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01/02/1999

COSMIC BACKGROUND TEMPERATURE THE CYCLIC UNIVERSE

BY: RAMN GARZA WILMOT FEB.1999

CHAPTER 1

THE LINKS OF THE MICROCOSMS WITH THE MACROCOSMS

This paper is an analysis of how the Universe as a whole and the realm of the particles of an atom are related by mean of simple equations. It is also an intent to find the numerical relations among the coupling constants of the four forces of Nature. The paper is an abstract of a larger one that I wrote about these topics, and in many cases I wont extent on the explanations so I will keep it short. 1.- Without wanting to deep in a topic of which I am not an expert, it is necessary to speak about some items related with the Quantum Mechanics.

One of the most interesting aspects of the Quantum Mechanics is without a doubt the principle of uncertainty, which, tells us that it is not possible to know or measure the position and the speed of a particle at the same time , since the total certainty in one of those parameters simultaneously means the total uncertainty of the other. One of the

forms in which this principle comes it is the following: DE . Dt> h That means that the product in the uncertainty(D) of the energy E and the uncertainty(D) in the time t should be the same or bigger than the constant "h". h is the Plank's constant, and has a value of 6.626e-27 erg-seg . The concept is not easy to understand, it means that if a measurement of the energy of a particle with an uncertainty DE is made zero, an infinite time will be required to measure it, but it could happen that it is possible obtain energy out of nothing provided that it disappear at the time considered in this principle. This is not just a theory ,they are experimentally proven facts. Another form of seeing the principle is in this way; Dl . D mv > h It means that the product of the uncertainty in the position of a particle (Dl) and the uncertainty on the impulse D mv should be bigger or equal to h. For example, let us suppose that we make an experiment in order to measure the position of an electron in a system of coordinates with a certain precision, the single fact of making this measurement alters the state of movement of the electron making more uncertain the precision of the measurement of the speed of it. Because of this we can associate a particle with certain amount of impulse " mv " with a longitude " l " which is known as the wave length of the particle. In the case in which the left side of the previous equation is exactly equal to h as the same principle permits, we even could continue associating the particle with a proper wave length provided that we take the speed as the speed of t light C. l = h/mC well-known as Compton wave length Consider that if we divided both members of this last equation by C we will obtain that; l / C = h/mC^2 but, l / C has units of time inverse, which is that of a frequency, and we therefore can associate the energy with a frequency of such way that; mC^ 2 = h f In general, to each energetically phenomenon we can associate a frequency and vice versa. For example if we took a luminous wave of frequency f, to it corresponds a mass; m= h f / C^2 This doesn't mean that light has mass . What I am saying here is that this is an equivalent mass which is not a rest mass. The same concept can be apply to other forms of energy, for example the associate mass with the electrostatic field produced by an elementary charge q at the distance l is such that: q^2/ r = hf = mC^2 and f = q^2/ hr Continuing with this same example, we could make the following equality for the mass of an electron and present the following equality; As the longitude of the associate wave with the electron is h/meC then we get that; le = h/meC and re = q^2/ meC^2 A magnitude without units exists that it is the ratio between:

le/re = A . This magnitude, receives the name of inverse of the fine structure constant (I just call it the fine structure constant) and it has the same value for the electron and the proton since both have the same value of electric charge. A = hC/q^2 And its value is approximately equal to 861, interpreted as we have seen as the ratio of the electron wave length(or of the proton) to its "radius" called classic radius of the electron or of the proton. Another form of energy that we could try to manage in the same form than the electric energy is the gravitatory energy. In this case we will first associate the frequency with the mass of the proton and the electron: f = G me .mp /h rg Now, it is fact that f = mC^2/ h on which in order to obtain the gravitatory equivalent we have to make that the following condition is accomplished: m^2= me x mp Being me the mass of the electron and mp the mass of the proton. And the equality leads us to : G m^2/ h rg = mc ^2/ h and rg = G m/C^2 (1-1) I shall introduce this (m) mass as a factor of calculation, and I will name it as "masn". With this mass we will get the following parameters: l = h/ mc r = q^2/ mC ^2 l / r = A = hC/ q^ 2 It is easy to demonstrate (if we used the subindex 1 for the proton and 2 for the electron) that: l^2= l1 x l2 r^2= r1x r2 is also easy to proof that: r/rg = q^2/Gm^2 = (q^2/l)/Gm^2 Which says that the ratio of these two radius is equal to the ratio of the electric and gravitatory forces between a proton and the electron, this ratio as we will see is a very important number without units (S) whose value is approximately equal to 2.27e +39 S = q^2/ Gm^2 (1-2) It should be made notice that a relationship for the gravitation similar to that of the fine structure constant exists (their reciprocates), also without units. B = hc / Gm^2 note: sometimes I will use the sign ( ) in order to indicate multiplication, in another cases I will use the x symbol and in another I will use the general algebraic notation of not writing down the sign when the operation is multiplication, with the division and according to the case I could use whatever of the following symbols: ----, /

