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Homework #3 Solutions

Chapter 5
Practice Problems 9. Determine whether the following permutations are even or odd. (a) (135) (135) = (15)(13) even (b) (1356) (1356) = (16)(15)(13) odd (c) (13567) (13567) = (17)(16)(15)(13) even (d) (12)(134)(152) (12)(134)(152) = (12)(13)(14)(15)(12) odd (e) (1243)(3521) (1243)(3521) = (13)(14)(12)(31)(32)(35) even

11. Let n be a positive integer. If n is odd, is an n-cycle an odd or an even permutation? If n is even, is and n-cycle an odd or even permutation? If we write an n-cycle as a product of two-cycles in the form used in the proof, we end up with n 1 two-cycles. If n is odd, n 1 is even, and if n is even, n 1 is odd. So odd cycles have even length, and even cycles have odd length.

14. In Sn , let be an r-cycle, be an s-cycle, and be a t-cycle. Complete the following statements:

is even if and only if r + s is even; is even if and only if r + s + t is even.

20. Compute the order of each member of A4 . What arithmetic relationship do these orders have with the order of A4 ? The order of a permutation of a nite set written as disjoint cycles is the least common multiple of the lengths of the cycles: | | = |(1)| = 1 |(12)(34)| = |(13)(24)| = |(14)(23)| = lcm(2, 2) = 2 |(123)| = |(243)| = |(142)| = |(134)| = |(132)| = |(143)| = |(234)| = |(124)| = 3 The order of the elements divides the order of |A4 | =
4! 2

24 2

= 12.

30. What cycle is (a1 a2 . . . an )1 ? (a1 a2 . . . an )1 = (an an1 . . . a2 a1 ) = (a1 an . . . a2 ).

Written Problems 13. Prove Theorem 5.6 : The set of even permutations in Sn forms a subgroup of Sn . Well use the Finite Subgroup Test: Lets call the set of even permutations in Sn An . First we show that An = . Since the identity permutation, , is even, An = .

An . So,

Now, suppose that , An . We need to show An . We write and as products of 2-cycles: = a1 a2 . . . an = b1 b2 . . . bm ,

where ai and bj are 2-cycles. Since and are both even permutations, n and m must be even numbers. Writing as a product of 2-cycles: = a1 a2 . . . an b1 b2 . . . bm . is in An if it is an even permutation, which happens

only if n + m is even. The sum of two even integers is even, thus A4 . So, by the Finite Subgroup Test, An Sn .

19. Show that if H is a subgroup of Sn , then either every member of H is an even permutation or exactly half of the members are even. We know H certainly contains , an even permutation. Suppose H contains at least one odd permutation, . Similar to the proof that |An | = n! : For any even permutation, , the permutation 2 is odd. We get a new odd permutation with every even permutation, since cancellation gives = implies = . So there are at least as many odd permutations as even permutations. Also, for any odd permutation, , the permutation is even, so we have at least as many even permutations as odd. So either we have no odd permutations, or an equal number of even and odd permutations.

Chapter 6
Practice Problems 1. Find an isomorphism from the group of integers under addition to the group of even integers under addition. Let : Z 2Z, where 2Z = {2n | n Z}, the even integers. Dene (n) = 2n. This is an isomorphism.

7. Prove that S4 is not isomorphic to D12 . The dihedral group, D12 , has an element, R30 of order 12. Since isomorphisms preserve order, R30 must be mapped to an element of order 12 in S4 . No such element exists, since the order of a permutation is the least common multiple of the lengths of the disjoint cycles. The elements of largest order in S4 are the 4-cycles, which have order 4.

29. Consider the following statement: The order of a subgroup divides the order of a group. Suppose you could prove this for nite permutation groups. Would the statement then be true for all nite groups? Explain. YES! Since every group is isomorphic to a group of permutations, its subgroups are also. Isomorphisms preserve the orders of groups. So, if the order of the subgroup of permutations divides the order of the group of permutations, then so must the orders of the original group and subgroup.

Written Problems 6. Prove that the notion of group isomorphism is transitive. That is, if G, H, and K are groups and G H and H K, then G H. Let : G H and : H K be isomorphisms. We want to show that : G K is also an isomorphism. First well show is one-to-one. Suppose that ((x)) = ((y)) for some x, y G. Since is one-to-one, (x) must equal (y). is also one-to-one, so x must equal y. Thus is one-to-one. Now, well show is onto K. Let k K. Since is onto K, there must be some h H such that (h) = k. Since is onto H, there must be some g G such that (g) = h. So ((g)) = (h) = k. Thus is onto K. Lastly we need to show that preserves the group operations. Let x, y G. Then ((xy)) = ((x)(y)) since is operation preserving = ((x))((y)) since is operation preserving Thus, is operation preserving, and hence an isomorphism. So, G K, and the notion of group isomorphism is transitive.

17. Let r U (n). Prove that the mapping : Zn Zn dened by (s) = sr mod n for all s in Zn is an automorphism of Zn . Note: An automorphism is an isomorphism from a group to itself.

Well make use of the fact that since r U (n), r has a multiplicative inverse, r1 , in U (n), and thus also in Zn . First we show is one-to-one: Suppose (s) = (t) for some s, t Zn . So (s) = (t) sr mod n = tr mod n srr1 mod n = trr1 mod n s mod n = t mod n so s = t in Zn . To show is onto Zn , let s Zn . Since r1 is in Zn , sr1 is in Zn . So (sr1 ) = sr1 r mod n = s. So is onto Zn . To show is operation preserving, let s, t Zn . (s + t) = (s + t)r mod n = sr + tr mod n = sr mod n + tr mod n = (s) + (t) So, is operation preserving, and thus an isomorphism.

24. Let and

G = {a + b 2 | a, b Q} H= a 2b b a | a, b Q .

Prove that G and H are isomorphic under addition. Does you isomorphism preserve multiplication as well as addition? Dene : G H by (a + b 2) =

a 2b b a

To show is one-to-one, suppose (a + b 2) = (c + d 2). So a 2b b a = c 2d d c

Since matrices are equal if and only if all their entries are equal, a must equal c and b must equal d, meaning a + b 2 = c + d 2. So is one-to-one.

is pretty clearly onto H since for every under .

a 2b b a

H, a + b 2 G maps to it

Now, suppose a + b 2, c + d 2 G. ((a + b 2) + (c + d 2)) = ((a + c) + (b + d) 2) = = a + c 2(b + c) b+d a+c

a 2b c 2d + b a d c = (a + b 2) + (c + d 2)

((a + b 2)(c + d 2) = ((ac + 2bd) + (bc + ad) 2) = = ac + 2bd 2(bc + ad) bc + ad ac + 2bd

a 2b c 2d b a d c = (a + b 2)(c + d 2)

36. Let G = {0, 2, 4, 6, . . . } and H = {0, 3, 6, 9, . . . }. Show that G and H are isomorphic groups under addition. Does your isomorphism preserve multiplication. First we notice that G = {2n | n Z} Dene : G H by (x) = ONE-TO-ONE: (x) = (y) 3 3 x= y 2 2 x=y
3 x. 2

H = {3m | m Z}

ONTO: 3 Let 3m H. Then (2m) = 2 (2m) = 3m. OPERATION PRESERVING: 3 (x + y) = (x + y) 2 3 3 = x+ y 2 2 = (x) + (y)

MULTIPLICATION?: 3 (6) = (6) = 9 2 3 3 (2) (3) = (3) 2 2 9= 27 2

(2)(3) =

9 2

27 2

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