BANLAW PIPELINE TECHNICAL BULLETIN

Basic Fluid Mechanics Theory

The purpose of this technical bulletin is to outline some of the basic fluid mechanics
theory behind the applications into which Banlaw refuelling equipment is used. It is
meant as a reference guide for inter-office use only.

1. Head: The term “head” refers to energy generated by fluid by either static (no
flow) or dynamic (flow) means. It can be given in terms of pressure (Pa) or metres (m)
of fluid, however the meaning remains the same.

2. Pressure: The SI (Standard International) unit for pressure is the Pascal (Pa), with
one kiloPascal (kPa) equal to 1,000Pa and one megaPascal (MPa) equal to
1,000,000Pa. One Pascal is described as one Newton (N) of force applied over an
area of one square metre:

F: total force applied on given area (units N)

Where force F (units N) = mass (units kg) * acceleration (units m/s2)
A: area (units m)
p: pressure (units Pa) i.e. 1.0Pa=1.0N/m2

p = F/A

For example, weight is a force. A person having a mass of 90kg has a weight of:

Weight (units N) = 90kg * acceleration due to gravity (units m/s2)

Therefore weight = 90*9.8
Weight = 882N

Say that persons combined footprint (both feet) occupied an area of 0.06 square
metres, then the total pressure exerted by that person standing on two feet is:

P = 882/0.06
P = 14,700Pa (14.7kPa)

Since standing on one foot occupies only half the area, the pressure would double if
the person was standing on one foot i.e. 29.4kPa.

3. Static Head: Static head is potential energy a fluid possesses. It is in essence the
pressure created by the weight of the fluid. The magnitude of static head a volume
of fluid holds is a function of the vertical height of the fluid and the density of the
fluid.

h: vertical height of fluid from the point of head measurement (units m)

g: acceleration due to gravity (constant @ 9.8 m/s2)
U: density of fluid (units kg/m3)
Hs: static head (units Pa)

Hs = U.g.h

Technical Bulletin – Fluid Theory 04/00 ‘The Refuelling Specialists’

Figure 1: Theory of Static Head

Figure 1 shows 2 different tanks, filled with the same liquid to heights h1 and h2
with pressure gauges installed in each tank at the same level.

The static head (units Pa) registered at gauge p1 is:

Hs(1)= U.g.h1

The static head (units Pa) registered at gauge p2 is:

Hs(2)= U.g.h2

Since the properties U and g are constant for each tank, the difference between p1
and p2 is:

Hs(2)-Hs(1)= U.g.(h2-h1)

Note that the volume of fluid is not considered, only the height of fluid. Thus despite
tank 1 containing considerably more liquid than tank 2, the static head produced by
tank 2 is more than that generated by tank 1. The ratio of this difference is simply:

Hs(1):Hs(2) = h1:h2

Figure 2 shows a U shaped device containing a volume of liquid, with one end of the
device open to atmosphere (at p1) and the other end closed (at p2) and pressurised
by air. By knowing the density of the fluid and by measuring the height h1, we can
calculate the difference in pressure between p2 and p1. Since the open end is open
to atmosphere and hence atmospheric pressure, gauge p1 will be zero and the
pressure registered by gauge p2 will be some quantity above atmospheric pressure.

Technical Bulletin – Fluid Theory 04/00 ‘The Refuelling Specialists’

Figure 2: Pressure measurement

The difference between p2 and p1 is simply:

p2-p1 = U.g.h

Where the static head produced by the height h of the liquid is:

Hs = U.g.h

Hence:

Hs = p2-p1

For example, if the liquid was water (U=1000kg/m3) and the height h the water was
displaced was 0.1m, then:

Hs = p2-p1 = 1000*9.8*0.1
p2-p1 = 980Pa (0.98kPa)
Therefore p2 = 980Pa (gauge pressure), since p1 = 0Pa (gauge pressure)

If the fluid was now changed to diesoline (U=860kg/m3) and the pressure p2 was
maintained at 980Pa, the height h would be:

Since Hs = U.g.h
Therefore: h = Hs/(U.g)
h = 980/(860*9.8)
h = 0.116m

The increase in height has occurred due to the fact that per unit volume, diesoline
weighs less than water, i.e. the density of diesoline is less than the density of water.
For a liquid denser than water, say liquid mercury (U=13,600kg/m3), the height
would be less than that achieved by water (h=0.00735m for the mercury).

Technical Bulletin – Fluid Theory 04/00 ‘The Refuelling Specialists’

4. Dynamic Head: Dynamic head – as the term ‘dynamic’ suggests – is the energy
possessed by a fluid due to it’s movement i.e. it’s kinetic energy. Put simply, the
dynamic head of a fluid is the momentum of the fluid as it is moving, thus stationary
fluid produces no dynamic head.

