STRUCTURAL DESIGN

SPECIFICATIONS OF OUR LONG RANGE CARGO

AIRCRAFT:
Take-off gross weight

= 212995.7 N

Fuel fraction

= 0.0813

Payload fraction

= 0.4178

Empty Weight Ratio

=0.5

Powerplant weight fraction

Structural Weight fraction of

Wings

Fuselage

Horizontal Tail

Vertical Tail

Cruise Velocity

= 250 m/s

Cruise altitude

=13106.4 m

Wing area

= 343.9 m2

Wing span

=80.29 m

Cruise CL= 0.941; Density at 13106.4 m= 0.262 kg/m3

Chord length at
Wing root

= 3.05 m

Wing tip

=1.525 m
2

Sweepback angle= 32o

CLmax =1.12 ; CLmax = -0.65
Cdo =0.0181 ; k =0.05305; T/W = 0.25

All dimensions are in cm

Wing planform diagram

V-n DIAGRAM

MANEUVERING ENVELOPE:
V-n diagram is used primarily in the determination of combination of
flight conditions and load factors to which the airplane structure must be
designed. It is also helpful in determining the maneuvering capability of
airplane. V-n diagram precisely gives the structural (maximum load factor)
and aerodynamic (maximum CL) boundaries for a particular flight condition.

Fig.1: V-n DIAGRAM FOR MANEUVERING CONDITION

The maximum positive limit load factor is given by the formula

nmax = (L/D)max(T/W)max
(Reference: Fundamentals of Aerodynamics by Anderson J D)
(L/D)max = 1/[(4*0.05305*0.0181)^0.5] = 16.13
nmax= 4.03
Dive velocity is the highest velocity attainable theoretically given by the
formula
Vdiv = 1.5Vcruise = 1.5*250 = 375 m/s
Curve OA:
Point A: Corner velocity is the velocity corresponding to the condition of
smallest possible turn radius and largest possible turn rate. It is the corner point
on the V-n diagram where the structural and aerodynamic boundaries meet
VA = (2*nmax*(W/S))/ CLmax)^0.5 = 198.79 m/s
nA= nmax= 4.03
The load factor along the curve OA is given by the expression
n=L/W = CL*0.5*V2 * /(W/S)
n=2.368*10-4*V2
Substituting for various values of velocity, the load factor values can be
obtained as follows

Velocity (m/s)

Load Factor (n)

20

0.09475

40

0.3788

60

0.8525

80

1.5155

100

2.368

Therefore the OA curve in the V-n diagram is drawn

Line AC:
The velocity at point C is given by the formula
VC= {{[(T/W)*(W/S)]+[(W/S)*((T/W)2-(4*k*CDo))0.5]}/*CDo}0.5
VC= 368.36 m/s
nC=nA
A straight line is drawn to join the points A and C

Line CD:0
The velocity at point D is given by VD=1.5*VC= 552.54 m/s
6

nD= 0.75*nA= 3.0225

A straight line is used to join the points C and D

Line DE: A vertical line is drawn from the point D to meet the V-axis at
point E where E corresponds to zero load factor

Line EF:
VF= VC
nF= -1.8 (for a semi-aerobatic aircraft)
A straight line is drawn to join the points E and F
Curve OG:
The negative load factor along the curve OG is given by the expression
n=L/W = CL*0.5*V2 * /(W/S)
n=-1.374*10-4*V2
Substituting for various values of velocity, the load factor values can be
obtained as follows

Velocity (m/s)

Load Factor (n)

20

-0.05499

40

-0.2198

60

-0.4946

80

-0.8793

100

-1.374

115

-1.8

Therefore the OG curve in the V-n diagram is drawn

Now, G is the point on the curve where the load factor is -1.8
Hence, VG= 115 m/s
Line GF:
A straight line is used to join G and F
Thus the V-n diagram is completed

Maneuvering Envelope
Load factor,
Load factor,
108.26, 4.47
308.16, 4.47

Load factor

Load factor,
462.25, 3.43

Load factor,
462.25, 0

Load factor, 0, 0

Load factor,
86.65, -1.8

Load factor,
308.16, -1.8
Velocity m/s

Stall velocity is the maximum speed at which the aircraft can maintain level
flight. This implies the intersection of this line at cruise n=1with OA curve
corresponds to stall velocity Vs.
Vs = 50 m/s
From the V-n diagram, it is observed that the stall curve corresponds
to maximum value of CLmax and any point beyond this curve for a particular
velocity is not achievable in flight as it enters the stall region there. The
upper horizontal line corresponds to limit load factor as well as ultimate load
factor. It shows that there is outright structural failure when the aircraft is
flown beyond this value of load factor.
n=-1.8 gives the negative limit load factor and negative ultimate load
factor.
From the figure, it is clear that for a particular velocity, it is not
possible to fly at a value of CL higher than the CLmax corresponding to that
velocity. If we wish to increase the lift of the airplane to that value of CLmax,
then we should increase the flying speed of the airplane.
9

GUST ENVELOPE
The effect of turbulence gust is to produce a short time
change in the effective angle of attack. These changes produce a variation in
lift and thereby load factor
The increase in the load factor due to the gust can be calculated by
n+ve = 1+ KUmax Vm/2(W/S) (for curve above V-axis)
n-ve = 1- KUmax Vm/2(W/S) (for curve below V-axis)
where, = density at sea level(kg/m3)
K= gust alleviation factor which can be calculated by K=0.88 /(5.3+
) where is airplane mass ratio given by =2(W/S)/(gcm) where
c=mean aerodynamic chord (13.91 m)
m= lift curve slope (4.159)
g= gravitational constant (9.81m/s2)
Umax= max. gust velocity
From the manual available,
Points

Umax(m/s)

B and G

15

C and F

10

D and E

10

Using the formulae,

= 17.47 and
K= 0.675
The velocities at points C, D, E, F are the same as those at points
C, D, E, F in the Maneuvering envelope
The load factors at the various points can be found using the formula using
the corresponding values of Umax
n B = 1.212
n G= 0.5115
nC = 2.0429
nF = -0.0429
n D = 1.7822
n E = 0.2177

CURVE OB:
The positive load factor along the curve OB is given by the equation

n = L/W = CL*0.5*V2 * /(W/S)

n = 5.648*10-5 *V

11

Velocity (m/s)

Load Factor

20

0.0225

40
60
80
100
120
140

0.09036
0.20332
0.3614
0.5648
0.8133
1.1070

The velocity at B is that corresponding to nB; Hence, VB=146.5 m/s

The curve OB is now drawn

Since the velocities and load factors at C, D, E and F are known, straight
lines are used to join these points in sequence

LINE FG:
VG= VB; Now a straight line is used to join the points G and F

LINE GH:
A straight line is drawn from the point G to the point (1,0) which cuts the OB
curve at H
12

Load factor

Gust Envelope
Load factor,
308.16, 6.1286

Load factor,
462.25, 4.8465

Load factor,
83.12, 2.98277
Load
factor,
0,
Load
factor,
0
83.12,
0.98277
Load factor,
308.16, 4.1286

Load factor,
462.25, 2.8465

Velocity E.A.S m/s

SCHRENKS CURVE:
Lift is a component of the resultant aerodynamic force
acting at the centre of pressure of an aerodynamic chord, along a direction
perpendicular to the direction of the relative wind. At a particular altitude and at
a specific angle of attack, Lift varies along the wing span due to the variation in
chord length along the span. Schrenks curve defines this lift distribution over
the wing span of an aircraft. Since the wings of an aircraft are symmetrical
about the longitudinal axis, the Schrenks curve for the starboard wing alone
can be obtained at first. This is given by
y= (y1+y2)/2
where y1 refers to the linear variation of lift along the wing semi-span
y2 refers to the equivalent elliptic lift distribution along the wing semispan

13

TO FIND y1:
Lift force is found along the line joining the aerodynamic centers of
chords along the wing span. Hence, the wing is rotated about the wing root so
that the line joining the aerodynamic centers becomes the horizontal line.
a= (50.4/cos )
a=(25.242/cos 32O) =30.26
Lift per unit length at wing root = CL*0.5**V2*CR
= 0.941*0.5*0.262*2502*9.11
= 70.18742 KN/m
Lift per unit length at wing tip = CL*0.5**V2*Ct
=0.941*0.5*0.262*2502*7.044
= 35.055 KN/m

70.187
35.055

Equation of this line, y1= -1161.01x + 70187.42

2*Area under y1= Total lift= 3184643.4 N Take off Gross Weight
TO FIND y2:

14

Area of the above quarter ellipse, (*a1*b1/4) = Area enclosed by

y1=159232.748
a1= 30.26
Hence, b1=6699.98 N/m
Equation of this curve is (x/a1)2+(y/b1)2=1
y2= (44889732-49024.04x2)^0.5
Equation of Schrenks curve is given by
y= (y1+y2)/2
y=

(-1161.01x+70187.42+(44889732-

49024.04x2)^0.5)/2
Therefore, for the port wing, replace x by x
y= (-1161.01x+70187.42+(44889732-49024.04x2)^0.5)/2)
Hence, substituting for different values of x, Lift force distribution can be
determined at the required span wise location.