As we have found that r / rg = S we could also find that : R = S l ( (1-3) This is a very large length wave to which it corresponds the frequency F where C = F/R then: C / f = S l but C / l = electric f according to what we already saw, then: S = f / F (1-4) F = f / s = f . G m^2/ q^2 = (mC ^2 / h) Gm^2/ (mC^2 r) = Gm^2/ hr F = Gm^2 / hr (1-5) Upon making the calculation of this frequency we find the fact that its value is 2.33e-18 1/seg. That is amazingly near to the value measured of the Hubble constant inside the range of error of measurement of it and which fulfills the principle of uncertainty since: (1/ F) Gm^2/ r = h Therefore, I consider the previous discovery not as a chance, but rather I will consider that indeed : H = Gm^2/ hr (1-6) is the Hubbles constant And since it is a frequency, it has associate with it the longitude : R=C/H That is the same as (1-3) This is the main reason that inclined me to believe that the radius of the Universe is more associate with a wave length than with a radius properly speaking . I must say that I will use here some basic concepts to relate the mass-energy of the Universe and its self gravitation. There are some questions which so far science has not been able to answer. Is gravitation the cause of mass-energy? Or mass-energy is the cause of gravitation? Which one comes first?. Using Mach basic ideas, I could say that mass or inertia is caused by gravity of all the Universe in such a way that if there were only one single body in all of the Universe , then this body would have "substance" but not mass. This is at the same time intriguing, because we ask ourselves what cause gravity?. So , do we use mass to explain gravity or do we use gravity to explain mass?. In this paper , I will take as a fact that gravity is mass and mass is gravity, so , total energy is equal to total gravity , which in mathematical form I represent like this for all the Universe as a whole: MC^2 = GM^2 / R This lead us to calculate the basic parameters of the Universe starting with high precision well-known constants. I won't stop here to calculate the following equations that could be demonstrated with ease with algebraic ordinary calculations. at the end of this I will present the values obtained for each literal exposed:

A = hC / q^2 B = hC / Gm^2 r = q^2/ mC^2 rg = Gm/ C^2 f = q^2/ hr S = f/ H S = R/ l S = r/rg S = mc^2 / hH S = B /A S^2 = M /(A m) gm^2/ l = q^2/ R Gm^2/ rg = q^2/ r Since R = GM / C^2 and R = C/ H is deduced that: M = C^ 3/ G H and since: H = Gm^2/ hr and r = q^2/ mC^2 we obtain that: M = h C q^ 2/ G^2 m^3 (1-7) the same equation could be transformed easily in the following: M = BSm and because S = B/A we found that; M =A S^2 m if N = A S^2 then M = n m (1-8) The number "n" is related with the total number of electrons and protons in the Universe in the following form; we will suppose that practically the whole Universe is formed with particles whose mass is equal to that of the proton, we know that the electrons exist, but their contribution to the total mass is very reduced since their mass is 1/ 1836 the mass of the proton and their number is the same . Having this in mind and knowing that the mass of the neutrons is almost the same than the proton, we could say that the number of nucleons of the Universe is; nn = M / mp , nn = N m/mp nn = N ( mp me )^ / mp nn = N/ D^(1/ 2) where D = 1836 = mp / me nn =A S^2/D^ (1-9) Values : mp = 1.6726311e-24 grams proton mass me = 9.109389754e-28 grams electron mass h = 6.62607554e-27 erg- sec Planks constant C = 2.997924562e10 cm/sec. Light speed m = 3.903414992e-26 grams mason mass l = 5.662274982e-12 cms. mason wave lenght q = 4.803206784e-10 eu fundamental electric charge

G = 6.6725985e-8 erg-cm/gm^2 Newton constant A = 861.0225291 electromagnetic coupling constant B = 1.953856383e42 gravitational coupling constant S = 2.269227943e39 electric to gravitational forces ratio H = 2.333198137e-18 sec^(-1) Hubble constant R = 1.284899261e28 cms Universe Radius M = 1.730674865e56 gms Universe mass N = 1.034712072e80 Number of Universe nucleons p = 1.947689124e-29 grams/cm^3 Universe density

CHAPTER 2 THE FOUR FORCES OF NATURE (PART 1) Foreword: What I here expose, is just an analysis of the possible relationships between the constants of the fundamental forces of Nature .Is rather an study of the numeric relationships between these constants. In this analysis , you could calculate with high accuracy the ratio of the masses of the proton to that of the electron, and the neutron to that of the proton with just the knowledge of the magnitude of the coupling constants of the forces or viceversa. Or calculate the value of the Newton constant starting from the constants of the Weak force. It can also been see, that the fundamental forces could be related to each other with the fourth power of the previous "intense" force. This characteristic of varying with the fourth power allows to see the possibility that forces of superior or inferior order exist to the strong and gravitatory forces respectively. For example, the gravitation, the weakest of the well-known forces could give rise to the existence of another force even weaker with an intensity of down to 1e-256 weaker than the strong force. The obtained equations and the posted values for "J" and "D" for example, are so precise that thinking on a chance I consider it highly unlikely. I recognize that this analysis touches topics completely unknown for the great majority of the people, I recommend the reading of the book " The Accidental Universe" of Paul Davies in order to help understand what I here try to explain. Some of the magnitudes that I use are not conventional, for example: "m" is not a particle, but the square root of the product of the mass of the proton and the mass of the electron, or A is not the fine structure constant but two pi times the inverse of this constant. The writing is not a theory of Unified Field, this should remain clear, but some kind of unification among the four forces arrives depending of temperature and specially in the very beginning of the Universe. This is not a new idea, but here I found (I think) how their magnitudes are related. Results arise sometimes almost like forced, for example, when I calculate that; y1/ yo^4 A / 2 pi , what I do is to make exact this approach of equality and see then

