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Differentiation of functions,limits (II),
maximum, minimum, inflection points.
• Two special limits
• The derivative of
o f(x) for x = a
o f(x)
o Differentiable and continuous
• Formulas to calculate the derivative of
o A constant function
o f(x) = x
o The sum f(x) + g(x)
o The product f(x).g(x)
o The product of n differentiable functions.
 Special product
 Power of f(x)
o The quotient f(x)/g(x)
 Important special case
o sin(x)
o cos(x)
o tan(x)
o cot(x)
o The chain rule
o Corollaries
o The inverse trigonometric functions
o Rational power of u = f(x)
 The n-th root of x
 The n-th root of u = f(x)
 Rational power of x
 A rational power of u = f(x)
o Logarithmic functions
o Exponential functions
o Real power of x
o uv
• Partial derivatives
o definition of partial derivatives
o Example of partial derivatives
• Extension of the chain rule
 o Example:
• Implicit Differentiation
o Implicit functions
 Example :
 Implicit definition of a function
o Implicit differentiation
 Concept of implicit differentiation
 Example of implicit differentiation
 Generalization
• Maximum and minimum values
o Relative maximum
o Relative minimum
o Roots of f'(x)
o Rolle's theorem
o Lagrange's theorem
o Constant functions
o Increasing functions
o Decreasing functions
o Relative maximum of a differentiable functions.
o Relative minimum of a differentiable functions.
o Detection of a relative maximum or relative minimum
o Example
• Concavity
o Concave upward
o Concave downward
o Points of inflection
• Theorem of Cauchy
• L'Hospitals rule and special limits
o Theorem 1
o Theorem 2
o Special limits - examples

Two special limits

Without proof, we accept that

sin(x)
lim ------- = 1
x->0 x

tan(x) sin(x) sin(x) 1

 lim ------- = lim --------- = lim ------ .------- = 1.1 = 1
0 x 0 x.cos(x) x cos(x)

tan(x)
lim ------- = 1
x->0 x

Example :
lim ( cot(x) - 1/x) = lim ( 1/tan(x) - 1/x)
0 0

1 - tan(x)/x 1 - 1
= lim (--------------) = ------- = 0
0 tan(x)/x 1

The derivative of
f(x) for x = a

Say G is the graph of f(x) and point P(a,f(a)) is on G. Now, take a point Q(a+h,f(a+h)) on
G close to point P.
(f(a+h)-f(a))
The slope of PQ is ---------------
h

This slope can be viewed as the mean slope of G in the curve segment [PQ].
Now, let h become smaller and smaller. Then the line PQ approaches to the tangent line
to the curve at point P.
If the following limit exists and if it is real, then

(f(a+h)-f(a))
the slope of that tangent line = lim --------------
h->0 h
The last limit is called the derivative of f(x) at point P. This value is noted f'(a).
f(x)

Now make the point P from previous section variable. Then

the slope of the tangent line in point P(x,f(x))

(f(x+h)-f(x))
= lim ---------------
h->0 h

= the derivative of f(x)

= f'(x) (notation)

df
= --- (notation)
dx

d
= --- f(x) (notation)
dx
If, for x = b, this limit is not a real number, then we say that the derivative does not exist
for x = b, or that f(x) is not differentiable for x = b.
.. A function is differentiable in [a,b] if it is differentiable for each x in [a,b].

Differentiable and continuous

Theorem:
If a function f(x) is differentiable for x = b, then f(x) is continuous for x = b.

Proof:
Since f(x) is differentiable for x = b, we have

(f(b+h)-f(b))
lim --------------- = a real number = f'(b)
h->0 h
Now,

f(b+h) - f(b)
lim f(b+h) = lim ( ---------------- .h + f(b) )
h->0 h->0 h

f(b+h) - f(b)
lim ( ---------------- .h ) + f(b)
= h->0 h

= f'(b) .0 + f(b)

= f(b)
Let x = b+h ; if h ->0 then x -> b

lim f(x) = f(b)

x->b

And f(x) is continuous in b.