15

TABULATION:
Span wise Location

Lift Force

-30.26

17528.95

-20.26

25821

-10.26

32289.28

-0.26

38292.65

38443.7

0.26

38594.51

10.26

44201.24

20.26

49343.06

30.26

52661.111

16

LIFT (N)
SPANWISE LOCATION (m)

Fig. 1- SCHRENKS CURVE

SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS OF A

WING DUE TO LOADS IN TRANSVERSE DIRECTION AT
CRUISE CONDITION:
The solution methods which follow Eulers beam bending
theory (/y=M/I=E/R) use the bending moment values to determine the stresses
developed at a particular section of the beam due to the combination of
17

aerodynamic and structural loads in the transverse direction. Most engineering

solution methods for structural mechanics problems (both exact and
approximate methods) use the shear force and bending moment equations to
determine the deflection and slope at a particular section of the beam.
Therefore, these equations are to be obtained as analytical expressions in terms
of span wise location. The bending moment produced here is about the
longitudinal (x) axis.
As both the wings are symmetric, let us consider the starboard
wing at first. There are three primary loads acting on a wing structure in
transverse direction which can cause considerable shear forces and bending
moments on it. They are as follows:
Lift force (given by Schrenks curve)
Self-weight of the wing
Weight of the powerplant
LIFT FORCE:
y= (y1+y2)/2
y=

(-1161.01x+70187.42+(44889732-

49024.04x2)^0.5)/2
where y1= -755.4069x + 8926.58374 [Trapezium]
y2= 893.1703 *((68.4177-x2)^0.5) [Ellipse]
This has already been explained under the topic Schrenks curve

18

SELF WEIGHT OF THE WING:

The wing weight varies along the span as the chord length and
thickness decrease on moving from wing root to tip. Hence the spar crosssection should also decrease from root to tip. This implies weight is higher at
the root and it is assumed to decrease parabolically to zero at the tip.
Weight of the wing= 0.05*W0= 104474.39 N
30.26

y0
y3=k*(x-(b/2))2

k*(x-30.26)2 dx = 104474.39 k=11.31

y3= 11.31*(x-30.26)2
The negative sign implies downward load; since this will be taken care of
while finding shear force and bending moment, the sign is omitted.
yx=0 = 10356.2

POWERPLANT WEIGHT:
The powerplant chosen for 15-seater aircraft is P&W JT 15D-4C
Wpp= 0.03*W0= 62684.63 N
19

CURVE/COMPONENT

AREA

CENTROID (from wing root)

ENCLOSED/STRUCTURAL
WEIGHT
Triangle (under y1/2)

531551.69

10.08 m (a/3)

Rectangle(under y1/2)

1060770.049

15.13 m (a/2)

y2/2

159232.719

12.842 m (4a/3)

Wing

104474

7.565 m (a/4)

Powerplant

62684.63

5.26 m

The wing is fixed at one end and free at other end.

1

y2/2

MA

y1/2
A

y3

Powerplant
VA
20

FV=0
159232.719-104474.39-62684.63-VA=0; Hence, VA=-7926.301 N

MA=(159232.719-104474.39-62684.63-VA=0
VA=-7926.301
MA=0
MA=
(5315.169*10.08)-(1060770.049*15.13)+(62684.3*5.550)-(15.9232*7.565)=0
MA-(567672.049)-(16049450.84)+347897.865-2044866.577-790348.76=0
MA=2237336.36 Nm
Shear forces
S.F1-1=
-7926.301+290.2525x2+35093.71x+12706.005[x((915.666x2)^(1/2))]+915.66Sin-1(x/30.26)-104474.39-3.77((x-30.26)3)-62684.63
[0<x<5.26]

AT SECTION 2-2
S.F2-2=
-7926.301+290.2525x2+35093.71x+12706.005[x((915.666x2)^(1/2))]+915.66Sin-1(x/30.26)-104474.39-3.77((x-30.26)3)-62684.63
21

[5.26<x<30.36]

BEAMING MOMENT
B.M1-1
=-7926.301x+2237336.36+96.7508x3+17546.855x2+12706.605x[x((915.66x2)^(1/2))+91566Sin-1(x/30.26)]+8470.67(915.66-x2)1.5+11.31[(x4/12)20.17x3+457.83x2]

[0<X<5.26]

B.M2-2
=-7926.301x+2237336.36+96.7508x3+17546.855x2+12706.605x[x((915.66x2)^(1/2))+91566Sin-1(x/30.26)]+8470.67(915.66-x2)1.5+11.31[(x4/12)20.17x3+457.83x2]
SPAN WING

[5.26<X<30.26]
SHEAR FORCE

BENDING MOMENT

-30.26

419260749.7

449376825.8

-20.26

496745994.5

607829278.5

-10.26

396715724.7

598258783.4

-5.26(engine location)

364128620.6

591402466.3

-0.26

352009662.3

589021511

-70625.77806

236940599.1

0.26

352022525.6

589017384.7

5.26(engine location)

364387761.8

591280844.1

10.26

397215194.9

596526084.8

20.26

497685655.2

602783152.3

30.26

420548944.7

437823358.5

DIRRECTION

22

600000000

SHEAR FORCE

496683309.8

419198065.1

500000000

497622970.5

397152510.2

400000000
396653040.1

420486260.1

352022525.6
364387761.8
364128620.6
352009662.3

300000000

SHEAR FORCE

200000000

100000000

0
-40

-30

-20

-10

-70625.77806

10

20

30

40

-1E+08

BENDING MOMENT
700000000
600000000
500000000
400000000
BENDING MOMENT

300000000
200000000
100000000
0
-40

-20

20

40

23

SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS DUE

TO LOADS ALONG CHORDWISE DIRECTION AT CRUISE
CONDITION:
SPECIFICATIONS:
Cruise CL=0.941
Cruise CD= 0.02
Angle of attack=4.73o
Angle of attack at zero lift= -0.3o
Wing lift curve slope= 0.0726
Co-efficient of moment about aerodynamic center= -0.098
Location of aerodynamic center= 0.264c
Location of shear center= 0.3c
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT:
Lift and Drag are the components of resultant aerodynamic force
acting normal to and along the direction of relative wind respectively. As a
result, components of them act in the chordwise direction also which produce a
bending moment about the normal
CL (z) axis.

CD

Vrelative
CC

Co-efficient of force along the normal direction, Cn= CL cos + CD sin

24

Cn= 0.941 cos (4.73O) + 0.02 sin (4.73O)

Cn= 0.9393
Co-efficient of force along the chordwise direction, CC= -CL sin + CD cos
CC= 0.941 sin (73O) + 0.02 cos (4.73 O)
CC= 0.097521
Therefore, force per unit length= CC*0.5**V2*c
Let x represent the spanwise location from the wing tip to root
Hence, force per unit length at the wing root
= CC*0.5**V2*cR

(x=25.242m)

= 7273.9085 N/m
Force per unit length at the wing tip (x=0)

= CC*0.5**V2*cT
= 3632.962 N/m

Equation of force per unit length is linear: in the form y=mx+c

where, slope m= (7273.9085-3632.962)/25.242 =144.241
x=0, y=3632.962 c=3632.962
Hence, y=144.241x+3632.962
On integrating over a length dx, Shear force over the segment can be obtained
Shear force over

= (144.241x2)/2)+ 202.882x 1

On integrating again over the length dx, bending moment over the segment can
be obtained
25

= 10.7039x3+101.441x2 2

Bending moment over

These equations can be used to obtain the shear force and bending moment
values at a particular spanwise location
S.NO

SHEAR FORCE

BENDING MOMENT

19967.822

48.417

5.26

20160.211

53756.2

10.26

44866.142

217180.785

15.26

72233.52

508426.910

20.26

103206.89

945524.59

25.242

137655.42

1544024.87

SHEAR FORCE
1800000
1600000
1400000
1200000
1000000
800000

SHEAR FORCE

600000
400000
200000
0
-200000 0

10

15

20

25

30

26

BENDING MOMENT
1800000
1600000
1400000
1200000
1000000
800000

BENDING MOMENT

600000
400000
200000
0
-200000 0

10

20

30

TORQUE DUE TO NORMAL FORCES AND CONSTANT PITCHING

MOMENT AT CRUISE CONDITION:
DEFINITIONS:
Aerodynamic center- This is a point on the chord of an airfoil section where the
bending moment due to the components of resultant aerodynamic force (Lift
and Drag) is constant irrespective of the angle of attack. Hence the forces are
transferred to this point for obtaining constant Ma.c
Shear center- This is a point on the airfoil section where if a force acts, it
produces only bending and no twisting. Hence the force is transferred to this
point and the torque is found
TORQUE:

CL

MCa.cD
s.c
Vrelative

s.c

a.c
0.25c
0.35c

27

The angle of attack at cruise condition is -0.75o and the relative wind
direction is along the horizontal during cruise condition
L

s.c.

