The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the "brain" of the computer--it is the 'compute' incomputer.

Without the CPU, you have no computer. AMD, IBM, Intel, Motorola, SGI and Sun are just a few of the companies that make most of the CPU's used for various kinds of computers including home desktops, office computers, mainframes and supercomputers. Computer CPU's (processors) are composed of thin layers of thousands of transistors. Transistors are tiny, nearly microscopic bits of material that will block electricity at one voltage (they are a non-conductor and 'resist' the flow of electricity) and permit electricity to pass through them at different voltage (the material loses its resistence to electricity and becomes a conductor). The ability of these materials (called semi-conductors) to transition from a non-conducting to a conducting state allows them to take two electrical inputs and produce a different output only when one or both inputs are switched on. A computer CPU is composed of millions (and soon billions) of transistors. Because CPU's are so small, they are often referred to as microprocessors. So, the terms processor, microprocessor and CPU are interchangeable. Modern CPU's are what are called 'integrated chips'. The idea behind an integrated chip is that several types of components are integrated into a single piece of silicon (a single CPU), such as one or more execution core, arithmetic unit (ALU), logic unit, registers, instruction memory, cache memory and the input/output controller (bus controller).

Each transistor is a receives a set of inputs and produces output. When one or more of the inputs receive electricity, the combined charge changes the state of the transistor internally and you get a result out the other side. This simple effect of the transistor is what makes it possible for the computer to count and perform logical operations, all of which we call processing. A modern computer's CPU usually contains an execution core with two or more instruction pipelines, a data and address bus, a dedicated arithmetic logic unit (ALU, also called the math co-processor), and in some cases special high-speed memory for caching program instructions from RAM. The CPU's in most PC's and servers are general purpose integrated chips composed of several smaller dedicated-purpose modern computer. For example, Intel makes a Pentium, while AMD makes the Athlon, and Duron (no memory cache). components which together create the processing capabilities of the

Generations
CPU manufacturers engineer new ways to do processing that requires some significant re-engineering of the current chip design. When they create this new design that changes the number of bits the chip can handle, or some other major way in which the chip performs its job, they are creating a new generation of processors. As of the time this tutorial was last updated (2008), there were seven generations of chips, with an eighth on the drawing board.

CPU Components
A lot of components go into building a modern computer processor and just what goes in changes with every generation as engineers and scientists find new, more efficient ways to do old tasks. Execution Core(s) Data Bus Address Bus Math Co-processor Instruction sets / Microcode

Multimedia extensions Registers Flags Pipelining Memory Controller Cache Memory (L1, L2 and L3)

Measuring Speed: Bits, Cycles and Execution Cores

Bit Width
The first way of describing a processor is to say how many bits it processes in a single instruction or transports across the processor's internal bus in a single cycle (not exactly correct, but close enough). The number of bits used in the CPU's instructions and registers and how many bits the buses can transfer simultaneously is usually expressed in multiples of 8 bits. It is possible for the registers and the bus to have different sizes. Current chip designs are 64 bit chips (as of 2008). More bits usually means more processing capability and more speed.

Clock Cycles
The second way of describing a processor is to say how many cycles per second the chip operates at. This is how many times per second a charge of electricity passes through the chip. The more cycles, the faster the processor. Currently, chips operate in the billions of cycles per second range. When you're talking about billions of anything in computer terms, you're talking about 'giga' something. When you're talking about how many cycles per second, your talking about 'hertz'. Putting the two together, you get gigahertz. More clock cycles usually means more processing capability and more speed.

Execution Cores
The third way of describing a processor is to say how many execution cores are in the chip. The most advanced chips today have eight execution cores. More execution cores means you can get more work done at the same time, but it doesn't necessarily mean a single program will run faster. To put it another way, a processor with one execution core might be able to run your MP3 music, your web browser, a graphics program and that's about where it starts to slow down enough, it's not worth it running more programs. A system with a processor with 8 cores could run all that plus ten more applications without even seeming to slow down (of course, this assumes you have enough RAM to load all of this software at the same time). More execution cores means more processing capability, but not necessarily more speed. As of 2008, the most advanced processors available are 64-bit processors with 8 cores, running as fast as 3-4 gigahertz. Intel has released quad-core 64-bit chips as has AMD.

