that may be used in choosing the casting process. 1. Parts that require complex internal cavities, such as asymmetric parts or those that art quite inaccessible for machining. Also the cavities that are large and may necessitate considerable metal removal. 2. When a large number of parts are to be made out of aluminium or zinc and have rather complex structures. 3. Parts requiring heavy formed cross-sectional areas. Heavy sections can be fabricated if the part is relatively simple, but forming poses many problems. Fabricating and machining may be very time-consuming. 4. Castings allow bulk or metal mass to be placed advantageously as in machine bases. 5. Damping, both sound and mechanical, is often needed in machine tools. Gray cast iron can provide this quality better than any other metal. 6. Modern foundry practices make it feasible, in some cases, to produce one of a kind. Some patterns may be made quickly out of wax or Styrofoam. The part maybe cast within a few hours of its conception and often with a choice of materials such as steel cast iron, copper brass or aluminium. 7. Several individua1 parts may be quite easily integrated into one part with a savings of both material and labour. 8. Parts that are extremely difficult to machine such as the refractory material used in turbine blades may be cast to close tolerances. 9. When it is desirable to minimize directional properties of the metal. Castings have better anisotropic qualities than forged on wrought materials. Anisotropic refers to the directional qualities of most wrought metals that reduce ductility, impact, and fatigue properties transverse to the direction of rolling. 10. When using precious metals, since there is little on no loss of material.

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There are also times when it is not advantageous to use the casting process, as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Parts that can be stamped out on a punch press. Parts that can be deep drawn. Parts that can be made by extrusion. Parts that can be made by cold heading. Parts made from highly reactive metals.

REFERENCES 1. ASM Metals Handbook 2. Schey, A. J., Introduction to Manufacturing Processes, McGraw Hill, Singapore, 1987 3. http://www.aurorametals.com/hp.htm 4. Manufacturing with Materials, ed. L. Edwards, M. Endean, The Open University, U.K., 1990