what happens upon doing it. If what I obtain is almost quantitatively exactly and the units are correct, I then consider sat down that the "forced" equality is true. Anyway , this has permitted me to calculate with high accuracy constants like that of the gravitation of Newton . An interesting result of this analysis is the obtaining of a magnitude whose units are those of a mass and that I identify as "miu " with a value of the order of 1e-5 gm , this mass can be calculated of two different ways, and the interesting of it is that its magnitude is of the order of which a particle of unification of the four forces should have, and that we would obtain it just by making equal to 1 the coupling constants of the four forces. The units system used is the " cgs ." Relationships Between the Four Forces Nature 1.- General: Until the present time, the physical sciences have been developed starting from diverse theories that in one or another way expresses relationships between the constants of Nature and the behavior of the Universe and its parts. One of the most intriguing questions of science has been the reason of being of some physics constants such as: the speed of light, the electric charge of the electron, the mass of the electron, the Planks constant , the constant of gravitation, etc. The magnitude of these constants is known accurately up to the order of the seventh decimal figure, and this knowledge is based exclusively in measurements each time better of them. These constants are called "fundamental" in the sense that they are not derived from another, on the other hand other constants as for example the called " fine structure constant" (or electromagnetic coupling constant) is derived from others which are fundamental. As example, this last constant is expressed so: A = h C/ q^2= 861.0225291 This constant is commonly expressed on its reciprocal form and is equal to A' = 2 pi /A Now, all the processes of Nature are in any direct or indirect way, the manifestation of any or some of the four fundamental forces. These forces, until the moment are considered independent forces to each other, that is to say , we don't know if each other are in any way related. Although in the last years theories have arisen that seems to have been able to do it. The task of the theoretical physics is to explain the physical world, and the better explanation should be to gather in coherent form and as now is said "beautiful" these four forces in just one, that has been already baptized as: " Superforce " The Four Forces a) The strong force: it is the most intense of the four, it takes care among other things of maintaining together the protons in the nucleus despite the rejection that the electrostatic field generates by the electromagnetic force among the protons in the nucleus of the atom . It explains the great amount of energy that is generated on the processes of nuclear fission. Its coupling constant will be represented with the symbol " P" b) the electromagnetic force : is the next in intensity to the strong force, all the electric, magnetic and optic phenomenon are its manifestation, it is the first of the forces that became unify, because until not a long time ago it was considered that magnetism field

and electrostatic field were separate forces. Thanks to the works of J.C. Maxwell it was proven that they are separate manifestations of an only one force, the electromagnetic force . its coupling constant will represented with the symbol "A" c) the weak force: it is not a force in the sense of forces of attraction or repulsion between particles, its roll is that of transforming the identity of the subatomic particles during the radioactive disintegration processes, for example: the transmutation of a neutron in a proton plus an electron and a neutrino . This last particle without mass (seemingly) was discovered thanks to the conclusions that gave the analysis of the weak processes. Its coupling constant will be identify it with the letter "W" d) lastly, the weakest and the well-known of the forces, the force of gravity . It is an accumulative force which increase with the mass of the objects, is always attractive and it is the force that maintains united the planets to the sun, the stars to the galaxies and the galaxies to the whole Universe. the symbol for its coupling constant is"B". 2.- The fact that the electromagnetic coupling constant " A " well-known as the inverse of fine structure constant is calculated as: A = h c/ q^2 lead to us express the other coupling constants in the same form that is : A = h C/q^2 (2-1) B = h C/ G m^2 (2-2) W = h C/ qw^2 (2-3) P = h C/ qs^2 (2-4) Here m is the product of me (the mass of the electron) and mp (the mass of the proton.). It should be notice that it doesn't exist or at least accepted the existence of a weak charge (qw) or an a strong charge ( qs), but the fact that one could make calculations based on that lead to us use that concept of "charge." In his book, Davies informs that qs^2= 15 h C/2 PI and that the constant W is related with other constant identified as gw where: gw = h^3/ W me^2 C = 1.43e-49 gm-cm5/ seg2 In this analysis, for reasons of another type related with Cosmology, in the previous equation I replace me by m . In these conditions the value calculated for W, and kiping the value of gw is; W = 4.44612e+10 In the case of the strong force, the factor 15 of the expression for the strong charge that Davies appoints , will be calculated with better precision. For the time being I will identify it with the qs letters. 3.- The relationships: What I here study is not the result of a calculation, but a simple analysis of the numerical relationships between the coupling constants. From the values for "W" and "B" we have that:

B = 1.9538657154e+42 W = 4.44612e+10 we find that almost exactly: B = W^4/ 2 (3-1) and also that: B <=> (D/4)^16/ 2 where "D " it is the relationship between the masses of the proton and the electron and equal to: D = 1836.152756 F = D / 4= 459.038189 therefore, is possible that a similar relationship exists between the other constants because we could also observe that: W <=> F^ 4 Then a reduction in the exponent is observed in 4 times upon passing from B to W, and there is certain symmetry on this. Then ,why not to think that it happens the same thing with the other constants and see what class of numbers would be?. this is what we would have: A= P^ 4/ x1 (3-2) W = A^4/ x2 (3-3) B = W^ 4/ x3 (3-4) A = y1 (D/4)^1 (3-5) W = y2 (D/4)^4 (3-6) B = y3 (D/4)^16 (3-7) The numbers that appear to the right of the y or the x are not multipliers neither exponents, they are subindex. and the numbers between such parenthesis like (3-7) just numbered the equation. I have already mentioned and calculated the value of the constant A, B, W, but not to P. I will do it here before go on. From the definition of Davies of the strong charge and from the form of expression (2-1) we have that: qs^2 <=>15 hC/ 2 pi = hC/P P <=> 2 pi / 15 , <=> is read "approximately equal" then P <=>0.4188 . Let us put now in order the values calculated for the x and the y , from the equations (3-2)to(3-5). And accepting (3-1) as correct. x1 <=>3.57e-5 y1= 1.875710017 x2 = 12.36166254 y2 = 1.001350011 x3 = 2.0 y3= 0.5027054946 observe that 8 y1= 15.00568 <=>15 Also observe that: y1^ 4/ yo <=> A/2 pi where "yo" could define it as: yo = P/ (D/4)^(1/ 4) = 0 .90478 Taking P = 0.4188. lets make by simplifying that F = D/4 .

If indeed yi ^ 4/ yo =A/ 2 pi = 137.0359916 and A = y1 F, then: y1^4/ yo =A/2pi = F yi/2 pi it is deduced that: yo = 2 PI y1^3/ F = 0.09032919484 and: P = yo F^(1/4) = 0.4181097966 which is slightly different to the considered value 0.4188 or rather but precise. in consequence: Q = 2 pi / P = 15.0275965 y1^4/ yo =A/ 2 pi = x2 y2/ yo = x2 J F^(1/4)/ P and: from the equations (3-2) to (3-7) we can demonstrate that: y2^ 4= x3 y3 y1^ 4= x2 y2 x2= A^4/ w = (A/ (2 ( y2 F^(1/ 4)) we deduce: W=A^3 x 2 pi y2 F^(1/4)/P (3-8) This last simple equation relates three of the constants of the forces to each other with the ratio of the mass of the proton to the electron, that is with "D", and with "y2." (a little ahead I will clarify what is "y2 "). The other force, gravity doesn't appear here, but we could introduce it if we replace W for is gravitatory equivalent , that is : B = W^4/2 this would be shown as; B = A^12 Q 4 y2^4 F/ 2 (3-9) B = (2 pi A^3/ P )^ 4 F y2^ 4/ 2 (3-10) Observe that of the equation (3-1) and of the definition of W as; W = h^3/ gw m^2 C (3-14) we deduced that: G = 2gw^4m^6 C^5/ h^11 (3-15) let us make at this point a summary of the numeric results until now obtained: P = 0.4181097966 A = 861.0225291 W = 4.446119969e+10 B = 1.953865716e+42 x1= 3.549333914e-5 y1= 1.875710017 x2= 12.36166254 y2= 1.001378374

x3= 2.0 y3= 0.5027054946 4.- If we also make the operation y2 x D we will obtain the following number: I = y2 D = 1838.683661 What is the meaning of this number?. If I calculate now with the given values for the mass of the neutron and the electron their ratio, that is to say: mn / me = 1838.683661 that is exactly the number "Y" ! therefore, it is not anything venturous to say that: mn / me = y2 D = I (4-1) as D = mp / me , then y2 = mn / me/ D = mn/me / mp / me and: y2 = mn / mp = J (4-2) Here. we can also deduce from the equations (3-2) to (3-7) and according to the already explain that: y2^ 4= x3 y3 (4-4) y1^ 4= x2 y2 (4-5) and : y3 = ( mn/mp)^4/2 and we could already express the equations from (3-5) to (3-7) in this other form: A = (y1) (D/4) (4-6) W = (mn / mp) (D 4)^4 (4-7) B = (mn / mp)^ 4 (D/4)^16/ 2 (4-8) 5.- Conclusion: We have seen how to calculate in an extremely simple way, the coupling constants of the 4 forces of Nature and how they could be relate to each other. Everything starting from the knowledge of simple elements as the masses of the subatomic particles and of the fundamental constants such as "q" . and if we make the following operation: (hC/G)^(1/2) = miu = 5.456576426e-5 grams that it is an extremely enormous mass (for an atomic particle). question: what is the meaning of a mass of so enormous value? .The fact that the exponent 4 appears with so much frequency , remembers me the exponent that appears in the equation in order to calculate the density of radiant energy . p = 8 pi^5 ( kT )^ 4/(15C^3 h^3)

THE FOUR FORCES OF THE NATURE (PART 2) AND THE COSMIC BACKGROUND TEMPERATURE 1.- In this second part, I will deep in the relationship between the coupling constants of the forces and in their relationship with the Universe and its history. Some of the values of the constants that I will obtain will be modified with the new concepts. I have already explained that in this single writing, the parameters of nature are studied