Formulas to calculate the derivative of

A constant function

Take f(x) = c.
The slope of the tangent line in point p of a constant function is 0. So,

d
-- c = 0
dx

f(x) = x

The slope of the tangent line in point p of the function x is 1. So,

d
-- x = 1
dx

The sum f(x) + g(x)

If the functions f(x) and g(x) are differentiable then

d f(x+h)+g(x+h) -(f(x)+g(x))
-- (f(x)+g(x)) = lim -----------------------------
dx h->0 h

(f(x+h)-f(x)) + (g(x+h)-g(x))
= lim -----------------------------
h->0 h

(f(x+h)-f(x)) (g(x+h)-g(x))
= lim --------------- + lim ---------------
h->0 h h->0 h

d d
= -- f(x) + -- g(x)
 dx dx

d d d
-- (f(x)+g(x)) = -- f(x) + -- g(x) = f'(x) + g'(x)
dx dx dx

This property is extendable to the sum of n differentiable functions.

The product f(x).g(x)

If the functions f(x) and g(x) are differentiable then

d f(x+h).g(x+h) - f(x).g(x)
-- (f(x).g(x)) = lim ---------------------------
dx h->0 h

f(x+h).g(x+h) -f(x+h)g(x) + f(x+h)g(x) -

f(x).g(x)
= lim --------------------------------------------------
h->0 h

(g(x+h)-g(x)) (f(x+h)-f(x))
= lim (f(x+h). --------------- + g(x). --------------)
h->0 h h

= f(x).g'(x) + f'(x).g(x)

d
-- (f(x).g(x)) = f(x).g'(x) + f'(x).g(x)
dx

The product of n differentiable functions.

Previous property is extendable to the product of n differentiable functions.

Example : u=f(x) v=g(x) w=h(x)

d
--(u.v.w) = u'.v.w + u.v'.w + u.v.w'
dx

Special product

u=f(x) and c is a constant

d
--(c.u) = c.u'
dx

Power of f(x)

u=f(x) is differentiable
d n d n-1
--( u ) = --(u.u.u. ... .u) = n.(u ).u'
dx dx

d
--( un ) = n.(un-1).u'
dx

The quotient f(x)/g(x)

If the functions f(x) and g(x) are differentiable then

d f(x+h)/g(x+h) -(f(x)/g(x))
-- (f(x)/g(x)) = lim -----------------------------
dx h->0 h

f(x+h).g(x) - f(x).g(x+h)
= lim -----------------------------
h->0 h.g(x).g(x+h)

f(x+h).g(x) -f(x)g(x) +f(x)g(x) - f(x).g(x+h)

= lim ---------------------------------------------
h->0 h.g(x).g(x+h)

g(x) . (f(x+h)-f(x))/h - f(x) . (g(x+h)-g(x))/h

= lim ------------------------------------------------
h->0 g(x).g(x+h)

g(x).f'(x) - f(x).g'(x)
= -------------------------
g(x).g(x)

(u / v)' = ( v u' - u v') / v2

Important special case

u=f(x) is differentiable
n (n-1)
d -n d 1 u . 0 - n.u .u' (-n-1)
--( u ) = -- (---) = --------------------- = -n.u .u'
dx dx n 2n
u u

From this it follows that the formula

d n n-1
--( u ) = n.(u ).u'
dx
holds for all integer values of n.

sin(x)

d sin(x+h) - sin(x)
--sin(x) = lim ------------------
dx h->0 h

2.cos(x + h/2).sin(h/2)
= lim ------------------------
h->0 h

cos(x + h/2).sin(h/2)
= lim ------------------------
h->0 h/2

sin(h/2)
= lim cos(x + h/2).--------
h->0 h/2

= cos(x)

cos(x)

Analogous as for sin(x) you can prove that

d
--cos(x) = - sin(x)
dx

tan(x)

d d sin(x) cos2(x) - sin(x).(-sin(x))

--tan(x) = --(------) = -----------------------------
dx dx cos(x) cos2(x)
 1
= ---------
cos2(x)

cot(x)

Analogous as for tan(x) you can prove that

d -1
--cot(x) = ---------
dx sin2(x)