Multi-Processor Computers

And if you're still needing more processing power, some computers are designed to run more than one processor chip at the same time. Many companies that manufacture servers make models that accept two, four, eight, sixteen even thirty two processors in a single chassis. The biggest supercomputers are running hundreds of thousands of quad-core processors in parallel to do major calculations for such applications as thermonuclear weapons simulations, radioactive decay simulations, weather simulations, high energy physics calculations and more.

CPU Speed Measurements

The main measurement quoted by manufacturers as a supposed indication of processing speed, is the clock speed of the chip measured in hertz. The the theory goes that the higher the number of mega or gigahertz, the faster the processor. However comparing raw speeds is not always a good comparison between chips. Counting how many instructions are processed per second (MIPS, BIPS, TIPS for millions, billions and trillions of instructions per second) is a better measurement. Still others use the number of mathematical calculations per second to rate the speed of a processor. Of course, what measurement is most important and most helpful to you depends on what you use a computer for. If you primarily do intensive math calculations, measuring the number of calculations per second is most important. If you are measuring how fast the computer runs an application, then instructions per second are most important.

Processor Manufacturers

American Micro Devices (AMD) Intel IBM Motorola Cyrix Texas Instruments

AMD and Intel have pretty much dominated the market. AMD and Intel are for IBM compatible machines. Motorola chips are made for MacIntoshes. Cyrix (another IBM compatible chip maker) runs a distant fourth place in terms of number of chips sold. Today all chip manufacturers produce chips whose input and output are identical, though the internal architecture may be different. This means that though they may not be built the same way, they DO all run the same software. The CPU is built using logic gates, and contains a small number of programs called 'microcode' built into the chip to perform certain basic processes (like reading data from the bus and writing to a device). Current chips use a 'reduced instruction set' or RISC architectures. Chips can also be measured in terms of instructions processed per second (MIPS).

What is the difference between analog and digital technology?

Answer: Computers are digital devices, meaning they perform all calculations using ones and zeros. This method of computing is referred to as the "binary system," and is the heart of all digital technology. Devices such as hard drives, CD recorders, and Mini DV camcorders are digital devices, and therefore record data digitally, as ones and zeros. VCRs, tape players, and record players, on the other hand, are analog devices. This is because they record data linearly from one point to another. Imagine a bumpy line moving from left to right -- that is what an analog audio recording would look like. Analog devices read the media, such as tapes or records, by scanning the physical data off the media. For example, a record player reads the bumps and dips in the grooves of the record and translates the information into an audio signal. An audio CD player, however, reads ones and zeros off a compact disc and translates that information into an audio signal. However, the ones and zeros only estimate the actual soundwave, whereas a record player records the exact sound. When you hear terms like "sampling rate" or "bit rate," these refer to how many times per second the digital signal is sampled. The higher the number, the more accurate the estimate is, which translates into higher quality sound or video. So why is digital technology used if analog provides a better representation of the recorded information? Well, since computers perform digital computations, they can only work with digital media. Therefore, all analog audio or video media must be converted to digital to work on a computer. Once the information is digital, computers can be used to edit the data and create effects that were never possible with analog media. Digital media is non-linear, which means it can be edited or played back starting at any point, which can be a huge timesaver compared to working with tape. Digital information also does not "wear out" after repeated use like tapes or records do, which results in much better longevity for digital media. To summarize, a digital signal is an estimation of analog data. Digital recordings are made with ones and zeros, while analog recordings are made with linear bumps and dips. While digital information is not as exact as analog information, it can be used with other digital devices, such as computers, making editing and reproduction of the information easier and faster. Because digital media is more compatible and does not degrade over time, it has become the common choice for today's audio and video formats.