looking for relationships between them starting from simple concepts and then see if they have any sense or give us new knowledge. If upon finding that these relationships we have the "coincidence" up to the decimal figure that I can calculate , then I will consider sat down that this is true. 2.- In the previous section I obtained the electromagnetic and gravitatory constants defined by: hC hC A = ---------B = -------q^2 Gm^2 These values obtained for both constants are representative of the present time. I will first obtain a series of magnitudes calculated starting from some constants of nature. Let us suppose that B is a variable and also the mass m, let us make B = 1 .from that we will get all the following magnitudes: miu = (h C/ G)^(1/2) = 5.45657 e-5 grams (2-1) lo = h/ miu C = (h G/ C^3 )^(1/2) = 4.05062 e-33 cm (2-2) fo = C/ lo = (C^5 / h G)^(1/2) = 7.40114 e+42 cps (2-3) to = 1/ fo = (h G/ C^5 )^(1/2) = 1.35114 e-43 seg (2-4) eo = h fo = (h C^5/ G)^(/2) = 4.90412 e+16 erg (2-5) These terms are known as mass, longitude, frequency, time, and energy of Plank that the current Cosmology considers as characteristic of the first moments of the Universe, that is , during the beginning of the Big-Bang . Now we know that at the moment of interaction of two opposed particles, (matter and antimatter) , they disappear leaving radiation, the temperature of the process is: b T = ----(2-6) io hC where b this defined by : b = ------- (2-7) ZK Z is the solution of the equation (5- z) e^z = 5 Z = 4.965114231740001 K = 1.38065812e-16 erg/Kelvin is the Boltzmans constant io is the longitude of wave at which the electromagnetic emission of radiation is maxim in a black body at the T temperature. fo is the frequency corresponding to that wave length and it is equal to : hC h fo T = ------- = ------ZKio ZK Since h fo is the maximum energy generated and equal to: 2miC^2 where mi is the mass of the particles that interact , then: 2mi C^2

T = --------(2-8) ZK If we know that the background cosmic temperature of radiation is approximately 2.7 Kelvin , then mi is of approximately : 1.04 e-36 grams. Let us now see that there are also relationships similar to those of Plank but with other magnitudes, I here take l = h/ mC G m^2 G m^3 C Fx = ---------- = ------------ = 2.7095e-21 cps (2-9) hl h^2 C h^2 L x = ------- = --------- = 1.1064e+31 cm (2-10) Fx G m^3 G m^3 C Ex = Fx h = ----------- = 1.7953e-47 erg (2-11) h Gm^3 mx = E/ C^2 = -------- = 1.997e-68 grams (2-12) hC as before m^2 = me X mp Well, if we take the square root values of the product of the two obtained masses m and mx , we get obtains the following value: mass m = ( m X mx )^(1/2) = 1.044032456e-36 gm : Observe the almost exact value of this last mass m with the one I call mi from the equation (1-8). Here is my supposition; that both are the same mass, and in consequence, I can express the temperature of radiation in the following form: 2 ( mi X mx )^(1/2) C^2 T = -------------------------------- (2-13) ZK mi = (m X mx )^(1/2) (2-14) mt = 2 mi This mass mt could be interpreted as the mass-energy carried by the background radiation , or we might suppose that complementary particles exist that interact generating the background radiation corresponding to the thermal energy ( ZKT ). Replacing mi for its two factors of the equation (2-14) and knowing that B = h C/ G m^2 we get: mi = m ^4/ B (2-15) Gm^6 mi = -------- (2-16) hC T = 2 m C^2/ ZK B^(1/4) (2-17)

2C^2 T = -------- ( Gm^6 / hC )^(1/4) (2-18) ZK the calculation give me T = 2.737601899 Kelvin 3.-Observe that the values obtained for some of the coupling constants come from a very simple expressions , those that I mention next: Wf = JF^4 Bf = J^4F^16/2 Observe that I use Wf and Bf instead of just W and B . this is because unless I think that the ratio mp/me changes with time ,which I dont ,and this is the reason why I think that the obtained values represent the values that will reach these "parameters " at the end of the expansion of the Universe, (in fact these values are a little bit higger than the actual values) and some how the current measured values of the coupling constants should be a function of these Wf and Bf. For that reason I have identified them with the subindex (f), but I now have to find those functions. 5.- The first function to solve will be that o f "B " that by definition is: B = h C/ G m ^2 I am supposed to accept that h, C, and G are time independent constants and therefore the variable that affects B is the mass. It is not difficult to accept that, since we know that the mass varies with the speed so that: mf m= -----------------------(1- v^2 /C^2)^(1/2) I shall now introduce the function: sine = (1- v^2/C^2)^(1/2) with this definition of the mass we have that: mf m = ------------sin We can see that the two forms of expressing the variation of the mass imply negative masses, but the second one (the sine form) is more clear concerning when this happens. Considering this variation, we can express the gravitation coupling constant (I will call it now coupling parameter) in the following form: B = Bf ( sine )^2 (5-1) Being = wt , w is the frequency with which the Universe( in radians per second ) oscillates. Now it is necessary to clarify that mf is not the rest mass of the mason, is according with the description that I am giving ,the final mass, the mass that m will acquire when the Universe reaches its maxim expansion and that according to the given definition is:

mf = ( mef X mpf )^(1/2) mef and mpf are the masses that will acquire the electron and the proton when the Universe reaches the maxim expansion and in that moment it will be on rest , and on that moment and just on that moment will coincide with the rest mass that we will observe. the m mass is the current mass. In summary, what I am saying is that the rest mass m varies with time. Now we can see that upon making B = 1 , sine will acquire the value: 1 sin 1 = --------- (5-2) Bf^(1/2) When this happened, the mass took the value: hC m1 = (-------)^(1/2) G which corresponds to the mass of Plank and of course to the time of Plank etc. Then we have of that: G m1^2 = h C Now, without still knowing how A varies is obvious that when A 1 = 1 also: q1^2 = h C and therefore G m1^2 = q1^2 then of course: B1= A1 6.- Now the task is to find the form in which A varies , for this, the following conditions must be fulfilled: a ) A = 1 when t = t1 = tp (Planks time) b) A = Af when sine f = 1 c) A = actual A when sine is the current Suppose that the form of variation of A is also in a sine form . but expressed as: A = Af ( sine )^a2 (6-1) a2 will be a time independent constant exponent . With this equation, conditions b is easily fulfilled since sine f = 1 and A = Af for any value of the exponent a2 at the moment of maxim expansion. The condition "a" is completed doing that sine 1 is the considered the equation (5-2). now, the exponent is calculated so: A 1= Af ( sine 1)^a2 = B1= Bf ( sine 1)^2