The chain rule

Take the function f(g(x)) en let u = g(x). Assume that f and g are differentiable.
d f(g(x+h)) - f(g(x))
--(f(g(x)) = lim ------------------
dx h->0 h

f(g(x+h)) - f(g(x)) g(x+h) - g(x)

= lim --------------------. ----------------
h->0 g(x+h) - g(x) h

let g(x+h) = g(x) + k = u + k

f(u + k) - f(u) g(x+h) - g(x)

= lim -------------------. ----------------
h->0 k h

if h -> 0 then k -> 0

f(u + k) - f(u) g(x+h) - g(x)

= lim -------------------. lim ----------------
k->0 k h->0 h

d d
= -- f(u) . -- g(x)
du dx
We can also write

d d
-- f(u) = -- f(u) . u'
dx du
This formula is known as the chain rule.

Corollaries
Appealing on the chain rule we have
d d
--sin(u) = -- sin(u) . u' = cos(u) . u'
dx du

d d
--cos(u) = -- cos(u) . u' = - sin(u) . u'
dx du

d d 1
--tan(u) = -- tan(u) . u' = ---------- . u'
dx du cos2(u)

d d 1
--cot(u) = -- cot(u) . u' = - -------- . u'
dx du sin2(u)

d
--(un ) = n . (un-1).u'
dx

...

d
--sin(u) = cos(u) . u'
dx

d
--cos(u) = - sin(u) . u'
dx

d 1
--tan(u) = ---------- . u'
dx cos2(u)

d 1
--cot(u) = - -------- . u'
dx s in2(u)

d
--(un ) = n . (un-1).u'
dx

The inverse trigonometric functions

First take arcsin(x) . We know that for x in [-1,1] sin( arcsin(x) ) = x. (1)
So, these two functions must have the same derivative.
Thus, we differentiate both sides of (1).
From previous formulas we have
 d
cos( arcsin(x) ). --( arcsin(x) ) = 1 (2)
dx
But let b = arcsin(x). Then b is in [-pi/2,+pi/2] .
_____________ _______
| 2 | 2
cos(b) = \| 1 - sin (b) = \| 1 - x
________
| 2
Thus, cos( arcsin(x) ) = \| 1 - x
From (2) we can write now :
________
| 2 d
\| 1 - x . --( arcsin(x) ) = 1
dx

d 1
<=> --( arcsin(x) ) = -------------
dx _______
| 2
\| 1 - x

and with the chain rule :

d 1
--( arcsin(u) ) = -------------.u'
dx _______
| 2
\| 1 - u

Analogous

d - 1
--( arccos(u) ) = -------------.u'
dx _______
| 2
\| 1 - u

d 1
--( arctan(u) ) = -------------.u'
dx 1 + x2

d - 1
--( arccot(u) ) = -------------.u'
dx 1 + x2
Rational power of u = f(x)

The n-th root of x

For x > 0 we have

(x(1/n))n= x
So, these two functions must have the same derivative.
Thus, we differentiate both sides.
(1/n) n-1 d (1/n)
n.(x ) . -- (x ) = 1
dx

<=> ...

d (1/n) 1 1/n - 1
<=> -- (x ) = ---. (x )
dx n

The n-th root of u = f(x)

From previous formula we have

d (1/n) 1 1/n - 1
-- (u ) = ---. (u ).u'
dx n

Rational power of x

d (m/n) d (1/n) m (1/n) m-1 1 1/n - 1

-- (x ) = -- (x ) = m.(x ) . --. (x )
dx dx n

<=> ...

m
<=> = --- . xm/n - 1

A rational power of u = f(x)

From previous formula we have

d (m/n) m
-- (u ) = --- . um/n - 1
.u'
dx n
Logarithmic functions

See derivative of a logarithmic function

Exponential functions

See derivative of an exponential function

Real power of x

See derivative of a real power of x

uv

See derivative of uv

Partial derivatives
definition of partial derivatives

Suppose we have a function f such that the image depends on several independent
variables, say x, y and z.

We write f(x,y,z).

