55

Unit IV

CLIMATE
'
CHAPTER
ATMOSPHERE — COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE
A
tmosphere is a gaseous envelope
extending thousands of kilometres
above the earth’s surface. Much of the
life on the earth exists at the bottom of the
atmosphere where it meets the lithosphere
and the hydrosphere. Very survival of life
processes are associated with it. The influence
of the atmosphere on humans is not only
direct but also indirect through natural
vegetation, soil and topography. Among the
four major elements of environment, the
atmosphere is the most dynamic as changes
in it take place not only from one season to
another but also within a short period of few
hours. Of the total mass of the atmosphere,
99 per cent is within the height of 32 km from
the earth’s surface and is held to it by the force
of gravity. The atmosphere is energised by the
sun.
ORIGIN OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Today’s atmosphere is the result of very
gradual change starting about 5 billion years
ago by accretion of cold particles chiefly of iron
and magnesium silicate, iron and graphite.
Then, the earth was too small to retain the
primordial atmosphere of light gasses.
Gravitational collapse and radioactive decay
caused the earth to heat up and material
differentiated giving central solid nickel-iron
core, liquid iron silicate shell, a mantle and
lithosphere. In this process, degassing took
place, for ming a new atmosphere and
hydrosphere. This atmosphere was devoid
of free oxygen but contained methane,
ammonia (10-68 per cent), carbon dioxide
(10-15 per cent) and water vapour (60-70
per cent).
Compounds of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen
and hydrogen were generated under the
influence of energy sources such as lightening,
solar radiation or radioactive discharges.
Subsequently, the heaviest rains started, but
falling of rain drops evaporated before
reaching the earth sur face, which was
extremely hot at that time. The cyclic process
of evaporation and precipitation expedited
further cooling of the earth. When the earth’s
crust finally cooled sufficiently, torrential rain
lasting for considerable time filled ocean
basins. The carbon dioxide reacted with the
silicate of the earth’s crust to form carbonate.
Therefore, carbon dioxide was gradually
removed from the atmosphere.
The process of life thus, began about
3 billion years ago in the form of anaerobic bio-
chemical organism that were dependent upon
ambient organic molecules for nourishment.
About 2 billion years ago, biological evolution
took another revolutionary step. A few
organism succeeded in changing their mode
of existence from fermentation and bio-
chemical synthesis to more efficient mode of
photosynthesis and respiration. This set a
stage for release of oxygen, and fixation of
nitrogen. As organisms that could not tolerate
free oxygen were partially replaced by more
efficient respiring forms. Carbon dioxide level
in the atmosphere was reduced; ozone formed
a screen against incoming ultraviolet
radiation; and organic deposits began to
accumulate forming coal and oilfields. All this
fundamentally changed the previous
geochemistry of the earth. The cycle of majority
of chemical elements were reoriented. And
thus, the composition of the terrestrial
atmosphere took the present shape.
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COMPOSITION
The composition of the atmosphere is shown
in Table 9.1. Upto an altitude of about 90 km,
it is uniform in terms of three major gases —
nitrogen, oxygen and argon. There are in
addition rare gases like neon, krypton, and
xenon, also called noble gases. This layer is
generally, called homosphere. Above 90 km,
the composition begins to change with
progressive increase in the lighter gases. This
layer is known as heterosphere.
The oxygen and nitrogen, make up about
99 per cent of the clean dry air of the
homosphere. In addition, it contains small
amount of carbon dioxide, water vapour,
ozone, inert gases like xenon, krypton, neon
and argon (which don’t take part in chemical
reaction) and huge amount of solid and liquid
particles, collectively called aerosols.
Table 9.1 : Composition of the Atmosphere
Component Per Cent by Volume
Nitrogen (N2) 78.08
Oxygen (O2) 20.94
Argon (Ar) 0.93
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.03
Neon (Ne) 0.0018
Helium (He) 0.0005
Ozone (O3) 0.00006
Hydrogen (H) 0.00005
Methane (CH4) Trace
Krypton (Kr) Trace
Xenon (Xe) Trace
Even though nitrogen and oxygen
comprise 99 per cent of the total volume of the
atmosphere, they are climatically of little
consequence. Nitrogen does not easily enter
into chemical union with other substances,
but gets fixed into the soil. It serves mainly as
diluent or dissolver. It regulates combustion.