we have that: ( sine 1)^(a2-2) = Bf /A f = Sf Sf is the ratio of the two forces when sine f = 1. easily calculable according to the formulas for Bf and Af as : 1 1 ( sine 1) = ------------ = -------Bf^(1/2) Af^(1/a2) and taking logarithms we finally obtain that: 2 ln A f a2 = ----------------- (6-3) ln Bf but , what is the value of Af and a2? 7.- The following item is to try to find the relationship between A and B in any time, for this , we take the equations (6-1) and (5-1), we solve the sine for both and we equaled them to each other: B A

(-----)^(1/2) = (-----)^(1/a2) Bf Af

and therefore is easy to conclude that : A^(1/2) = B^(1/a2) and : a2 = 2 ln A/lnB for any epoch. If we know the values of B and Bf , the actual sine = (B/Bf)^(1/2) and therefore : Af = A/(sine )^(1/a2) 8.- Using the same procedure that we used in order to calculate a2 we are able to calculate the exponents for the, the weak force and the strong and then we obtain that: 2 ln B a1 = ------------- = 2 (8-1) ln B 2 ln A a2 = -------------- = 0.1388012563 (8-2) ln B 2 ln W a3 = --------------- = 0.503559034 (8-3) ln B 2 ln P a4 = ------------- = 0.01790974997 (negative) (8-4) lnB CHAPTER 3 THE ORIGIN OF MATTER AND THE COSMIC BACKGROUND RADIATION

Analysis of the relationship between the parameters of the forces A and B in relation with the history of the Universe
1.- We in the first place will clarify the meaning of the constant H that at the beginning I identify as the Hubbles constant and that I thought that it represented the frequency of the universal oscillation. Upon calculating the temporary angle , we realize that is close to 90 degrees (see the sheet of calculations). From here I have found very easy think that Hf represents the inverse of the necessary time for the Universe to reaches its maxim expansion and therefore it represents the time of 1/4 of cycle, the frequency in cps is .w, and the frequency w is the frequency in radians per second. Notice that the units of Hf are cps. because I use the Planks constant and not h/ 2 pi that would give the frequency in rps . the F frequency = 1/ Tf being Tf the total period, we have: tf = 1/Htf = Tf / 4 = (1/4 w) (Htf means: final total because it includes the effects of the mass as well as the thermal energy) then: Htf = 4 w Htf = 2 F/ pi and w = 2 pi F G mf^2 Htf = ----------- (1-1) h rf where rf = qf^2 /( mf C^2 ),and we deduced that: C^3 Af Htf = --------------------G mf^2 Bf^2 If Bf^2/Af = Nf then:

C^3 Hf = ------------- (1-2) G mf Nf Now, we know as I solved in another chapter, C^3 Mtf = -------- (1-3) G Htf But here Mtf represents all the forms of mass-energy including radiation. Then we can say : Rf = C/Htf Rf = G Mtf/ C^2 and therefore : Htf

Ht = --------------------- (1-4) (sine )^(3-a2) R = Rf (sine )^(3-a2) (1-5) M = Mtf (sine )^(3-a2) (1-6) ptf p = ----------------------- (1-7) density (sine )^2(3-a2) qf^2 and also : q^2 = ----------------- (1-8) (sine )^a2 where all the final values (subindex f) means the final state at the moment of maxim expansion of the Universe. And the values for R,H,M,p are for the actual moment and they include all the massenergy. The longitude: L = C/ w = 2 Rf / pi Is expressed in function of the mass is: 2 G Mtf L = -----------pi C^2 I mention this last expression because A. Einstein calculated as radio of the Universe what I identify as L = the wave length /2 pi We will see now how to relate the mass of the all Universe, with is the total massenergy and the thermal energy and the mass of all the particles to each other. we know that: 8 pi^5( KT )^4 (KT)^4 3 Z^4 512 pi^6 ptm =----------------- = ---------- ----------- ------------ (thermal density) 15 h^3 C^5 h^3 C^5 4 pi 2^4 45 Z^4 512 pi^6 2 m C^2 if = ------------- and KT = -------------45 Z^4 Z B^(1/4) Then with just the previous equations we deduce the following results : H^2 ptm = ptot ------- = --------- (1-9) (thermal density) A^2 Gk H = Htot/A and if the radius of the Universe is the same for the radiation and for the mass then: Mtm = Mtot--------- (1-10) A^2 2.- If we remembered the definitions given on the Planks time now we have:

mp = (hC/G)^(1/2) tp = (h G/C^5)^(1/2) and from the definitions: hC B = ----------- m^2 C^4 = h^2/ t^2 G m^2 we obtain: mp/tp = C^3/G = Mt/Ht = Mt/ t therefore: mp/tp = C^3/ G is the rhytm of matter creation. On which t = tf (sine )^(3-a2) It is important to make notice here that I proposes the existence of two types of time, one of them which I will call relative, it is an elastic time it is t' ,is elastic , goes up and down and ceases to exist but always reborn . it is a function of the other time, the absolute time ta = / w then: ( sine wta )^(3-a2) t' = ----------------------Hf So , total mass as function of the absolute time is : M = Mtf(sine w ta)^(3-a2) and as function of the relative time is : C^3 t M = --------G So we may say that from the point of view of the absolute time, the creation of matter goes accompanied by its destruction after the Universe arrives to its maxim expansion. we could also deduce easily that the speed of expansion is: (3-a2) C ( sine )^(3-a2) v = ------------------------------------(tg ) 3.- Now, if the potential gravitatory energy is: G Mt^2 Ep = -- ------------ (negative) R and if the energy of the mass and the thermal energy is: Mt C^2 = Mtf C^2 (sine )^(3-a2) G Mt^2 that added to -- ---------- give us: R Total Energy = 0

We should distinguish between the total mass of the Universe and the mass of the particles. for this we should consider (repeating): - that the total mass-energy without including to the gravitation it is Mt . - that the thermal mass-energy is Mtm . - that the mass of the particles is Mm - that the mass-energy of the gravitation is Mg - that the mass-energy at the end of the expansion without the gravity is Mtf - that the thermal mass-energy at the end of the expansion is Mtmf - that the mass-energy of the particles at the end of the expansion is Mmf - that the final mass-energy of the gravitation is Mgf - that the growth of the space doesn't mean that the expansion of the Universe transports kinetic energy, this is zero. - that the mass of the particles are the difference between Mt and Mtm = Mm - that the total gravitatory energy includes the potential energy of the radiation and that of mass and it is negative. - that the total energy of the Universe including all the forms of energy is equal to zero. and the balance of mass is: Mm + Mtm = Mt = - Mg Mm + Mtm - Mg = 0 in consequence " Mm " that it is the mass of the particles is: Mm = Mt - Mtm = Mt - Mt /A^2 Mm = Mt (1- /A^2) 4.- We will see that considering what I called total mass as the sum of the masses of the particles with non zero rest mass and the thermal mass is justified in function of some simple equations of the General Relativity applied to the Universe on the whole. Mr. M. Robert Wald in his book "Space Time and Gravitation" defines the Hubbles constant as: H = 1/ a da/dt (4-1) in which "a" determines an scale of longitude in function of which the Universe expands, we also know that H is defined by: V H = ----- (4-2) L where V is the speed of expansion of a distant galaxy and "L" the distance of an

observer to it. I will demonstrate that " a " and L are proportional: from (4-1) ( dH / dt ) = - 1/ a^2 (da/ dt )^2+ 1/ a (d2a/dt2) (4-3) a from (4-2) ( dH/ dt ) = - 1/ L^2 (dL/dt )^2+ 1/ L (d2L/ dt2) (4-4) L Suppose that " L" is proportional to "a" , then : a = k! L (4-5) where k! is a numeric constant without units. now we obtain the first and the second derivatives of (4-5) and we obtain: da/ dt = k! - dL/ dt = k! - V d2a/ dt2 = k! - dV/ dt = k! - Ac where Ac is the acceleration of the galaxy that is on L. ( dH / dt ) = - 1/ L^2 ( dL / dt )+ 1/ L (d2L/ dt2) a the same book defines the desaceleration parameter "q" (do not confuse it with the electric elementary charge) as: a d2a/dt2 Ac L q = ---------------- = L k! (k! x Ac)/ k!^2 / V^2 = -------(da/dt)^2 V^2 Now, A, L, and V are related with H as : dV/ dt = H dL/dt = A = H V = H L^2 AL = H^2 L^2 and q = H^2 L^2 / V^2 = 1 we found that the desaceleration parameter is unitary. This allows us to deduce the following relativistic equation: 4 pi G q = ---------- ( pm + 3P/ C^2 ) = 1 3 H^2 On which pm is the density of the mass and the adding 3P/C^2 is the density of the mass-energy of the pressure of radiation P ,that is to say the thermal density, so: 4 pi G 1 = -------- ( pm + pt ) 3H^2 H^2 = G k ( pm + pt ) = G k pt pt = pm + ptm pt means total density pm means mass density ptm means mass equivalent thermal density

And since the volume is the same for the mass and for the radiation, then: Mt = Mm + Mtm that it is equal to the one I found before and this is what I wanted to demonstrate. That by supposing that "a" and L are proportional, we arrive to a truly conclusion. As well as from the equation (4-2) you arrived to (4-4), of the integration of (4-3) we arrived to: H = - Va / a ( a is subindex in Va) and : Va/a = V/L Now, another relativistic equation is: H = 2 G k pt - K C^2/ a^2 where K is the factor that defines if the Universe is plane, spherical or hyperbolic. From the previous equation and as H^2 = G k pt then : K C^2 / a^2 = H^2 k = 4pi/3 K = Va^2/C^2 it can be clearly see that K is positive and less than 1( Va is always smaller than C), that means a close Universe. and the constant will always be less than 1. 5.- The important thing here is to explain the origin of the matter. The equations of the previous topics shows how it varies with the time angle , but it doesn't inform us about the origin. For this, I postulate the concept that the matter and the energy of the Universe are not eternal, but rather they have been created in function of the uncertainty principle of Heisemberg . But since this principle would require that the spontaneous creation of a single particle be a temporary phenomenon and that it must disappear at a time no longer than: h t = -------m C^2 that it obviously very much less than the age of the Universe, then how is that the protons and the electrons exist permanently?. One option is to think that each new instant new particles are created and the old ones disappear, and in consequence the Universe is recreated each moment and if it is recreated in each moment, who needs a Big-Bang? The previous answer is to much speculative, and although the people that are devoted to these topics are not walking in the branches at the time of generating new ideas, I don't like this one. So I prefer to continue thinking that the principle of uncertainty is been worth but I should explain why matter doesn't disappear in the uncertainty of the time of the principle of Heisemberg . I find that there would not be contradiction with the principle if I postulate that at the same time that matter is formed with positive energy, it is formed some another form of energy that is negative and that compensates exactly the matter, in such way that the net created energy is zero and therefore the time on which the matter should disappear