Consider, for a moment, in such function f(x,y,z) y and z as constant, then f(x,y,z) only
depends on the variable x. Then, we can calculate the derivative with respect to x.
We note this derivative as

fx'(x,y,z)
Similarly we can calculate
fy'(x,y,z) and fz'(x,y,z)

Example of partial derivatives

f(x,y,z) = 3 x y - x z + 6 y -4

fx'(x,y,z) = 3 y - z

fy'(x,y,z) = 3 x + 6

fz'(x,y,z) = - x
Extension of the chain rule
Suppose we have a function f(x,y,z) such that x, y and z are not independent but functions
of a variable t. Then f is a function of t.

Suppose that x, y and z are differentiable functions of t. We denote the three derivatives
for short as x',y' and z'. We can calculate the derivative of f with respect to t with the
formula

d
--- f(x,y,z) = fx'(x,y,z) . x' + fy'(x,y,z) . y' +
fz'(x,y,z) . z'
dt

The proof of this formula is beyond the scope of this tutorial.

Example:

f(x,y,z) = x2 + x.y + z2 + y.z

and x = 3t ; y = 5 t2 ; z = t3

Then
d
--- f(x,y,z) = (2x + y).3 + (x + z). 10t + (2z + y). 3t2
dt

= (6t + 5t2).3 + (3t + t3) .10t + (2t3 + 5t2).3t2

= ...

= 6 t5 + 25 t4 + 45 t2 + 18 t

Implicit Differentiation
Implicit functions

Example :

We define the function

x + 6
y = -----
x - 5
If x is not 5, the same function is defined by one the implicit forms
y.(x - 5) = x + 6

or

x y = x + 5 y + 6

or

x y - x - 5 y - 6 = 0

Implicit definition of a function

From previous example we see that expressions as

g(x,y) = 0
or g(x,y) = h(x,y)
can define y implicitly as a function of x.

Implicit differentiation

Concept of implicit differentiation

Suppose that we know that y is implicitly defined as a function of x by the expression

g(x,y) = h(x,y)
If we think y as a function of x, the previous form expresses an identity for all x-values.
Then, the left side is a function of x, and the right side is a function of x and these
functions are identical.
Therefore the derivative, with respect to x, of both sides is the same.
d g(x, y) d h(x, y)
--------- = ---------
dx dx
This defines implicitly y'.

Example of implicit differentiation

From previous example we know that

x y = x + 5 y + 6

defines y implicitly as a function of x.

If we think y as a function of x, the previous form expresses an identity for all x-values.
Then, the left side is a function of x, and the right side is a function of x and these
functions are identical.
Therefore the derivative, with respect to x, of both sides is the same.
1.y + x.y' = 1 + 5 y' + 0

<=>
 (x-5) y' = 1 - y

<=>
1 - y
y' = -----
x - 5
Previous procedure to calculate y' is called implicit differentiation

Generalization

Previous procedure can be generalized to calculate y' even if the expression

g(x,y) = h(x,y)
defines two or more different y values as a function of x.
Example:
2
y = 4x defines two different y values as a function of x.

Thinking of y as a function of x, we obtain

2 y y' = 4
<=>
y' = 2/y
This result holds for the two different functions!!

Maximum and minimum values

Relative maximum

We say that a function f(x) has a relative maximum for x = t if and only if there is a
strictly positive real number e such that f(x) =< f(t) for all x in ]t-e,t+e[ .
Often the word 'relative' is omitted.

Relative minimum

We say that a function f(x) has a relative minimum for x = t if and only if there is a
strictly positive real number e such that f(x) >= f(t) for all x in ]t-e,t+e[ .
Often the word 'relative' is omitted.

Roots of f'(x)

If f'(x) exists in an open interval that contains the value x = t, and suppose that f
reaches a maximum for x = t.

Then, f'(t) = 0.
Proof:
f'(x) exists for x = t

(f(t+h)-f(t))
=> lim --------------- = a number g
h->0 h

We consider the right and left limit separately

(f(t+h)-f(t)) (f(t+h)-f(t))
=> lim --------------- = g and lim --------------- = g
> 0 h < 0 h

Since f(x) reaches a maximum for x = t , we have

=> ( g > or = 0 ) and ( g < or = 0 )

=> g = 0

=> f'(t) = 0
In the same way we can prove :
If f'(x) exists in an open interval that contains the value x = t, and suppose that f
reaches a minimum for x = t.