U: density of fluid (units kg/m3)

v: velocity (speed) of the moving fluid (units m/s2)
Hd: dynamic head of the fluid (units Pa)

Hd = 0.5*U*v2

Fluid flowing through a pipe possesses dynamic head supplied by either a pump or
the static head stored within the liquid. For example, if a valve were opened at the
base of a tank filled with liquid, the liquid would flow from the valve thus converting
the static head (potential energy) of the liquid into dynamic head (kinetic energy).
The pressure and velocity at which the liquid exits will decrease as the height of
liquid in the tank decreases due to the corresponding decrease in static head.

5. Head Loss: One of the laws of physics states that no process is 100% reversible
i.e. additional energy is required to reverse or repeat a process due to some energy
always being lost (destroyed) during each cycle – usually in the form of heat. The
same applies to fluid mechanics. Whenever fluid flows through a pipe, valve, pump,
even an open drain, there is some loss of energy. This loss of energy is classed as
head loss. It is a loss due to the fact that it requires energy input to overcome the
necessity to transfer the fluid. Whenever fluid moves, some of the energy the fluid
possessed prior to it moving is lost. The magnitude of this loss is dependent mainly
upon 4 factors:

x viscosity of the liquid (i.e. its ability to flow) – a property of the fluid
x speed at which the liquid is travelling – indication of whether flow is
laminar or turbulent
x rate at which the fluid is required to change direction i.e. bends, valves
etc.
x roughness of surfaces in contact with the fluid i.e. rusty pipes Vs new
pipes

Head loss can be classified into three categories:

1. Dynamic loss due to the nature i.e. physical make-up, of the fluid itself
i.e. it’s viscosity and density
2. Dynamic loss due to the interaction of the fluid with other surfaces i.e.
pipe walls, valves, pumps, etc.
3. Static loss as fluid is lifted to a different height. NOTE: If fluid falls to a
different level, this is a negative static loss, or a static head gain.

Each type of head loss can be determined separately, however for most applications
the combined loss (total loss) of a system is referred to.

Total Loss = (Dynamic Loss) + (Static Loss)

Technical Bulletin – Fluid Theory 04/00 ‘The Refuelling Specialists’

Figure 3 below shows how the dynamic head loss into a length of pipe linking two
tanks can be calculated by determining the static head of the fluid existing between
each tank.

Figure 3: Conversion of static head into dynamic head

Height h determines the amount of static head driving the fluid from tank 1 through
the pipework into tank 2. The greater the height h, the greater the driving force
behind the fluid.

The dynamic head loss of the liquid through the pipework is equal to the static head
between the tanks. The dynamic head loss through the pipework is a function of the
internal diameter of the pipe and the number and type of fittings i.e. valves etc. The
magnitude of this loss is dependent upon the characteristics of the fluid and the
speed at which it flows through the pipework – being proportional to the amount of
static head.

6. Pump Head: A pump is a device, which adds energy (head) to fluid. There are
many types of pump, each with their own method of transferring mechanical energy
into fluid head. Some pumps are designed to handle various types of fluid e.g. either
water, fuel, molasses etc., whilst certain pumps are designed to perform certain
specific tasks e.g. metering pumps, submerged spear-point pumps, superchargers,
etc. Regardless of their design, they each transfer fluid from one location to another
by adding energy to the fluid.

Pump design also determines the type of energy supplied to a fluid. Some pumps
create little static head yet can develop high dynamic head e.g. axial flow fans,
whilst others such as vane pumps develop high static head with the amount of
dynamic head proportional to the rotational speed of the pump. Such positive
displacement pumps as the vane pump, incorporate a bypass valve which limits the
pump head generated in order to protect the pump, motor, and delivery system
from pressure overload.

Pump head can be measured by observing the static pressure within the delivery
line under no-flow conditions i.e. turning the pump on with the nozzle locked off.
Under this condition, the dynamic head and thus dynamic head loss is zero,
therefore the pump head registered by the gauge on the delivery line of the pump
refers to the total pump head available. Note however that any difference in height
between the pump and the level at which you observe the head measurement, will
Technical Bulletin – Fluid Theory 04/00 ‘The Refuelling Specialists’
be affected by the static head between those points. Indeed the pump head could
also be determined by installing a large vertical length of pipe onto the pump outlet
and observing the height at which the fluid reaches with the pump on. The static
head existing between the pump and the surface of the liquid is equal to the pump
head.

When selecting a pump for an installation, there are a number of points to be

considered. Firstly one must determine the pressure and/or flowrate required at a
certain point within the system i.e. at entry to the refuelling nozzle. Based on the
total head required at that point, a suitable pump design and size is selected. For
example, an installation incorporating high total loss will require a pump developing
high static head. Thus the type and size of the pump is dependent upon the
effectiveness of the pipework to transfer the pump head into the nozzle. Minimising
the total loss of a system is one of the key objectives of the design engineer.