Oxygen on the other hand combines with all
the elements and is most combustible.
Carbon dioxide although constitutes a
small percentage, is an important gas in the
atmospheric process. It can absorb heat and
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
thus, allows the lower atmosphere to be warmed
up by heat radiation coming from the sun and
from the earth’s surface. Green plants in the
process of photosynthesis utilise carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere. There has been a
pronounced increase (10 times) in the content
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from 1890
to 1970.
Ozone is found in very small fraction in the
stratosphere between 20 and 25 km from the
earth’s surface. It is, however, very useful as it
absorbs ultra-violet rays and thus, protects life
from these harmful rays.
The water vapour and dust particles are
the important variables of weather and climate.
They are the sources of all forms of
condensation and principal absorbers of heat
received from the sun or radiated from the
earth. Besides, they affect the stability of the
atmosphere. Water vapour may not exceed 3
per cent to 4 per cent of total volume of air. The
amount of water vapour in the atmosphere
decreases from the equator towards the poles.
Nearly 90 per cent of it lies upto 6 km of the
atmosphere from the earth’s surface. It is in
this layer of the atmosphere where solid
particles of dust, salt, pollens etc. are held in
suspension. They act as hygroscopic nucleus
with positive charge and entrap the negatively
charged water particles to produce clouds. In
the upper layer of the atmosphere microscopic
dust particles scatter incoming solar rays and
absorb all colours except blue, giving blue
colour to the sky. The larger size particles on
the other hand, are responsible for red and
orange colours at sunrise and sunset.
STRUCTURE
On the basis of the chemical composition, the
atmosphere is divided into two broad layers: —
homosphere and heterosphere. The
homosphere extends upto the height of 90 km.
It is characterised by uniformity in chemical
composition. It consists of three thermal layers
— troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere.
Each sub-layer is separated from the adjoining
layer by a shallow transitional zone identified by
terms ending with “pause” (Table 9.2). The
heterosphere has heterogeneous chemcial
composition with layered structure of
ATMOSPHERE — COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE
nitrogen, oxygen, helium and hydrogen,
respectively (Fig. 9.1).
Homosphere
The lowermost layer of the homosphere is
called troposphere. It is 16 km thick at the
equator and 10 km thick at the poles. The
– – – –
Fig.9.1 : Structure of the Atmosphere
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temperature decreases with altitude
because the atmosphere is heated more by
the heat radiated from the earth’s surface.
In this layer, the temperature decreases
vertically at a rate of 0.65 O C per
100 metres. It is called normal lapse rate.
A minimum of –60 O C is reached at the
Heterosphere
Homosphere
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tropopause. Most of the atmospheric
processes responsible for the weather and
climate conditions take place in this layer.
Above the tropopause is calm and clear air
of the stratosphere. Jet aircraft often fly through
the lower stratosphere because it provides
easiest flying conditions. The total absence of
water vapour in this layer prevents the formation
of clouds, thus, providing finest visibility. Ozone
layer lies within the stratosphere. It is more
abundant in the altitude zone of 20 and 22 km.
The ultraviolet radiation is more plentiful
in the vicinity of 40 to 50 km. Ozone layer
shields the earth from ultraviolet radiation. But
for the Ozone layer, life would have been
impossible on the surface of the earth.
Temperature rises from –600C at the base of the
stratosphere to 00C, at its upper boundary,
called stratopause.
Above the stratopause, is the mesosphere.
The mesosphere extends from 50 to 90 km
altitude. Temperature decreases again with
height in this layer. It reaches a minimum of –
110 0 C at an altitude of 80-90 km in the
mesopause. Mesosphere displays high wispy
clouds in high latitudes during summer due
to reflected sunlight from meteriotic dust
particles.
Table 9.2 : Structure of the Atmosphere
Broad Layers Name of Sub-Layers
HOMOSPHERE Troposphere
Tropopause
Stratosphere
Stratopause
Mesosphere
Mesopause
HETEROSPHERE Thermosphere
Ionosphere Nitrogen layer
Oxygen layer
Helium layer
Hydrogen layer
Exosphere
Magnetosphere
FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Heterosphere
Heterosphere is a layered ther mosphere
extending above the mesopause and continues
to the edge of space. Temperature rises
spectacularly in this layer and reaches 9000 C
at 350 km.