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
The dawn of the new age - The Computer Era - glows before us with the promise of new and improved ways of thinking, living and working. The amount of information in the world is said to be doubling every six to seven years. The only way to keep up with these increased amounts of data and information is to understand how computers work and the ability to control them for a particular purpose. A computer can be defined as an electronic data processing device, capable of accepting data, applying a prescribed set of instructions to the data, and displaying in some manner or form. Any configuration of the devices that are interconnected and are programmed to operate as a computer system. The computer is said to have literally revolutionised the way one person does his job or a whole multinational organisation operates their businesses. Together with this reason and many more, computers are considered more than just an essential piece of fancy equipment. Whether or not people know anything about it, they invoke computers in every day lives when they make a bank withdrawal, buy groceries at the supermarket and even when they drive a car. Today, millions of people are purchasing fully functional personal computers for individual reasons. In There are so many applications of computers, that it is impractical to mention all of them. This is the Computer Age and these machines are beginning to affect out lives in many ways. Computers are now becoming faster, more reliable, effective and whole lot cheaper than they had been ever before. q Retailing. Products from meats to magazines are packed with zebra-striped bar codes that can be read by the computer scanners at supermarket checkout stands to determine prices and help manage inventory. Thus, a detailed receipt of the groceries can be made, which is useful for both the customer and the retail store, especially for the stock control system. This is referred as POS (Point of Sale) transaction where a precise account of all the stocks available is recorded and manipulated. q Health and Medicine. Computers are helping immensely to monitor thee extremely ill in the intensive care unit and provide cross-sectional views of the body. This eliminates the need for hired nurses to watch the patient twenty-four hours a day, which is greatly tiring and error prone. Doctors use computers to assist them in diagnosing certain diseases of the sort. This type of computer is called the Expert System, which is basically a collection of accumulated expertise in a specific area of field. Computers are now able to map, in exquisite detail, the structure of the human cold virus - the first step towards the common cold. Furthermore, computers are used greatly in managing patients, doctors, wards and

medicine records, as well as deal with making appointments, scheduling surgeries and other likes. q Agriculture. Farmers use small computers to help with billing, crop information, and cost per acre, feed combinations, and market price checks. Cattle ranchers can also use computers for information about livestock breeding and performance. q Training. It is much more cheaper and effective to teach pilots how to fly in a computerised cockpit or simulators, than is real airplanes. This is because the learning pilots will feel much more relaxed and confident due to the fact that no life is at risk at that moment. Railway engineers can also be given some kind of training on how to run a train with the help of a computerised system. Training simulations are relatively cheaper and are always available on one-to-one basis making way for personal training. Computers are all around us and avoiding them is virtually impossible. We have been exposed in the world of computer hype, computer advertisements and computer headlines. We interact with computers in our daily lives - whether we are at the cinemas, the school, or the public library. The beginnings of computer literacy are already apparent.

What are the differences between hardware and software?

Question
What are the differences between hardware and software?

Answer
Computer hardware is any physical device, something that you are able to touch and software is a collection of instructions and code installed into the computer and cannot be touched. For example, the computer monitor you are using to read this text on and the mouse you are using to navigate this web page is computer hardware. The Internet browser that allowed you to

visit this page and the operating system that the browser is running on is software.

Can a computer run without software? In most situations, yes, a computer can run without software being installed. However, if an operating system or interpreter is not found on the computer it would either generate an error or sit at a black screen. Installing additional programs onto the computer after the operating system has been installed will only give that computer additional abilities. For example, a word processor is not required, but will allow you to create documents and letters.

How to install a software program. Can a computer run without hardware?