Vrelative

Chord direction
D

0.25c

0.35c

The lift and drag forces produce a moment on the surface of crosssection of the wing, otherwise called a torque, about the shear center. Moment
about the aerodynamic center gets transferred to the shear center. The
powerplant also produces a torque about the shear center on the chord under
which it is located.
TORQUE DUE TO NORMAL FORCES:
Torque= Fn* (0.264c-0.3c)
Torque per unit length = Cn*0.5**V2*c*0.1*c
= 769c2
c is a function of x; c=mx+k
slope, m= (9.11-4.55)/25.242= 0.1813
x=0 c=4.55 m
c= 0.1813x + 4.55
Therefore, torque= 769.05 (0.1813x +4.55)2dx

Limits: 0<x<25.15

Torque, T1 = 8.4x3+615.68x2+15919.3x
TORQUE DUE TO CHORDWISE FORCES:
Torque/unit length (T2) = FC*0= 0
28

TORQUE DUE TO Ma.c:

Ma.c. per unit length= CMa.c.*0.5**V2*c*c
= -0.098*0.5*0.262*2502*c2
Torque per unit length = -802.375c2
Therefore, torque (T3) = -912.6621175 (0.1813x +4.55)2dx

Limits:

0<x<7.37
Torque (T3) = -8.78x3-330.775x2-16611.01x

TORQUE DUE TO POWERPLANT:

The powerplant is situated under a chord (0.87 m from the wing root;
chord length = 12.121 m) from 0.1c to 0.4c. An UDL of 2937.1802 N/m is
assumed to be present for this 0.94206 m since the powerplant weight is 2767
N. the centroid of the applied UDL is at 0.25c.
Torque produced about shear center= 62684.63*0.1*c = 78825.92Nm

29

TOTAL TORQUE:
Torque= -0.38x3-284.885x2-691.71x 3
SPAN WING

TORQUE DUE

TORQUE DUE

TORQUE

LENGTH

TO

TO

EQUATION

AERODYNAMIC CHORDWISE
CENTRE
0

96038.5

-75883.2

3616.075

5.26(Engine loc..) 101992.4

-79499.9

4188.388

10.26

237215.6

-145092

22481.8

15.26

416150.3

-207657

54434.64

20.26

645096.7

-273782

99761.91

25.242

929219.3

-349749

157945.2

1000000

TORQUE DUE TO AERODYNAMIC

800000
CENTER
600000

400000

200000

0
0

10

20

30

30

TORQUE DUE TO CHORDWISE

0
-50000

10

15

20

25

30

20

25

30

-100000
-150000
-200000
-250000
-300000
-350000
-400000

TORQUE
180000
160000
140000
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
0

10

15

CRITICAL FLIGHT CONDITION:

Optimum Wing structural design consists of determining that
stiffness distribution which is proportional to the local load distribution. The
aerodynamic forces of lift and drag are resolved into components normal and
31

parallel to the wing chord. The distribution of shear force, bending moment and
torque over the aircraft wing are considered for wing structural analysis.
Identification of critical points from the maneuvering and gust envelopes:
1. Maneuvering envelope
Point

Load factor

E.A.S. (m/s)

4.03

198.79

4.03

368.36

3.02

552.54

552.54

-1.8

368.36

-1.8

115

2. Gust envelope
Point

Load factor

E.A.S. (m/s)

1.212

146.5

2.0429

368.36

1.7822

552.54

0.2177

552.54

-0.0429

368.36

0.5115

146.5

32

Corner points are representative of critical flight load conditions a

summary is given below.
Critical flight condition

Point (n, E.A.S.)

n max point

C (2.0429, 368.36 )

Positive H.A.A.

A (4.03, 198.79 )

Positive L.A.A

D (3.02, 552.54)

Negative H.A.A

G (-1.8,115)

Negative L.A.A

E (0.2177, 552.54)

SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS OF A WING DUE

TO NORMAL FORCES AT CRITICAL FLIGHT CONDITION:
In the preliminary stage of structural analysis, the critical
flight loading condition of positive high angle of attack (represented by point A
in V-n diagram) will be investigated.
nA= 4.03; VA=198.79 m/s; CL=1.12
Therefore, LA=1.12*0.5*1.2256*198.262*343.9= 9277675.082 N;
In steady flight, L= 0.941*0.5*0.262*2502*343.9= 2649556.056 N
Proportionality factor, k= LA/L= 3.50
33

The aim is to find the shear forces and bending moments due to
normal forces in critical flight condition. There are three primary loads acting
on a wing structure in transverse direction which can cause considerable shear
forces and bending moments on it. They are as follows:
Lift force (given by Schrenks curve)
Self-weight of the wing
Weight of the powerplant
Now, the proportionality constant influences the lift force alone and other
factors remain unaffected.

CURVE/COMPONENT AREA

CENTROID(FROM

ENCLOSED/STRUCTURE WIND ROOM)

WEIGHT
Triangle

3.50*531551.69

10.08

Rectangle

3.50*1060770.049

15.13

3.50*159232.719

12.842

Wing

104474.39

7.565

Power Plant

62684.63

5.26

fv=0
(4.350*159232.719)-104474.39-62684.63-VA = 0
Here VA = 390155.49 N

34

MA=0
MA+3.50*(-(531551.69*10.08)-1060770.49*15.13)-(159232.719*12.842) +
(62684.63*5.26)+104474.39*7.565
MA= -22332295.2 N m
SHEAR FORCE
AT SECTION 1-1
SF1-1 = -390155.49+350

+25412.01((915.16-x2)

^0.5

SF1-1=-390155.49+350(-290.25x2+35093.71x)+12706.05(x(915.66-x2)^0.5+
915.66Sin-1(x/30.26)-104474.39+3.77(X-30.26)3)

[0<x<5.26]

S.F2-2= -390155.49+350*(-290.25x2+35093.71x)+12706.05(x(915.66-x2)^0.5) +
915.66Sin-1(x/30.26)-104474.39+3.77(X-30.26)^3-62684.63

[5.26<X<30.26]

B.M1-1=
390155.49x-22332295.21+350(96.75x3)+17546.855x2+12706x(x((915.66x2)^0.5)+
915.66 Sin-1(x/30.26))+8460.67(915.66-x2)^1.5)+11.31((x4/12)-20.17x3+457.83x2)
[0<x<5.26]

B.M2-2=
390155.49x-22332295.21+350(96.75x3)+17546.855x2+12706x(x((915.66x2)^0.5)+
35

915.66 Sin-1(x/30.26))+8460.67(915.66-x2)^1.5)+11.31((x4/12)-20.17x3+457.83x2)
[5.26<x<22.01]

SPAN WISE

SHEAR FORCE

BENDING MOMENT

-494615.0329

60220475.85

14287692509647.20

5.26

63240195.75

14963161631584.20

10.26

118454054.2

25445508007602.60

15.26

168277456

29269099547641.30

20.26

212377531.1

24731577028376.20

25.242

250110918.2

12612917471809.40

SHEAR FORCE
300000000
250000000
200000000
150000000
SHEAR FORCE
100000000
50000000
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

-50000000

36

BENDING MOMENT
35000000000000.00
30000000000000.00
25000000000000.00
20000000000000.00
BENDING MOMENT

15000000000000.00
10000000000000.00
5000000000000.00
0.00
0

10

20

30

SHEAR FORCE, BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAMS OF A WING

DUE TO CHORDWISE FORCES AT CRITICAL FLIGHT
CONDITION:
In the preliminary stage of structural analysis, the critical flight loading
condition of positive high angle of attack (represented by point A in V-n
diagram) will be investigated.
nA= 4.03; VA=198.79 m/s; CL=1.12
SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT:
Lift and Drag are the components of resultant aerodynamic force
acting normal to and along the direction of relative wind respectively. As a
result, components of them act in the chordwise direction also which produce a
bending moment about the normal
CL (z) axis.