Then, f'(t) = 0.

Rolle's theorem

If

• f is continuous in [a,b]
• f is differentiable in ]a,b[
• f(a) = f(b)

Then, there is a c-value in ]a,b[ such that f'(c) = 0.

Proof:
If f is constant in [a,b], then the proof is trivial.

Now, suppose f is not constant in [a,b].

Then there is a number d in ]a,b[ such that f(d) is different from f(a) and f(b).
Suppose first that f(d) > f(a). Since f is continuous in [a,b], f attains, according to
Weierstrass, a greatest image.

Thus, there is a c-value in ]a,b[ such that f(c) is maximum and since f is differentiable in ]
a,b[, f'(c) = 0.

In the same way, you can prove the theorem for f(d) < f(a).

Lagrange's theorem

If

• f is continuous in [a,b]
• f is differentiable in ]a,b[

Then, there is a c-value in ]a,b[ such that

f(b) - f(a)
f'(c) = ---------------
b - a

C is the graph of y = f(x).

The slope of PQ is ( f(b) - f(a) ) / (b - a).
f'(c) is the slope of the tangent line in point R(c,f(c)).
The theorem says that there is a suitable point R on the curve C such that the tangent line
in R is parallel to PQ.

Proof:

The equation of PQ is

f(b) - f(a)
y - f(a) = -------------- (x - a)
 b - a
<=>
f(b) - f(a)
y = f(a) + -------------- (x - a)
b - a
Now, we consider three functions
f : x --> y = f(x)

f(b) - f(a)
g : x --> y = f(a) + -------------- (x - a)
b - a

h : x --> y = f(x) - g(x)

It is not difficult to verify that the h(x) satisfies the three conditions of Rolle's theorem.

We apply Rolle's theorem on the function h(x). There is a c-value in ]a,b[ such that h'(c) =
0;

h'(x) = f'(x) - g'(x)

f(b) - f(a)
= f'(x) - 0 - ------------- .1
b - a
There is a c-value in ]a,b[ such that
f(b) - f(a)
f'(c) - ------------- = 0
b - a

<=>
f(b) - f(a)
f'(c) = ------------
b - a

Constant functions

Theorem:
If f'(x) = 0 for all x in [a,b]
Then f(x) is constant in [a,b].

Proof:
Take two values c and d in [a,b]. We'll show that f(c) = f(d).

Since f'(x) exists for each x in [a,b], f'(x) exists in [c,d] and f(x) is continuous in [c,d].
We apply lagrange's-theorem in [c,d].
There is a value e in ]c,d[ such that

f(c) - f(d)
f'(e) = -------------
 c - d

but f'(x) = 0 for all x in [c,d]. Thus,

f(c) - f(d)
------------- = 0
c - d

and f(c) = f(d)

Increasing functions

Theorem:
If f'(x) > 0 for all x in [a,b]
Then f(x) is increasing in [a,b].

Proof:
Take two values c < d in [a,b]. We'll show that f(c) < f(d). Since f'(x) exists for each x in
[a,b], f'(x) exists in [c,d] and f(x) is continuous in [c,d].
We apply lagrange's-theorem in [c,d].
There is a value e in ]c,d[ such that

f(c) - f(d)
f'(e) = -------------
c - d

but f'(x) > 0 for all x in [c,d]. Thus,

f(c) - f(d)
------------- > 0
c - d

Since c < d , we have f(c) < f(d).

Decreasing functions

Theorem:
If f'(x) < 0 for all x in [a,b]
Then f(x) is decreasing in [a,b].

(proof similar to previous theorem)

Relative maximum of a differentiable functions.

Let e = a strictly positive real number.

Suppose that a function is differentiable in ]t-e,t+e[ .
If f'(x) > 0 in a suitable interval ]t-e,t[ , the f(x) is increasing at the left side of t.
If f'(x) < 0 in a suitable interval ]t,t+e[ , the f(x) is decreasing at the right side of t.
In that case f(x) has a relative maximum for x = t.