Depends on the hardware. Almost all computer setups will require at least a disk drive (e.g. hard drive), display, keyboard, memory, motherboard, processor,po wer supply, and video card in order to function properly. If any of these devices was missing or had problems, an error would be encountered, or the computer would not start. Adding other hardware such as a disc drive (e.g. CDROM or DVD), modem, mouse, network card, printer, sound card, speakers, etc. are not required, but will give the computer additional capabilities. Software is a collection of instructions that enables a user to interact with the computer or have the computer perform specific

tasks for them. Without any software the computer would be useless. For example, you wouldn't be able to interact with the computer without a software operating system. Almost all software purchased at a retail store and online is included in a box similar to the one shown to the right, this box usually contains all the disks (floppy diskette, CD, DVD, or Blu-ray) required to install the program onto the computer, manuals, warranty, and other important documentation. To the right is an example of what a Microsoft Excel so Hardware is best described as a device that is physically connected to your computer or something that can be physically touched. A CD-ROM, Monitor, Printer, and video card are all examples of computer hardware. Without any hardware your computer would not exist and software would have nothing to run on. The image to the right is of a webcam, an example of an external hardware peripheral that allows users to make videos or pictures and transmit them over the Internet. What are hardware upgrades? A hardware upgrade is any new hardware that replaces or adds to old hardware in the computer. A good example of a common hardware upgrade is aRAM upgrade, where the user is increasing the computers total memory, which will increase its overall speed and efficiency. Another good example is doing a video card upgrade, which is the act of removing the old video card and replacing it with a new video card that is much more capable than the previously installed video card, again increasing the capabilities of the computer. ftware box wouldComputer Viruses Here at NEWTON, we get a lot of questions on computer viruses, so we thought that we would provide a helpful guide that should help to answer all of your questions about them. Please see the questions below for what you are looking for. A special thanks to Mike Stewart for helping us answer these questions. What are Computer Viruses?

Computer viruses are programs written by "mean" people. These virus programs are placed into a commonly used program so that program will run the attached virus program as it boots, therefore, it is said that the virus "infects" the executable file or program. What Do Viruses Do? Viruses have many purposes-some are designed to play annoying tricks, whereas others have destructive intent. Some viruses present themselves as jokes while performing secret destructive functions. There two major types of viruses are compiled viruses, which are executed by the operating system, and interpreted viruses, which are executed by an application. How do Viruses Spread? Viruses insert themselves into host programs and propagate when the infected program is executed, generally by user interaction (e.g., opening a file, running a program, clicking on a file attachment). How do I prevent a virus?
1. Load only software from original disks or CD's. Pirated or copied

software is always a risk for a virus. 2. Execute only programs of which you are familiar as to their origin. Programs sent by email should always be suspicious. 3. Computer uploads and "system configuration" changes should always be performed by the person who is responsible for the computer. 4. Password protection should be employed. 5. Check all shareware and free programs downloaded from on-line services with a virus checking program. 6. Purchase or download a anti-virus program that runs as you boot or work your computer. Up-date it frequently. There are free anti-virus programs availible.

What are Trojan Horse programs? Named after the wooden horse from Greek mythology, Trojan horses are nonreplicating programs that appear to be benign but actually have a hidden malicious purpose. Some Trojan horses are intended to replace existing files with malicious versions, whereas other Trojan horses add another application to a system without overwriting existing files. Trojan horses are often difficult to detect because they appear to be performing a useful function What are Malware programs? Malware is any "bad" software. It is a broad term for software (programs and scripts) that have malicious intent and is not specifically addressed in this pub. But Viruses, Trojans, and Key-loggers are just examples of Malware. What are Phishing programs? Phishing refers to use of deceptive computer-based means to trick individuals into disclosing sensitive personal information. To perform a phishing attack, an attacker creates a Web site or e-mail that looks as if it is from a well-known organization, such as an online business, credit card company, or financial institution. The fraudulent e-mails and Web sites are intended to deceive users into disclosing personal data, usually financial information. For example, phishers might seek usernames and passwords for online banking sites, as well as bank account numbers.

For more information, please check out the National Institute of Science and Technology which is the US government office in charge of this problem, at this URL: http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-61-rev1/SP800-61rev1.pdf. look like.

o o o o o o o

Computer Virus Basics What Computer Viruses Infect Types of Computer Viruses Ways to Catch a Computer Virus Symptoms of a Computer Virus If You Get a Computer Virus Safe Computing Practices

This tutorial provides basic information about computer viruses. It explains what viruses are, what they infect, types of viruses, and ways to catch a virus. Information about symptoms of a virus, what to do if you get a a virus, and safe computing practices are given.