CD

Vrelative
CC
37

CL= a*(-0)
a=0.0726; CL= 1.12; 0= -0.3o hence, = 15.12o
Co-efficient of force along the normal direction, Cn= CL cos + CD sin
Cn= 1.12 cos (15.12O) + 0.0189 sin (15.12O)
Cn= -0.9257
Co-efficient of force along the chordwise direction, CC= -CL sin + CD cos
CC= 1.12 sin (15.12) + 0.0189 cos (15.12)
CC= 0.3103
Therefore, force per unit length= CC*0.5**V2*c
Let x represent the spanwise location from the wing tip to root
Hence, force per unit length at the wing root
(x=25.242 m)

= CC*0.5**V2*cR
= -69046.22 N/m

Force per unit length at the wing tip (x=0)

= CC*0.5**V2*cT
= -34485.217 N/m

Equation of force per unit length is linear: in the form y=mx+c

where, slope m= (-69046.22+34485.217)/25.242 = -1369.18
x=0, y= -34485.217 c= -34485.217
Hence, y= -1369.18x-34485.217
On integrating over a length dx, Shear force over the segment can be obtained
38

Shear force over

= -684.59x2-34485.217x 1

On integrating again over the length dx, bending moment over the segment can
be obtained
Bending moment over

= -228.19x3-17242.61x2 2

SPAN WISE

SHEAR FORCE

BENDING MOMENT

25.242

-1134242.14

-14656292.1

20.242

-978552.68

-8957553.694

15.242

-684666.64

-4813799.1

10.242

-425010.1

-2053885.76

5.26

-200333.20

-510270.48

0.26

-9012.43

-1169.611

SHEAR FORCE
200000.00
0.00
-5.00 0.00
-200000.00

5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00

-400000.00
SHEAR FORCE
-600000.00
-800000.00
-1000000.00
-1200000.00

39

BENDING MOMENT
2000000.00
0.00
-10.00
0.00
-2000000.00

10.00

20.00

30.00

-4000000.00
-6000000.00

BENDING MOMENT

-8000000.00
-10000000.00
-12000000.00
-14000000.00
-16000000.00

TORQUE DUE TO NORMAL FORCES AND CONSTANT PITCHING

MOMENT AT CRITICAL FLIGHT CONDITION:
CL

MCa.cD
s.c
Vrelative

s.c

a.c
0.25c
0.35c

The angle of attack at critical flight condition is 10.125o

Cn
s.c.

Vrelative

CC
0.25c
0.35c

Relative wind direction

D
Chord direction

The normal and chordwise forces produce a moment on the surface

of cross-section of the wing, otherwise called a torque, about the shear center.
40

Moment about the aerodynamic center gets transferred to the shear center. The
powerplant also produces a torque about the shear center on the chord under
which it is located.

TORQUE DUE TO NORMAL FORCES:

Torque= Fn * (0.264c-0.3c)
Torque per unit length = Cn*0.5**V2*c*0.1*c
= -757.916c2
c is a function of x; c=mx+k
slope, m= (9.11-4.55)/25.242= 0.181
x=0 c=4.55 m
c= 0.181x + 4.55
Therefore, torque= -757.916 (0.181x + 4.55)2dx

Limits: 0<x<7.37

Torque (T1) = -[8.27x3+312.072x2+15690.38x

TORQUE DUE TO CHORDWISE FORCES:

Torque/unit length (T2) = FC*0 = 0
TORQUE DUE TO Ma.c:
Ma.c. per unit length= CMa.c.*0.5**V2*c*c
= -0.098*0.5*0.2422*2502*c2
Torque per unit length = -741.125c2
41

Therefore, torque= -741.145 (0.181x + 4.55)2dx

Limits: 0<x<7.37

Torque (T3) = -8.09x3-312.07x2-15342.76x

TORQUE DUE TO POWERPLANT:
The powerplant is situated under a chord (5.26 m from the wing root;
chord length 3.05 m) from 0.1c to 0.4c. An UDL of 2937.1802 N/m is assumed
to be present for this 0.94206 m since the powerplant weight is 2767 N. The
centroid of the applied UDL is at 0.25c.
TOTAL TORQUE:
Torque produced about shear center= 62684.63*0.1*c =78825.92 Nm
Torque= T1+T2+T3
= -[16.36x3+624.14x2+31033.14x ] 3 Limits: 0<x<7.37;x6.5

For x=6.5(i.e., c=3.05 m),

Torque=10761.72523-868.89334= 9892.831891 Nm
1 , 2 and 3 equations are used to tabulate the shear force,
bending moment and torque for various values of x (spanwise location) for
starboard wing
The plots are symmetrical for port wing
In the following table and plot, x=0root and x=7.37tip of starboard wing

42

SPAN WISE

TORQUE DUE

TORQUE DUE

TORQUE

TO NORMAL

TO Ma.c (N m)

(N m)

FORCE (N m)
0

0.26

-4100.740221

-4010.355722

-8111.095807

5.26

-92369.2282

-90514.49598

-182883.6688

10.26

-202766.3462

-199005.1462

-401771.2819

15.26

-341494.5942

-335549.8065

-677043.9349

20.26

-514756.4721

-506215.9768

-1020971.628

25.242

-727903.6234

-716232.7568

-1444135.106

TORQUE DUE TO NORMAL FORCE

100000
0
-5
0
-100000

10

15

20

25

30

-200000
-300000
-400000

TORQUE DUE TO
NORMAL FORCE

-500000
-600000
-700000
-800000

43

TORQUE DUE TO AERODYNAMIC

CENTER
100000
0
-5
-100000 0

10

15

20

25

30

-200000
TORQUE DUE TO
AERODYNAMIC
CENTER

-300000
-400000
-500000
-600000
-700000
-800000

TORQUE
200000
0
-5
0
-200000

10

15

20

25

30

-400000
-600000
-800000

TORQUE

-1000000
-1200000
-1400000
-1600000

44

MATERIAL SELECTION
Several factors influence the choice of a material for different parts of an
aircraft. High Strength to weight is the chief among them. Other factors include
stiffness, toughness, resistance to fatigue, corrosion resistance, ease of
fabrication, availability, consistency of supply and of course cost. The main
groups of materials used have been wood, steel, aluminium alloys, titanium
alloys and fibre reinforced composites. Let us have a birds eye view of the
different categories of materials used.

WOOD:
The first generation of aircrafts was fabricated with wood and canvas.
The strength to weight ratio of the Spruce and birch varieties of wood used was
moderately high and equal to that of the present day heat treated aluminium
alloys. The effect of moisture and humidity made the use of wood less advisable
as it caused inconsistency in the properties of the material. Changes in shape
and dimensions also resulted. Though wood was made use in the manufacture
of wing spars for its good properties, the increased wing loadings and complex
structural forms of turbo jets has brought its usage to an end.

STEEL:
Steel delivered high modulus of elasticity, high proof stress and high
tensile strength to the manufacturer. However, it exhibited very high specific
gravity which limited its usage. Thin walled, box section spars were fabricated
using steel. Carbon present in steel though produces necessary hardening,
causes brittleness and distortion. So, a new family called maraging steels were
manufactured involving either no or very less carbon content in it. Typical
45

maraging steel would have these elements present in the proportions: nickel 1719%, cobalt 8-9%, molybdenum 3-3.5% and titanium 0.15-0.25%. The cost of
manufacture of maraging steel is very high, about three times that of the
conventional one. Arrestor hooks, rocket motor casings, helicopter under
carriages, gears and ejector seats are few components manufactured using
maraging steel.
ALUMINIUM ALLOYS:

The three major groups of aluminium alloys used for airframe

construction are Nickel free duralumin, derivatives of Y alloy and the
aluminium-zinc-magnesium group. The type of alloy used varies for different
requirements of the aircraft and also on the type of aircraft used. But the major
disadvantage of aluminium alloys is that one property is increased by sacrificing
many other properties. For instance, the duralumin alloys possess a lower static
strength than the zinc-bearing alloy, but are preferred for portions of the
structure where fatigue considerations are of primary importance such as the
under-surfaces of wings where tensile fatigue loads predominate.

TITANIUM ALLOYS:
Titanium alloys are mostly used in combat aircrafts than in transport
aircrafts. They possess high fatigue strength to tensile strength ratio, good
corrosion and fatigue resistance. But exposure to temperature and presence of
salt environment greatly affect these properties. Moreover high density imposes
weight constraints on the material.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS:
Composite materials consist of strong fibers such as glass and carbon set
in a matrix of plastic or resin. They are mechanically and chemically protective.
They have very high strength to weight ratios. Weight saving is a major
46

advantage while using composite materials. However, failure of a composite is

not clearly defined yet and also repair of this class of materials is still a topic
under study. This is an emerging class of materials.

Material AISI 5

6A1-4V

Inconel 8 Mn

A261A

7075

alloy Cr-

Titanium X

Titanium Mg

Al

steel Mo-

alloy

alloy

Alloy

Alloy

4340 V

Nickel
Alloy

Steel
Ftu ksi

260

280

130

155

120

39

79

Fty ksi

217

240

120

100

110

24

69

Fcu ksi

242

260

125

105

110

14

69

Fsy ksi

149

170

80

108

84

19

47

e%

10

10

20

10

E *106

29

30

16

31

15.5

6.3

10.3

29

30

16.4

31

16

6.3

10.5

0.304

0.171

0.0647

0.101

Sheet

Sheet,

Extruded Sheet,

plate

bar

psi
Ec *106
psi
w lb in-3 0.283 0.281 0.16
Form

Bar

Bar

Bar

plate

From the above table, based on the strength to weight ratio, 7075 Al Alloy is the
best suited material for the wing spar design as well as the aircraft skin.