In the lower part of the thermosphere
between 100 to 400 km, ionisation of
atmospheric gases takes place. There is a peak,
concentration of ionized particles at 250 km.
This layer, known as ionosphere, reflects radio
waves. Ionized particles intermittently create a
sheet like display of light called Aurora Borealis
in the northern hemisphere and Aurora
Australis in the southern hemisphere.
In the upper thermosphere there is further
concentration of ions that comprise Van Allen
Radiation belt. Outer most layer is called
exosphere or at times magnetosphere. The
thermosphere has distinct layers of nitrogen,
oxygen, helium and hydrogen at an average
altitude of 200km, 1,100km, 2,600 and
9,600km respectively from the earth’s surface.
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
Weather is the physical condition or state of the
atmosphere at any given time. As these
Altitude (km)
0-16 (at the equator) 0-10 (at the poles).
10 (at poles) to 16 (at equator)
10-16 to 50
50
50-85
85-90
90+
200
1,100
1,700
2,600
9,600
ATMOSPHERE — COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE
conditions change, so also the weather. Thus,
weather of any place is the sum total of its
temperature, pressure, winds, moisture and
precipitation conditions for a short period of a
day or a week.
Climate on the other hand is the composite
weather conditions over a considerable period
of time. It is not just “average weather”. The
deviations from the averages are equally
important. ‘It is not the averages, but extremes
that kill.’
If we wish to gain an accurate picture of
weather and climate of any station we should
look beyond the annual averages and monthly
averages. We should know the day-to-day
extremes too.
The principal elements of weather and
climate are :
• Temperature;
• Pressure and wind;
• Moisture and precipitation.
These are called elements because they are
the ingredients out of which various weather
and climatic types are compounded. The
temperature and precipitation are the main
basic elements to which pressure, winds and
other elements are related. Temperature
expresses intensity of heat. Practically, all of
the heat energy on the earth is the result of
insolation or the incoming solar radiation.
Unequal distribution of temperature over the
earth’s sur face causes dif ferences in
atmospheric pressure, which causes winds. Air
EXERCISES
Review Questions
1. Answer the following questions:
(i) What holds the atmosphere to the earth?
(ii) What is heterosphere?
(iii) Which are the major constituents of clean dry air of atmosphere?
(iv) Which gas of the atmosphere does not take part in chemical reaction?
(v) What are aerosols ?
(vi) Which gas despite its small percentage is crucial in atmospheric processes?
(vii) Why are the water vapour and dust particles important variables of weather and climate?
(viii) What is meant by normal lapse rate?
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moves from regions of high to low pressure areas.
Horizontal motion of the air is known as wind.
Moisture is present in the atmosphere as
water vapour, often condensed into clouds. It
may be precipitated in the form of rain, hail, sleet
or snow. The capacity of air to gather and retain
water vapour is largely dependent on its
temperature. Higher the temperature, the
greater the capacity of air to hold moisture. On
cooling, the air is not able to retain all the
moisture it gathers while warm. This leads to
condensation and precipitation.
From the above statements it is clear that
temperature is the basic element on which
other elements of climate depend. Further, the
operation of elements of weather and climate
are closely interrelated and interdependent.
The climatic elements vary from place to
place due to climatic controls. The climatic
controls are :
• Latitude or insolation;
• Distribution of land and water;
• The great semi permanent high and low
pressure belts;
• Winds;
• Altitude;
• Mountain barriers;
• Ocean currents;
• Storms of various kinds, etc.
These controls acting with various
intensities and in different combinations,
produce changes in temperature and
precipitation, which in turn give rise to a
variety of weather and climates.
62 FUNDAMENTALS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

2. Give a single term for each of the following:

(i) The zone which separates the troposphere from the stratosphere.
(ii) Lower most layer of the atmosphere.
(iii) A useful gas found in small amount in the atmosphere that shields the earth from
ultraviolet rays.
(iv) Sheet like display of light in the northern hemisphere caused by ionized particles in the
atmosphere.
(v) The physical condition or state of the atmosphere at any given time.
3. Write short notes on:
(i) Origin of the atmosphere;
(ii) Homosphere;
(iii) Ionisation of atmospheric gases.
4. Discuss the composition of the atmosphere and the importance of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon
dioxide.
5. Describe the structure of the atmosphere and the main characteristics of each layer.
6. Discuss principal elements of weather and climate and the major climatic controls.