Figure 4: Head loss through a refuelling system

Figure 4 shows a typical refuelling system. The system incorporates both dynamic
and static head loss, due to the need for the pump to supply energy to force fuel
through pipework and upwards to a higher level.

Bernoulli’s equation was devised as an energy balance that can be applied between
2 points in an incompressible (liquid) fluid system. For example, between points 2
and 3 in Figure 4:

(TOTAL HEAD)2 = (TOTAL HEAD)3 + HL2-3

Total fluid head consists of three parts; pressure head, velocity (dynamic) head, and
potential (static) head. Basically, the total head at point 2 is equal to the total head
at point 3 plus the total head loss between the two points.

Analysing Figure 4, there exists dynamic head loss between; p1 to p2, p2 to p3,
and p3 to p4, whilst static head loss occurs between; p2 to p3, and p3 to p4. The
total loss of the system is the sum of all dynamic losses and all static losses. The
pump must supply sufficient head to account for the total loss of the system, thus
delivering the required rate of fuel through the nozzle into the tank. Increasing the
head loss between p1 and p2 by partially closing the valve, would increase the
Technical Bulletin – Fluid Theory 04/00 ‘The Refuelling Specialists’
pressure at p1 and reduce the pressure available at p2, p3, and inevitably p4.
Alternatively, reducing the loss between say p1 and p3 by installing fewer bends or
larger diameter pipe would increase the head available at p3 and thus p4. The total
loss of the nozzle and receiver has been determined from flow testing on the Banlaw
test tank. In most applications, this loss is the major cause of head loss between
points p3 and p4.

The pressure at p4 is zero until such time as the vent closes. Immediately prior to
nozzle shut-off – once the vent has closed – the pressure at p4 will be the difference
between the pressure observed at p3 before the vent had closed, and the pressure
p3 that initiates nozzle shut-off. For every rate of fuel delivery through the nozzle,
there is a pressure p3 which will initiate nozzle shut-off. These values have been
determined by flow tests conducted on the Banlaw test tank.

Banlaw offers different back spring settings to cater for varying head loss between
p3 and p4. High static head loss, remote receiver location, and drop tubes all
increase the total loss between the nozzle and the top of the tank. High loss
between p3 and p4 increase the pressure at p3, thus requiring a heavier spring
setting to maintain the nozzle on until the vent has closed. To minimise the pressure
p4 i.e. the level of tank pressurisation, it is imperative to match the correct spring
setting with the pressure observed at p3.

6. Pressure Measurement Terminology: There are 3 types of pressure when

dealing with fluid flow through a pipe. Each pressure describes a different
characteristic of the fluid, namely:

1. Static pressure (pst): is a measure of the potential energy maintained

within the fluid. The static pressure is measured normal (perpendicular)
to the flow direction, usually along the internal surface of a straight
length of the pipe i.e. a pressure tap. This pressure is normally quoted
when describing the characteristics of a system i.e. line pressure
2. Dynamic pressure (pdyn): is a function of the momentum of the fluid, i.e.
combination of a fluid’s density and velocity (speed). The dynamic
pressure of a fluid is calculated after measuring the average flow velocity
over the pipe bore, or can be determined by the formula below.
3. Stagnation pressure (pstag): is the total head pressure of a fluid at a
point within the pipe. The stagnation pressure is measured in-line with
the flow direction of the fluid, by the use of a special pressure probe
called a pitot tube. This pressure is rarely used when describing the
characteristics of a system.
pstag = pst + pdyn

Technical Bulletin – Fluid Theory 04/00 ‘The Refuelling Specialists’

Figure 5: Pressure measurements for fluid flow within a pipe.

Taken close to the pump discharge, the stagnation pressure will represent the total
pump head available. Note that in a no-flow situation with the pump running, the
stagnation pressure is equal to the static pressure, as the dynamic pressure is equal
to zero. As flow is initiated, the static pressure is reduced and accounted for by the
increase in dynamic pressure i.e. pressure head is converted to velocity head. If the
location of the measurements was now moved further away from the pump i.e.
downstream, both the static pressure and stagnation pressure are reduced by the
total head loss present between the two points.

NOTE: Most references to line pressure refer to the static pressure. There is
different terminology used to describe the same property. Whichever term you use,
be sure to note the flowrate and distinguish between values obtained during flow
and no-flow conditions.

Static Pressure (NO-FLOW) = Head Pressure

Static Pressure (FLOW) = Line Pressure

NOTE: Please ensure that any technical information or advice given out is factual
and accurate. Confirm with me should you have any doubts.

Adam Peattie
Product & Design Engineer
BANLAW PIPELINE PTY LTD
adam@banlaw.com.au

Technical Bulletin – Fluid Theory 04/00 ‘The Refuelling Specialists’