47

DETAILED WING DESIGN

SPAR DESIGN:
Spars are members which are basically used to carry the bending and
shear loads acting on the wing during flight. There are two spars, one located
at 15-25% of the chord known as the front spar, the other located at 60-70% of
the chord known as the rear spar. Some of the functions of the spar include:
They form the boundary to the fuel tank located in the wing.
The spar flange takes up the bending loads whereas the web carries the
shear loads.
The rear spar provides a means of attaching the control surfaces on the
wing.
Considering these functions, the locations of the front and rear spar are
fixed at 0.175c and 0.758985c respectively. The AG04 airfoil is drawn to scale
using any design software and the chord thickness at the front and rear spar
locations are found to be 0.356m and 0.134m respectively.
The spar design for the wing root has been taken because the maximum
bending moment and shear force are at the root. It is assumed that the flanges
take up all the bending and the web takes all the shear effect. The maximum
bending moment for high angle of attack condition is 750527.6785 Nm. the
ratio in which the spars take up the bending moment is given as
(Mfr/Mr) = (h12/h22) = (0.3562/0.1342) = 7.05814
Mfr+Mr = 750527.6785 Nm
From the above two equations, Mfr = 657388.6069 Nm, Mr = 93139.07161 Nm
The yield tensile stress y for 7075 Al Alloy is 455.053962 MPa. The area of the
flanges is determined using the relation
y = Mz/(A*z2)
where M is bending moment taken up by each spar,
A is the flange area of each spar,
48

z is the centroidal distance of the area = h/2.

Using the available values,
Area of front spar Afr = 81.15948 cm2, Area of rear spar Ar = 30.5488 cm2
Each flange of the spar is made of two angle sections. For the front spar,
the length of the angle is 6t, angle height is 5t with angle thickness t. Area for
each angle of front spar is found to be 20.288 cm2 and hence value of t is found
to be 1.455947 cm.
Front spar - Dimensions of each angle:
Length = 8.735682 cm
Height = 7.27974 cm
Thickness = 1.455947 cm.

0.4373
9

8.7356

1.45594
7

All dimensions are in cm

(not to scale)

For the rear spar, the length of the angle is 8t, angle height is 3.5t with
vertical thickness t and horizontal thickness t/2. Area for each angle of rear
spar is found to be 7.6372 cm2 and hence value of t is found to be 0.911295
cm.
Rear spar - Dimensions of each angle:
Length = 7.290366 cm
49

Height = 3.1895 cm
Thickness = 0.911295 cm.

0.31

0.91129
All dimensions are in cm
(not to scale)
7.29086
6

Now to determine the thickness of the web portion, the ultimate shear
stress of 7075 Al Alloy is 317.1588MPa. The maximum shear force at root of
the wing for high angle of attack condition is 208534.7879 N. The wing chord is
assumed to be a simply supported beam supported at the two spars. The
maximum shear force acts at the centre of pressure which is located at
0.2982c.
V
0.1232c

0.585c

Vfr

Vr

Considering force and moment equilibriums for the given simply supported
configuration, the reactive shear force at the spar supports are found to be
Vfr = 164617.718 N and Vr = 43917.06986 N.
We know that, = (V*Q)/(I*t)
V : shear force at the spar
50

Q = A*z
I = A*z2
t : thickness of the web.
Thus, (ult/FOS) = V/(z*t)
FOS = 1.5
z is the centroidal distance of the area = h/2
Thus the thickness of the web portions are, tfr = 4.3739 mm, tr = 3.1 mm.
It becomes necessary to check whether the shear stress due to this thickness is
less than the allowable of the material.

For the web, the dimensions of a and b will be a = 0.6( rib spacing) and b = spar
height.the value of ks is obtained using a/b from the given plot fig C 5.11, ks is
obtained and thus the actual shear stress in each web.
fr w = 67.1679 MPa
r w = 196.118 MPa
Both these values are less than 211.4392 MPa. Thus, the web does not fail due
to shear buckling.
SHEAR FLOW:
The shear flow can be considered for the two cells in the airfoil cross
section. The shear flow wil be due to the torque as well due to the bending
moments. These are computed separately and summed up to obtain the net
shear flow pattern for the wing cross section.

51

Due to torque,
T = 2*A*Q
A : area of each cell
Q : shear flow due to the torque
The maximum torque experienced at the root of the wing is -25338 Nm.

52

Using any design software, the areas and perimeters of the cells in the airfoil
formed by the spars and the skin are found to be,
Cell1 A1 = 0.165 m2
Cell2 A2= 0.5478 m2
Cell3 A3= 0.05757 m2
l1 = 0.682 m, l2 = 0.356 m, l3 = 0.633 m, l4 = 2.007 m, l5 = 2.001 m, l6 = 0.134
m, l7 = 0.834, l8 = 0.825.
l1, l2, l3 belong to cell1, l3, l4, l5, l6 belong to cell2, l6, l7 and l8 to cell3. l2 and
l6 are the spars.
The equations for the two cells involving shear flow of cell1 q1 and shear flow
of cell2 q2 are
T = 2A1*q1 + 2A2*q2
{(l1+l2+l3)/A1 + (l2/A2)}*q1+{(l2/A1) + (l2+l4+l5+l6)}q2 = 0
The second equation is obtained from the condition that the cell twist is zero.
Solving these equations, we get shear flow values due to torque alone.
q1t = -17251.45589 N/m ; q2t = -17931.19711 N/m
The shear flow due to bending is given by the formula,

Vx = 12070.64544 N (shear force due to chordwise forces)

Vy = 208534.7879 N (shear force due to normal forces)

flang

A*x

A*y

x_c

y_c

A*xc2

A*yc2

A*xc*yc

F_U

0.599

0.254

0.00405

0.0024307

0.0010307

-0.546548

0.184015

0.001212

0.00013
7

-0.000408

53

F_L

0.599

-0.102

0.00405

0.0024307

-0.000413

-0.546548

0.171984

0.0012121

0.00012
00

0.000381
4

R_U

2.598

0.121

0.00152
7

0.0039671
46

0.0001847
67

1.4524515
67

0.051015
04

0.0032213
83

3.974E-6

0.000113
1

R_L

2.598

-0.013

0.00152

0.0039671

0.0000198

1.4524515

0.082984

0.0032213

1.0515E-

-0.000184

0.01117

0.0127957

0.0007817

0.0088671

0.00027
1

-9.758E-5

siA

siAx

siAy

Iyy

Ixx

Ixy

xc = 1.145548433 m ; Yc = 0.06998496 m
cell1

x_c

y_c

A*xc

A*yc

si_A*xc

si_A*yc

F_U

0.004058

0.546548433

0.18401504

-0.002217894

0.000746733

F_L

0.004058

0.546548433

0.17198496

-0.002217894

-0.000697915

0.00221789

0.00069791

559496.491
3

cell2

x_c

y_c

A*xc

A*yc

si_A*xc

si_A*yc

R_U

0.001527

1.452451567

0.05101504

0.002217894

7.79E-05

F_U

0.004058

0.546548433

0.18401504

-0.002217894

0.000746733

0.00221789

0.00074673

553458.147

F_L

0.004058

0.546548433

0.17198496

-0.002217894

-0.000697915

0.00443578

4.88181E05

6038.34365

R_L

0.001527

1.452451567

0.08298496

0.002217894

-0.000126718

0.00221789

-7.79E-05

81837.8722

From the table, the following equations are formed,

(l1+l2+l3)q1 (l2*q2) = -396211.8515
-(l2*q1) + (l2+l4+l5+l6)q2 = -681451.2859
The shear flows are thus obtained as follows,
q1b = -274007.57 N/m
q2b = -173187.6347 N/m
Thus the net shear flow pattern for the wing section is obtained as follows,
54

cell1

q_total N

F_U

-291259.0259

F_L

268237.4654

cell2

q_total N

R_U

-191118.8318

F_U

-744576.9794

F_L

-185080.4882

R_L

-109280.9596

The shear flow distribution for each segments of the cells are as follows
q in l1

-291259.0259

q in l2

-1012814.445

q in l3

-291259.0259

q in l4

-191118.8318

q in l5

-185080.4882

q in l6

-109280.9596

cr = (2*E*ks/(12*(1-2))*(t/b)2
E : 7.24e10 ; = 0.3 ; b = rib spacing = 0.6 m ( for transport aircraft ) ;
A : length of the cell containing critical shear flow : 0.682 m
ks : fn(a/b) = 9 (from fig C 5.11)
cr is found in terms of t2
Using relation, cr = q/t; we get t3 = 1.78055e-7
Skin thickness t = 5.625805 mm
STRINGER DESIGN:
The thickness of the skin determined above is too high for the skin of an
aircraft. Therefore in order to reduce skin thickness and redistribute the shear
55

flow in the wing skin, stringers are added. The number of stringers can be
determined by evaluating the amount by which the skin thickness should be
reduced. Roughly 25 stringers can be added to the wing, 13 on the upper
surface of the airfoil and 12 on the lower surface of the airfoil. The stringer
cross section is chose from the standard cross sections available in Analysis of
Aircraft structures Bruhn. The Z cross section is chosen and scaled up or down
determining the critical stress in each stringer and iterating if it is less than the
critical buckling stress of the stringer cross section.