Computer Virus Basics

A computer virus is created when a programmer creates computer code that has the capability to replicate itself, hide, watch for a certain event to occur, and/or deliver a destructive or prankish payload on a disk or in a computer program. Viruses can attach themselves to just about any type of file and are spread as infected files are used by other computers. Some viruses are relatively harmless, while others are very devastating. They can destroy files, software, program applications, and cause the loss of data. New computer viruses are constantly being created by malicious programmers. Because of this, it is vital to keep anti-virus software on computers up-to-date. Some anti-virus software programs allow users to set them to silently check for updates whenever users are connected to the Internet. Others remind users to periodically check for updates. Worms and Trojans are closely related to viruses. A worm makes copies of itself on a computer, rather than infecting other files like viruses. A Trojan is a program that secretly installs itself on a computer and opens a back door to the computer so that malicious attacks can be remotely controlled. The actual Trojan is usually not damaging at first, but it is usually accompanied by other damaging programs. To protect your home computer against computer viruses, worms, and trojans, you should invest in antivirus software, such as the software offered by Norton or McAfee. You should also make sure it stays upto-date. Virus protection software on school computers is regularly updated by the school system network

technicians.

What Computer Viruses Infect

Viruses can enter computers in many ways. Once a virus has entered a system, it will generally hide until it is unknowingly run by the user. A virus will not act until it has been run or some pre-established condition has been met, such as a specific date. The effects of a virus may not be noticed for some time after it has infected a computer. Viruses can infect several components of a computer's operating and file system including: System Sectors/Boot Records - Viruses can infect the parts of the system that are used to run programs and perform functions such as start up and shut down. Files - Viruses can infect program files. These viruses stick to program files such as .com, .exe, .sys, etc. Some viruses hide in the memory of the computer at first, while others simply attack a specific software program, such as Microsoft Word. Companion Files - Viruses can create companion files that are a special type of file that adds files that run on the hard disk. Macros - Viruses can infect macro or data files. Disk Clusters - Viruses can infect files through the disk directory. Batch Files - Viruses can use batch files to infect a computer. Source Code - Viruses can be in additional code that is added to actual program source code. Visual Basic Worms - These worms use the Visual Basic programming language to control a computer and perform tasks.

Types of Computer Viruses

Viruses are categorized by how they infect computers. Some viruses fall into more than one of these categories. Types of viruses include: Polymorphic Viruses - Polymorphic viruses change characteristics as they infect a computer. Stealth Viruses - Stealth viruses actively try to hide themselves from anti-virus and system software. Fast and Slow Infectors - Fast and Slow viruses infect a computer in a particular way to try to avoid being detected by anti-virus software. Sparse Infectors - Sparse Infectors don't infect very often. Armored Viruses - Armored viruses are programmed to make eradication difficult. Multipartite Viruses - Multipartite Viruses are viruses that may fall into more than one of these categories. Cavity (Spacefiller) Viruses - Cavity (Spacefiller) viruses attempt to maintain a constant file size when infecting a computer in order to try to avoid detection. Tunneling Viruses - Tunneling viruses try to "tunnel" under anti-virus software while infecting. Camouflage Viruses - Camouflage viruses attempt to appear as a benign program. Virus Droppers - Virus Droppers are a special category of programs that place viruses on computers but are not by themselves an actual virus.

Ways to Catch a Computer Virus

There are several ways to catch a computer virus: From Floppy Disks - Be very careful about putting a floppy disk that has been in another computer in your computer, even if it is from a trusted source. From the Internet - Viruses can be attached to various types of Internet files, such as graphics and program files that people download from the Internet. Just browsing the Internet does not put your computer at risk. You have to download and install a file for a virus to be able to infect a computer. From E-Mail - Viruses often travel via e-mail attachments. E-mail messages by themselves do not carry viruses. Only .exe, .com or other types of executable files can carry a virus. From a Computer Network - Computer Networks are groups of computers linked together by a large computer called a server. The server and these computers constantly share information. If one file that is used by several network users becomes infected with a virus, the virus will quickly spread to the other users.