Relative minimum of a differentiable functions.

Let e = a strictly positive real number.

Suppose that a function is differentiable in ]t-e,t+e[ .

If f'(x) < 0 in a suitable interval ]t-e,t[ , the f(x) is decreasing at the left side of t.

If f'(x) > 0 in a suitable interval ]t,t+e[ , the f(x) is increasing at the right side of t.

In that case f(x) has a relative minimum for x = t.

Detection of a relative maximum or relative minimum

In general we detect a relative maximum or relative minimum of f(x) by investigating the

sign of f'(x).
f(x) has a maximum = f(t) if f'(x) changes from + to - for x=t.

f(x) has a minimum = f(t) if f'(x) changes from - to + for x=t.

Example

f(x) = 3x5- 5x3 then f'(x) = 15x4-15x2= 15 x2.(x-1)(x+1)

Investigation of the sign gives

x | -1 0 1
---------------------------------------
f'(x) | + - - +

So there is a maximum for x = -1 and a minimum for x = 1

Concavity
Concave upward

If, in an interval, f"(x) > 0 , then f'(x) is increasing.

Then the slope of the tangent line is increasing with x.
We say that f(x) is concave upward in that interval.
If, in an interval, f"(x) > 0 then f(x) is concave upward in that interval.

Concave downward

If, in an interval, f"(x) < 0 , then f'(x) is decreasing. Then the slope of the tangent line is
decreasing with x. We say that f(x) is concave downward in that interval.
If, in an interval, f"(x) < 0 then f(x) is concave downward in that interval.

Points of inflection

Example:
f(x) = 3x5- 5x3 then f"(x) = 15(x4 - x2) = 30x(2x2- 1)

Investigation of the sign gives

x | -sqrt(1/2) 0 sqrt(1/2)
----------------------------------------------------
f"(x) | - + - +

So,
for x < -sqrt(1/2) the graph is concave downward.
for -sqrt(1/2) < x < 0 the graph is concave upward.
for 0 < x < sqrt(1/2) the graph is concave downward.
for x > sqrt(1/2) the graph is concave upward.
The points where the concavity changes sign are the points with
x = -sqrt(1/2) ; x = 0 ; x = sqrt(1/2).
These points are called points of inflection.

The points where the concavity changes sign are the points of inflection.

Theorem of Cauchy

If f(x) and g(x) are continious in [a,b] and if f'(x) and g'(x) exist in ]a,b[ and have
no common roots in ]a,b[ , then there is a value c in ]a,b[ such that
f(b) - f(a) f'(c)
------------- = -------
g(b) - g(a) g'(c)
Proof:
Denote
f(b) - f(a)
------------- = K (1)
g(b) - g(a)

Then f(b) - f(a) - K (g(b) - g(a)) = 0

We create the function f(x) - K g(x).
This function is continious in [a,b] and the derivative exists in ]a,b[. On this function, we
can use Lagrange's theorem .

There is a value c in ]a,b[ such that

f(b) - K g(b) - ( f(a) - K g(a) ) = (b-a).(f'(c) - K g'(c))

=> 0 = (f'(c) - K g'(c))

If g'(c) = 0 then f'(c) = 0 and this is impossible because f'(x) and g'(x) have no common
roots in ]a,b[. So, g'(c) is not 0 and then
f'(c)
------ = K (2)
g'(c)
From (1) and (2), we have that there is a value c in ]a,b[ such that
f(b) - f(a) f'(c)
------------- = -------
g(b) - g(a) g'(c)

L'Hospitals rule and special limits

Theorem 1

If ( lim f(x) = lim g(x) = 0 )

a a

f'(x)
and lim ------- = can be found
a g'(x)