Stringer distribution
The stress of each stringer is found using the formula,
=

stringer

A*x

A*y

xc

yc

A*xc2

A*yc2

A*xc*yc

0.0004

-1.2021

0.0729184

0.0006046

2.2249E06

3.6679E05

0.11758

0.1297

0.0004

4.92E5

5.4305E-05

-1.0845

0.0568615

0.0004921

1.3529E06

-2.5804E-5

0.31117

0.2066

0.0004

0.0001

8.6475E-05

-0.8909

0.1337415

0.0003321

7.4846E06

-4.9860E-5

0.5163

0.2455

0.0004

0.0002

0.0001027
6

-0.6858

0.1726615

0.0001968

1.2474E05

-4.955E-05

56

F_U

0.599

0.254

0.0040

0.0024

0.0010306
3

-0.6031

0.1810815

0.0014759

0.0001330

0.0004431

0.72434

0.2641

0.0004

0.0003

0.0001105
1

-0.4777

0.1911815

9.5519E05

1.5294E05

-3.8221E-5

0.93318

0.2698

0.0004

0.0003

0.0001129
0

-0.2689

0.1968915

3.0265E05

1.6221E05

-2.2157E-5

1.14199

0.2669

0.0004

0.0004

0.0001116
8

-0.0601

0.1939815

1.5129E06

1.5745E05

-4.8807E-6

1.35113

0.2570

0.0004

0.0005

0.0001075
6

0.1490
0

0.1841415

9.2911E06

1.4188E05

1.1481E05

1.55918

0.2423

0.0004

0.0006

0.0001014
1

0.3570
5

0.1694515

5.3348E05

1.2015E05

2.5317E05

10

1.76734

0.2234

0.0004

0.0007

9.3518E-05

0.5652
1

0.1505715

0.0001336

9.4868E06

3.5612E05

11

1.97488

0.2021

0.0004

0.0008

8.4601E-05

0.7727
5

0.1292615

0.0002498

6.9916E06

4.1797E05

12

2.18231

0.1764

0.0004

0.0009

7.3847E-05

0.9801
8

0.1035615

0.0004020

4.4878E06

4.2476E05

13

2.3895

0.1498

0.0004

0.001

6.2683E-05

1.1873
7

0.0768815

0.0005899

2.4733E06

3.8198E05

R_U

2.598

0.121

0.0015

0.0039

0.0001848
2

1.3958
7

0.0480815

0.0029761

3.5311E06

0.0001025

R_L

2.598

-0.013

0.0015

0.0039

-1.985E-05

1.3958
7

0.0859184

0.0029761

1.1275E05

0.0001831

14

2.56522

0.0149

0.0004

0.0010

-6.2478E-6

1.3630
9

0.0878484

0.0007774

3.2292E06

-5.0107E-5

15

2.35098

0.0190

0.0004

0.0009

-7.971E-06

1.1488
5

0.0919684

0.0005522

3.5392E06

-4.4214E-5

16

2.136

0.0251

0.0004

0.0008

-1.0540E-5

0.9338
7

0.0981084

0.0003649

4.0276E06

-3.8338E-5

17

1.92221

0.0333

0.0004

0.0008

-1.3938E-5

0.7200
8

0.1062284

0.0002169

4.7219E06

-3.2008E-5

18

1.70794

0.0432

0.0004

0.0007

-1.8089E-5

0.5058
1

0.1161484

0.0001070

5.6450E06

-2.4583E-5

19

1.49376

0.0547

0.0004

0.0006

-2.2901E-5

0.2916
3

0.1276484

3.5590E05

6.8181E06

-1.5577E-5

20

1.2296

0.0673

0.0004

0.0005

-2.8173E-5

0.0274
7

0.1402484

3.1598E07

8.2306E06

-1.6126E-6

21

1.06548

0.0801

0.0004

0.0004

-3.3546E-5

-0.1366

0.1530884

7.8125E06

9.8067E06

8.7530E06

22

0.85129

0.0004

0.0003

-3.8450E-5

-0.3508

5.1502E-

1.1365E-

2.4194E-

57

0.0918

0.1648084

05

05

05

23

0.63714

0.1028

0.0004

0.0002

-4.303E-05

-0.5649

0.1757684

0.0001335

1.2927E05

4.1553E05

F_L

0.599

-0.102

0.0040

0.0024

-0.0004139

-0.6031

0.1749184

0.0014761

0.0001241

0.0004281

24

0.42261

0.1054

0.0004

0.0001

-4.4137E-5

-0.7795

0.1783984

0.0002542

1.3317E05

5.8190E05

25

0.20849

0.0945

0.0004

8.7E05

-3.9572E-5

-0.9936

0.1674884

0.0004131

1.1738E05

6.9638E05

sigAx = .021632 ; sigAy = .026004 ; sigAxy = .005177342

Pcrit = (2*E*I)/L2 = 148601.7168 N
buck = Pcrit / A = 355128775.8 N/m2
Thus the section satisfying iterations has the following properties, A = 1.37e-4,
I = 8.07e-9, scale factor n = 1.745, Stringer area = 4.18e-4, I stringer = 7.49e-8
M_x = -750527.6875Nm, M_y = 36497.24344 Nm
V_x = 12070.64544 N, V_y = 208534.7879 N
The shear flow for each section is determined using the formula,