Symptoms of a Computer Virus

The following are some possible indications that a computer has been infected by a virus. These problems can also be caused by non-virus problems, but they are the most reported symptoms of a computer virus infection. Computer programs take longer to load than normal. The computer's hard drive constantly runs out of free space. The floppy disk drive or hard drive runs when you are not using it. New files keep appearing on the system and you don't know where they came from. Strange sounds or beeping noises come from the computer or keyboard. Strange graphics are displayed on your computer monitor. Files have strange names you don't recognize. You are unable to access the hard drive when booting from the floppy drive. Program sizes keep changing. Conventional memory is less than it used to be and you can't explain it. Programs act erratically.

If You Get a Computer Virus

At school: If you are on a school computer, contact your school tech leader or submit a request to computer support, immediately.

At home: If you do not have an anti-virus program, get one immediately. Many anti-virus programs can be downloaded from the Internet. Install the latest virus updates available for your anti-virus software. (Generally, you can get these updates at the anti-virus program web site.) Then run the anti-virus software to identify the virus. Most software will ask users to choose whether to clean the virus, delete the file, or ignore it when a virus is found. After getting rid of a virus, run your anti-virus software again to make sure the virus has

been eradicated. Find an Internet web site that contains descriptions of viruses and search for information about the virus you have found on your computer. If you get an e-mail virus, contact everyone in your address book and tell them to be on the lookout for suspicious e-mails and attachments. Do not send any e-mails until you are sure the virus has been cleaned from your computer.

Safe Computing Practices

There are several things you can do the help protect your computer against viruses: Anti-Virus Software - If you don't have an anti-virus software program, invest in one. Scan Your Computer on a Regular Basis - Scan you system with anti-virus software regularly. Update Your Anti-Virus Software on a Regular Basis - Keep your anti-virus software up to date. Do this at least weekly and more often if there are news reports of a new virus threat. Backup - Backup your files on a regular basis. Always maintain copies of files you can't do without, just in case your computer gets infected and crashes. Turn off E-Mail Preview - Turn off the preview function if your e-mail software has one. Scan Floppy Disks - Scan floppy disks from other computers with anti-virus software before you use the disk. Simply place the disk in your floppy drive and run the anti-virus software program. If a virus is found, most programs will give you several choices about what to do, such as removing the virus, doing nothing, or deleting the file that contains the virus. Protect Your Floppy Disks - Write-protect any floppy disk you place into another computer. If the other computer has a boot sector virus, the write-protect on the disk will prevent it from becoming infected with the virus. Scan Downloaded Files - Scan downloaded Internet files with anti-virus software before you use or run them. Scan All E-Mail Attachments - If you receive an attachment you need to view, scan it with anti-virus software before you open it. Beware of E-Mail Attachments from Unknown Sources - If you receive an unexpected attachment from an unknown source, delete it. Never open attachments for files that end in .vbs (Visual Basic Script) or .js (Java Script). Viruses often travel in these types of files. Be Alert - Pay attention to news about virus alerts. You might want to subscribe to a virus alert e-mail notice from one of the anti-virus software makers.

Definition: "antivirus" is protective software designed to defend your computer against malicious software. Malicious software, or "malware" includes: viruses, Trojans, keyloggers, hijackers, dialers, and other code that vandalizes or steals your computer contents. In order to be an effective defense, your antivirus software needs to run in the background at all times, and should be skept updated so it recognizes new versions of malicious software. Also Known As: anti-virus, anti virus

Antivirus (or "anti-virus") software is a class of program that searches your hard drive and floppy disks for any known or potential viruses. The market for this kind of program has expanded because of Internet growth and the increasing use of the Internet by businesses concerned about protecting their computer assets.