Then
f(x) f'(x)
lim ------ = lim -------
a g(x) a g'(x)
Proof :
f'(x)
First, suppose that lim ------- = finite = A
a g'(x)
Since f'(x) exists in the environment of a, f(x) is continuous in the environment of a and
lim f(x) = f(a)
a
But we have also that

lim f(x) = 0
a
Therefore f(a) = 0.
Similarly g(a) = 0.
With Cauchy's theorem, we can write in the same environment of a
f(x) f(x) - f(a) f'(c)
----- = ------------- = ------- with c between x and a.
g(x) g(x) - g(a) g'(c)
If x --> a , c --> a.
Now we take the limit of both sides for x --> a
f(x) f'(c)
lim ------ = lim ------- = A
a g(x) a g'(c)

And, in this first case, the theorem is proved.

f'(x)
Now, suppose that lim ------- = + infinity
a g'(x)

Then
g'(x)
lim ------- = +0
a f'(x)

and appealing on the first case

g(x) g'(c)
lim ------ = lim ------- = +0
a f(x) a f'(c)
So,
f(x) f'(c)
lim ------ = lim ------- = + infinity
a g(x) a g'(c)

(similar for - infinity)

Theorem 2
If ( lim f(x) = lim g(x) = infinite )
a a

f'(x)
and lim ------- = can be found
a g'(x)

Then
f(x) f'(x)
lim ------ = lim -------
a g(x) a g'(x)

Proof:
f'(x)
First, suppose that lim ------- = finite = A
a g'(x)

Consider the identity for all x

f(x) f(x) - f(b) 1 - g(b)/g(x)

----- = -------------. ---------------
g(x) g(x) - g(b) 1 - f(b)/f(x)
Since f'(x) exists in the environment of a, f(x) is continuous in the environment of a and
similarly for g(x).

With Cauchy's theorem, previous identity becomes, with b and x in the same environment
of a :

f(x) f'(c) 1 - g(b)/g(x)

----- = ------- . --------------- with c between x and a.
g(x) g'(c) 1 - f(b)/f(x)
If x --> a , c --> a.
Now we take the limit of both sides for x --> a
f(x) f'(c) 1 - 0
lim ------ = lim -------. ------ = A
a g(x) a g'(c) 1 - 0

And, in this first case, the theorem is proved.

f'(x)
Now, suppose that lim ------- = + infinity
a g'(x)

Then
g'(x)
lim ------- = +0
a f'(x)
and appealing on the first case

g(x) g'(c)
lim ------ = lim ------- = +0
a f(x) a f'(c)
So,
f(x) f'(c)
lim ------ = lim ------- = + infinity
a g(x) a g'(c)

(similar for - infinity)

Special limits - examples

L'Hospitals rule is frequently used in the following limits.

In these examples the properties and the derivatives of exponential and logarithmic
functions are used.
•
• cos(2x) - 1 -2 sin(2x)
• lim ------------ = lim ------------ = 0
• 0 sin(3x) 0 3 cos(3x)
•
•
• cos(x)-cos(2x) - sin(x) + 2 sin(2x)
• lim -------------- = lim ---------------------
• 0 cos(x)-cos(3x) 0 - sin(x) + 3 sin(3x)
•
•
•
• - cos(x) + 4cos(2x) 3
• = lim -------------------- = ---
• 0 - cos(x) + 9cos(3x) 8
•
•
• ln(x) 1/x
• lim ------- = lim ------- = 0
• infty x infty 1
•
•
• xn n.xn-1
• lim ------ = lim ---------
• infty ex ex
•
• n.(n-1)xn-2
• = lim --------------
• ex
•
• = ...
•
• n!
• = lim ------ = 0
• ex
•
•
• ln(x) 1/x
• lim x. ln(x) = lim ------ = lim ------ = - lim x = 0
• 0 1/x -1/x2
•
•
• lim xx = lim ex.ln(x) = elim x.ln(x)

• 0 0
•
• and from previous example
•
• = e0 = 1
•
•
•
• lim (cos(x))1/x
• 0
•
• = lim e(1/x).ln(cos(x))
• 0
•
• = elim (1/x).ln(cos(x))

•
•
• but lim (1/x).ln(cos(x))
• 0
• ln(cos(x))
• = lim ---------------
• 0 x
• -sin(x)/cos(x)
• = lim ---------------- = 0
• 0 1
•
• So lim (cos(x))1/x = e0 = 1
• 0
•