Cell1

area

xc

yc

Axc

Ayc

si_Axc

si_Ayc

elem leng

q_open

q*l

0.000418445

-1.2021

-0.07292

-5e-3

-3.0512E-5

-0.00050

-3.05123E-5

0.175122542

14298.86981

2504.054432

0.000418445

-1.0845

0.056862

-0.0004

2.3793E-05

-0.00095

-6.71891E-6

0.208296957

5245.211269

1092.561549

0.000418445

-0.8909

0.133742

-0.0003

5.5963E-05

-0.00133

4.92445E-5

0.208789567

-17770.6944

-3710.335593

0.000418445

-0.6858

0.172662

-0.0002

7.2243E-05

-0.00161

0.000121494

0.083127531

-47965.9760

-3987.293156

F_U

0.00040576

-0.6031

0.181082

-0.0002

7.3477E-05

-0.00186

0.000194969

0.356

-78790.5708

-28049.44321

F_L

0.00040576

-0.6031

-0.17492

-0.0002

-7.0974E-5

-0.00210

0.000123995

0.176424325

-47822.9015

-8437.123127

24

0.000418445

-0.7795

-0.1784

-0.0003

-7.4649E-5

-0.00243

4.93447E-05

0.214397767

-15081.3236

-3233.402109

25

0.000418445

-0.9936

-0.16749

-0.0004

-7.0084E-5

-0.00284

-2.07399E-5

0.267433084

15929.38581

4260.044776

58

0.000418445

-1.2021

0.211198972
siql1

-39560.93644

Cell2
F_U

0.00040576

-0.6031

0.181082

-0.00024

7.34757E-5

-0.000245

7.34757E-05

0.125746275

-30824.5947

-3876.07796

0.000418445

-0.4777

0.191182

-0.0002

7.99989E-5

-0.000445

0.000153475

0.208918045

-64550.6713

-13485.8000

0.000418445

-0.2689

0.196892

-0.00011

8.23882E-5

-0.000557

0.000235863

0.208830276

-99515.3832

-20781.8249

0.000418445

-0.0601

0.193982

-2.5E-05

8.11705E-5

-0.000582

0.000317033

0.209371357

-134175.720

-28092.5526

0.000418445

0.14901

0.184142

6.24E-05

7.7053E-05

-0.00052

0.000394086

0.208567971

-167291.554

-34891.6601

0.000418445

0.35706

0.169452

0.000149

7.09061E-5

-0.000371

0.000464992

0.209014449

-197993.607

-41383.5247

10

0.000418445

0.56522

0.150572

0.000237

6.30059E-5

-0.000134

0.000527998

0.208631176

-225531.982

-47053.0027

11

0.000418445

0.77276

0.129262

0.000323

5.40888E-5

0.0001893

0.000582087

0.209016016

-249471.066

-52143.4483

12

0.000418445

0.98019

0.103562

0.00041

4.33348E-5

0.0005994

0.000625422

0.208900738

-269024.936

-56199.5078

13

0.000418445

1.18738

0.076882

0.000497

3.21707E-5

0.0010963

0.000657593

0.210479666

-284017.923

-59779.9978

R_U

0.000152744

1.39588

0.048082

0.000213

7.34417E-6

0.0013095

0.000664937

0.134

-287687.909

-38550.1798

R_L

0.000152744

1.39588

-0.08592

0.000213

-1.3123E-5

0.0015227

0.000651813

0.032836768

-282602.336

-9279.74721

14

0.000418445

1.3631

-0.08785

0.00057

-3.6759E-5

0.0020931

0.000615054

0.214279612

-268290.870

-57489.2635

15

0.000418445

1.14886

-0.09197

0.000481

-3.8483E-5

0.0025738

0.00057657

0.215067664

-253019.779

-54416.3729

16

0.000418445

0.93388

-0.09811

0.000391

-4.1052E-5

0.0029646

0.000535517

0.213944148

-236426.716

-50582.1125

17

0.000418445

0.72009

-0.10623

0.000301

-4.4450E-5

0.0032659

0.000491066

0.214499509

-218158.496

-46794.8902

18

0.000418445

0.50582

-0.11615

0.000212

-4.8601E-5

0.0034776

0.000442464

0.214488513

-197892.420

-42445.6510

19

0.000418445

0.29164

-0.12765

0.000122

-5.3413E-5

0.0035996

0.000389051

0.264460329

-175345.762

-46371.9979

20

0.000418445

0.02748

-0.14025

1.15E-05

-5.8686E-5

0.0036111

0.000330364

0.164621505

-150269.797

-24737.6403

21

0.000418445

-0.1366

-0.15309

-5.7E-05

-6.405E-05

0.0035539

0.000266305

0.214510407

-122725.298

-26325.8537

22

0.000418445

-0.3508

-0.16481

-0.00015

-6.8963E-5

0.0034071

0.000197342

0.214430278

-92860.8274

-19912.1730

23

0.000418445

-0.5649

-0.17577

-0.00024

-7.3549E-5

0.0031707

0.000123793

0.038149471

-60812.4651

-2319.96334

F_L

0.00040576

-0.6031

-0.17492

-0.00024

-7.0974E-5

-0.000245

-7.09749E-5

0.356

30967.6693

11024.49027

F_U

0.00040576

-0.6031

0.181082

siql2

-765888.752

59

The shear flow due to torque computed earier does not change due to addition
of stringers and so, q1t = -17251.45589 N/m ; q2t = -17931.19711 N/m
Due to the bending moment distribution in the given section,
(l1+l2+l3)*q1 l2*q2 = -siql1 ; -l2*q1 + (l2+l4+l5+l6)*q2 = -siql2
Thus q1b = 60979.259 N/m, q2b = 175099.45 N/m
Thus the total shear flow for each section now becomes,
Cell1
1

q_sup

abs_q_sup

92529.58477

92529.58477

83475.92623

83475.92623

60460.02055

60460.02055

30264.73894

30264.73894

F_U

-559.855858

559.855858

F_L

30407.81344

30407.81344

24

63149.39133

63149.39133

25

94160.10077

94160.10077

Cell2

q_sup

abs_q_sup

F_U

162206.0558

162206.0558

128479.9793

128479.9793

93515.26738

93515.26738

58854.93045

58854.93045

25739.09582

25739.09582

-4962.956679

4962.956679

10

-32501.33144

32501.33144

11

-56440.41577

56440.41577

12

-75994.28596

75994.28596

13

-90987.27323

90987.27323
60

R_U

-94657.25863

94657.25863

R_L

-89571.68589

89571.68589

14

-75260.21986

75260.21986

15

-59989.12903

59989.12903

16

-43396.06626

43396.06626

17

-25127.84561

25127.84561

18

-4861.769501

4861.769501

19

17684.88861

17684.88861

20

42760.85282

42760.85282

21

70305.3518

70305.3518

22

100169.8231

100169.8231

23

132218.1854

132218.1854

F_L

223998.3199

223998.3199

The critical shear flow is found to be 162206.0558N/m acting between the

upper flange of front spar and stringer 5. Using the formula,
cr = (2*E*kb/(12*(1-2))*(t/b)2
where a = 0.6 (rib spacing),
b = 0.1257,
kb is obtained from following plot for given a/b as 27

61

Thus skin thickness after using stringers is found to be t = 1.260633 mm

Using Mat = q/t, qcri = 162206.0558 N/m

t = 0.767153 mm

From the above two thickness values, the critical is t = 1.260633 mm

62

FUSELAGE DESIGN
Fuselage contributes very little to lift and produces more drag but it is an
important structural member/component. It is the connecting member to all
load producing components such as wing, horizontal tail, vertical tail, landing
gear etc. and thus redistributes the load. It also serves the purpose of housing
or
accommodating practically all the equipments, accessories and systems in
addition to carrying the payload. Because of large amount of equipment inside
the fuselage, it is necessary to provide sufficient number of cutouts in the
fuselage for access and inspection purposes. These cutouts and discontinuities
result in fuselage design being more complicated, less precise and often less
efficient in design. As a common member to which other components are
attached, thereby transmitting the loads, fuselage can be considered as a long
hollow beam. The reactions produced by the wing, tail or landing gear may be
considered as concentrated loads at the respective attachment points. The
balancing reactions are provided by the inertia forces contributed by the
weight of the fuselage structure and the various components inside the
fuselage. These reaction forces are distributed all along the length of the
fuselage, though need not be uniformly. Unlike the wing, which is subjected to
mainly unsymmetrical load, the fuselage is much simpler for structural analysis
due to its symmetrical cross-section and symmetrical loading. The main load in
the case of fuselage
is the shear load because the load acting on the wing is transferred to the
fuselage skin in the form of shear only. The structural design of both wing and
fuselage begin with shear force and bending moment diagrams for the
respective members. The maximum bending stress produced in each of them is
checked to be less than the yield stress of the material chosen for the
respective member.
Loads and its distribution:
To find out the loads and their distribution, consider the different cases.
The main components of the fuselage loading diagram are:
(i) Weight of the fuselage
(ii) Engine weight
(iii) Weight of the horizontal and vertical stabilizers
(iv) Tail lift
(v) Weight of crew, payload and landing gear
(vi) Systems, equipments, accessories
63

Case I: Symmetric flight condition

(i) Steady and level flight: (Downward forces negative)
Values for the different component weights are obtained from aerodynamic
design calculations. Load factor = 4.47 (from v-n diagram)

CONTRIBUTION

WEIGHT(N)

FORCE

C.G(m)

Fixed Equipment

3689.33

F = nW (N)
-16491.0351

0.914

Pilots

2000

-8940

1.796

Other Crew

2000

-8940

2.76

Galley storage

500

-2235

2.944

Nose Wheel

922.33

-4122.8151

3.793

Passenger Seg1

4500

-20115

4.066

Wing rxn

N/A

181891.7274

5.65575

Passenger Seg2

4500

-20115

5.7

Cargo

1471.5

-6577.605

6.54

Passenger Seg3

4500

-20115

7.33

Fuselage Str.

9223.33

-41228.2851

7.47

Passenger Seg4

3500

-15645

8.56

Toilet

1844.67

-8245.6749

10.31

Conference hall

2000

-8940

12.323

Vertical Tail

1844.67

-8245.6749

14.79

Tail reaction

N/A

8064.632

15.15

Shear Force diagram:

64

Loaction m

Shear Force N
0

0.914

-16491.3051

1.796

-25431.3051

2.76

-34371.3051

2.944

-36606.3051

3.793

-40729.1202

4.066

-60844.1202

5.65575

121047.6072

5.7

100932.6072

6.54

94355.00222

7.26

94355.00222

7.33

74240.00222

7.47

33011.71712

8.56

17366.71712

10.31

9121.042224

12.323

181.0422237

14.79

-8064.632676

15.15

1.81899E-11

15.5

1.81899E-11

Thus the shear force diagram for the superimposed pitching case is
obtained as seen below.

65

Shear Force N

Shear Force diagram

Location along fuselage m

Bending Moment diagram:

The bending moment diagram is drawn for super imposed condition.
Location m

Bending Moment Nm
0

0.914

1.796

-14545.3311

2.76

-39061.10921

2.944

-45385.42935

3.793

-76464.18238

4.066

-87583.2322

5.65575

-257352.3468

5.7

-251995.9902

6.54

-167212.6001

7.26

-99276.9985

7.33

-92672.14834

7.47

-82278.54803

66

8.56

-46295.77637

10.31

-15904.0214

12.323

2456.636598

14.79

2903.267763

15.15

-1.45519E-10

15.5

-6.69388E-10

16

-5.52973E-10

Moment Nm

Bending Moment Diagram

Location along fuselage

DETAILED DESIGN OF FUSELAGE:

Design of the fuselage can be carried out by considering the maximum bending
moment which is taken as the design bending moment. The cross-sectional
area required to withstand the bending stress is found out by using the
formula for bending stress. This area is divided among several stringers which
are spaced evenly. The stringers spacing is calculated by considering the
buckling of the portion between adjacent stringers which can be modeled as a
67

plate. Now, the first step is to calculate the required cross-sectional area of the
stringers. Use the following formula for bending stress.
= M*y/I
Where,
= Tensile strength of the material used (Aluminium 7075) = 455 MPa
M = Design bending moment = 257.352 kNm
I = Second moment of area (m4) = A*(d/2)2
y = d/2
d =1.75m (diameter of the fuselage)
A = cross-sectional area of the fuselage stringers (m2)
A stringer cross section is chosen satisfying the condition that the actual stress
is less than the yield stress of the material.
The properties of the stringer section chosen are as follows,
A = 4.6884e-4 m2, I = 9.452799e-8 m4