in order to agree with the principle it is infinite or at least as long as an universal cycle. I believe that this energy is the gravitation, I believe that the gravitation is the invention of Nature in order to permit the cuasi permanent existence of matter, besides being the responsible for its evolution. I already found how this happen when I found that the total energy of the Universe is zero. Let us then suppose that with the creation of a particle with energy (m+) C2 is created an energy ( m- C^2 ) such that: mi is the difference between this two masses. h mi = -----------C^2 ti on which mi is the uncertainty of the mass and ti the uncertainty of the time. Since the uncertainty of the time has to be equal or minor to the total age of the Universe and this is 2/ Hf , then: h Hf mi = ------- = 0.86e-65 grm 2 C^2 that would be !the net mass of the Universe! . it seems to be incredible that a so small mass is the net mass of the Universe, but if we calculated the longitude of the corresponding wave we would have: h 2hC 2C l = ------ = ---------- = ----- = 2 Rf mi C Hh Hf That is , the diameter of the Universe is the longitude of the wave of this only particle that represents it. I want to add that I have so much trust in the equation in order to calculate the cosmic background temperature of radiation that when (according to the last information that I have) this is of 2.735 Kelvin degrees , that the differences between this figure and mine (2.7374 Kelvin degrees) I attribute it to: errors in the measurement of T or to errors in the measurement of the constants that intervene in the calculation (very probably the constant of Boltzman and G ). or to that the temperature that I calculate could include other particles with zero rest mass (not photons) as; gravitons , neutrinos etc. Another thing I want to add is this : the equations I have shown are for a large amount of particles , that is, some hours after the Big-Bang. For the very moment of the BigBang (during the Planks time) they are a little different because the constant. I am not explaining here the details because I would have to use more space , and this suppose to be an abstract. The full paper is of near a hundred pages, and I am leaving out a lot of details about the temperature , thermal energy density, the number of photons and the ratio with the number of nucleons, etc. But Y will say one thing for that moment (Planks time), the number N was exactly 1 , also all of the coupling constants, the mass-energy of the Universe was exactly the Planks mass. The only other thing I will add , is a graph which shows according with the equations that I have shown how the four parameters of the forces vary with the energy . notice specially that the only force which is getting bigger is the strong force (the parameter is going down). You should observe in the graphs that I attach that the unification of the 4 forces

happens in fact when the mass of the mason is the mass of Plank . the graphs are exposed as logarithmic graphs so that one could appreciate the variation. The cosmic background temperature can be expressed as is easy to deduce as: Tf T = -----------------(sine )^(3/2) Now we will express this temperature as a function of Planks temperature T1, as this happened when sine = 1/Bf^(1/2) then: T1 T = ----------------------------Bf^(3/4)(sin )^(3/2) T1 = 2m1 C^2 / ZK been m1 the Planks mass m1 = ( hC/ G )^(1/2) and: T1 1 sine = ( ------ )^ (2/3) x --------T Bf^(1/2) For every one of the 4 parameters of the forces there exist an exponent (a1 , a2 , a3, a4) in such a way that in general : k = kf (sen)^an where k represents any of the four parameters and kf its final value, and " an" is the corresponding exponent ( n = 1,2,3,4) so: T1 1 (sin )^an = (-------)^ (2an/3) x ----------------T (Bf)^(an/2) and: T1 1 k = kf (-------)^ (2an/3) x ----------------T (Bf) ^ (an/2) Which expressed as a function of the value of the parameter of the forces in Planks time (when all of the parameters were unitary) is : T1 k = (------) ^ (2an/3) T This last equation is good for all the parameters , and you just get to know the temperature in any epoch to know what was the value of the parameter (and of course also the exponent "an" of the corresponding force) T1 = 2(hC/G)^(1/2)C^2 / ZK = 1.430694953e32 Kelvin Is easy to deduce also that the parameters of the forces vary with the energy of the mason and that in the Planks time the corresponding energy was : 3.0607e+19 Gev.

The equation shows that the unification happens when the mason energy had this value in the Planks time. E1 E = ------------k ^ (1/an) Been E = m C^2 in any epoch and E1 = m1 C^2 The following graph shows the variation of the forces parameters versus mason energy . I am using natural logarithms so the variations can be seen. All of the parameters are going down (with my definition) except the strong force.

Any one who read this paper can use it for Physics and Cosmology purposes, but if my ideas are exposed in some other paper, my name must be cited on it. Ramn Garza Wilmot Feb. 1 of 1999 Monterrey, N.L. Mexico