A = 1.74 cm

R = 0.0369 cm

B = 3.175 cm

Area = 1.3741 cm2

t = 0.15875 cm

Iyy = 0.807 cm4

68

t1 = 0.254 cm
The total circumference of the fuselage cross section is found to be
5.497775 m. This circumference is distributed with n number of stringers such
that the total bending moment is taken up by these stringers effectively.
Assume skin is ineffective in bending. Arbitrarily, let us set the number of
stringers to be equal to 40 i.e. 10 stringers in each quadrant. Now, the net IYY is
computed considering these stringers to be lumped masses. As it is a
symmetric cross section,
Ixx = Iyy = 7.54e-3 m4, Ixy = 0

No. of stringers = 40

SHEAR FLOW:

Stringer distribution

Consider the stringer at = 0 of the first quadrant of the cross section as the
first stringer and number it in anticlockwise direction. Make a cut between
stringers 1 and 2 and determine shear flow using the formula,

VX = 0 , VY = 121047.6072 N ( Max. Shear Force from shear force diagram)

Thus the shear flow equation gets simplified to q = -(VY/Iyy)*Ay
q_l = -229939 N
Now, on closing the cut, and considering cell twist is zero for the fuselage cross
section, we obtain the equation, -229939 + 5.49775qo = 0
Thus constant shear flow to be added to the cell is qo = 41823.91824 N/m
69

stringer

ax

ay

si ax

si ay

q_open

q*l

q_final

0.875

4.10E04

0.00041

41823.92

0.15708

0.864227

0.13688

4.05E04

6.42E05

0.000815

6.42E-05

-1030.18

-141.547

40793.74

0.314159

0.832174

0.27039

3.90E04

1.27E04

0.001205

0.000191

-3065.17

-421.155

38758.75

0.471239

0.779631

0.397242

3.65E04

1.86E04

0.001571

0.000377

-6054.87

-831.939

35769.05

0.628319

0.70789

0.514312

3.32E04

2.41E04

0.001903

0.000618

-9925.66

-1363.79

31898.26

0.785398

0.618718

0.618718

2.90E04

2.90E04

0.002193

0.000908

-14582.2

-2003.6

27241.7

0.942478

0.514312

0.70789

2.41E04

3.32E04

0.002434

0.00124

-19909.9

-2735.62

21914.02

1.099557

0.397242

0.779631

1.86E04

3.65E04

0.00262

0.001606

-25777.5

-3541.83

16046.41

1.256637

0.27039

0.832174

1.27E04

3.90E04

0.002747

0.001996

-32040.6

-4402.38

9783.342

1.413717

0.13688

0.864227

6.42E05

4.05E04

0.002811

0.002401

-38544.9

-5296.07

3279.043

10

1.570796

-1.8E-10

0.875

-8.4E-14

4.10E04

0.002811

0.002811

-45130.2

-6200.9

-3306.33

11

1.727876

-0.13688

0.864227

-6.42E-5

4.05E04

0.002747

0.003216

-51634.5

-7094.59

-9810.63

12

1.884956

-0.27039

0.832174

-1.27E-4

3.90E04

0.00262

0.003606

-57897.6

-7955.13

-16073.7

13

2.042035

-0.39724

0.779631

-1.86E-4

3.65E04

0.002434

0.003972

-63765.2

-8761.34

-21941.3

14

2.199115

-0.51431

0.70789

-2.41E-4

3.32E04

0.002193

0.004304

-69092.9

-9493.37

-27269

15

2.356194

-0.61872

0.618718

-2.90E-4

2.90E04

0.001903

0.004594

-73749.5

-10133.2

-31925.5

16

2.513274

-0.70789

0.514312

-3.32E-4

2.41E04

0.001571

0.004835

-77620.3

-10665

-35796.3

17

2.670354

-0.77963

0.397242

-3.65E-4

1.86E04

0.001205

0.005021

-80610

-11075.8

-38786

18

2.827433

-0.83217

0.27039

-3.90E-4

1.27E04

0.000815

0.005148

-82644.9

-11355.4

-40821

19

2.984513

-0.86423

0.13688

-4.05E-4

6.42E05

0.00041

0.005212

-83675.1

-11497

-41851.2

70

20

3.141593

-0.875

-3.6E-10

-4.10E-4

-1.7E-13

-1.1E-12

0.005212

-83675.1

-11497

-41851.2

21

3.298672

-0.86423

-0.13688

-4.05E-4

-6.42E-5

-0.00041

0.005148

-82644.9

-11355.4

-40821

22

3.455752

-0.83217

-0.27039

-3.90E-4

-1.27E-4

-0.0008

0.005021

-80610

-11075.8

-38786

23

3.612832

-0.77963

-0.39724

-3.65E-4

-1.86E-4

-0.00116

0.004835

-77620.3

-10665

-35796.3

24

3.769911

-0.70789

-0.51431

-3.32E-4

-2.41E-4

-0.00149

0.004594

-73749.5

-10133.2

-31925.5

25

3.926991

-0.61872

-0.61872

-2.90E-4

-2.90E-4

-0.00178

0.004304

-69092.9

-9493.37

-27269

26

4.08407

-0.51431

-0.70789

-2.41E-4

-3.32E-4

-0.00202

0.003972

-63765.2

-8761.34

-21941.3

27

4.24115

-0.39724

-0.77963

-1.86E-4

-3.65E-4

-0.00221

0.003606

-57897.6

-7955.13

-16073.7

28

4.39823

-0.27039

-0.83217

-1.27E-4

-3.90E-4

-0.00234

0.003216

-51634.5

-7094.59

-9810.63

29

4.555309

-0.13688

-0.86423

-6.42E-5

-4.05E-4

-0.0024

0.002811

-45130.2

-6200.9

-3306.33

30

4.712389

5.38E-10

-0.875

2.52E13

-4.10E-4

-0.0024

0.002401

-38544.9

-5296.07

3279.044

31

4.869469

0.13688

-0.86423

6.42E05

-4.05E-4

-0.00234

0.001996

-32040.6

-4402.38

9783.342

32

5.026548

0.27039

-0.83217

1.27E04

-3.90E-4

-0.00221

0.001606

-25777.5

-3541.83

16046.41

33

5.183628

0.397242

-0.77963

1.86E04

-3.65E-4

-0.00202

0.00124

-19909.9

-2735.62

21914.02

34

5.340708

0.514312

-0.70789

2.41E04

-3.32E-4

-0.00178

0.000908

-14582.2

-2003.6

27241.7

35

5.497787

0.618718

-0.61872

2.90E04

-2.90E-4

-0.00149

0.000618

-9925.66

-1363.79

31898.26

36

5.654867

0.70789

-0.51431

3.32E04

-2.41E-4

-0.00116

0.000377

-6054.87

-831.939

35769.05

37

5.811946

0.779631

-0.39724

3.65E04

-1.86E-4

-0.0008

0.000191

-3065.17

-421.155

38758.75

38

5.969026

0.832174

-0.27039

3.90E04

-1.27E-4

-0.00041

6.42E-05

-1030.18

-141.547

40793.74

39

6.126106

0.864227

-0.13688

4.05E04

-6.42E-5

2.14E-12

-1.7E-13

2.7E-06

3.71E-07

41823.92

40

6.283185

0.875

7.18E-10

4.10E04

3.37E13

0.00041

1.68E-13

-2.7E-06

-3.7E-07

41823.92

The critical shear flow is found to occur in elements between 1 and 2, 40 and
41, 41 and 42, 80 and 1. The critical shear flow value is 41851.2 N/m.
We know that,
71

Where,
E = 7.24e10 N/m2,
a = 0.452 m(bulk head spacing), b = 0.1374 m, a/b = 3.2894
ks = 5.8 ( from fig C 5.11 for above a/b)
= 0.3
Thus we obtain, = (q/t) = 2.01007e13 * t2
The skin thickness is thus found to be t = 1.2769 mm
Using = 1.5*(q/t), Mat = 211.4392e6, we get = 0.133 mm.
Considering the maximum of the two, we get t = 1.2769 mm
The above value of skin thickness is well within the standard limits. Therefore,
the above design is acceptable.

\ CONCLUSION:
We have come to a completion of the conceptual design of an aircraft.
Aircaft design involves a variety of faculties of the field of Aerospace
engineering like structures, performance, aerodynamics, stability etc. this
project has enabled us to get a taste of what it is to design a real aircraft. The
fantasies of the flying world seem to be much more than what we thought.
With this design project as the base, we will strive to progress in the field of
airplane design and maintenance. We convey our heartfelt gratitude to all of
them who have provided their helping hand in the completion of this project.

72