1626 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 19, NO.

3, AUGUST 2004

Integrating Direct Load Control With

Interruptible Load Management to Provide
Instantaneous Reserves for Ancillary Services
Kun-Yuan Huang and Yann-Chang Huang

Abstract—This paper presents a novel adaptive control strategy Off-line duration of the th interruptible
for integrating direct load control (DLC) with interruptible load.
load management (ILM) to provide instantaneous reserves for On-line duration of the th interruptible
ancillary services in deregulated power systems. Fuzzy dynamic
programming is used to satisfy customers’ requirements and load.
yields a near optimal pre-scheduling of the DLC. Then, the energy Power output of the th unit at the th
payback associated with the DLC is further eliminated by the stage.
adaptive control strategy, which exploits interruptible loads to Payback load at the th stage.
modify the DLC schedule in real-time. Through the developed Practical load at stage .
adaptive control strategy, the influences of the load uncertainties
and forecasting errors on the pre-scheduling of the DLC can also Previous state of the th interruptible
be excluded. The proposed algorithm was practically tested on the load.
Taiwan power (Taipower) 38-unit system with 20 air-conditioner Real energy payback at stage .
loads and 15 interruptible loads. The outcomes reveal that an exact State of the th air-conditioner load at
amount of instantaneous reserves can be successfully acquired, the th stage.
and the results are robust against dynamic disturbances of the
power system. Start-up cost from state to
state .
Index Terms—Adaptive control strategy, direct load control, Maximum disconnected time of the th
fuzzy dynamic programming, interruptible load management.
air-conditioner load.
Minimum connected time of the th air-
NOMENCLATURE conditioner load.
Minimal cost to arrive at state . Best low on/off control time.
Control duration of the th air-condi- Best up on/off control time.
tioner load at the th stage. Interruptible capacity of the air-condi-
CI Control interval. tioner load.
Maximum operation costs at stage . Set of saved states in the stage.
Minimum operation costs at stage . Set of feasible states at stage .
Current state of the th interruptible
load. I. INTRODUCTION
Error between the system and the refer-
ence model.
Fuel cost of the on-line units at state
D IRECT LOAD CONTROL (DLC) is an effective load
management scheme for curtailing the system peak load
that is largely an air-conditioner load. Although utilities offer
. incentive rates to their customers, they are apprehensive about
Forecasted load at the th stage. participating in the DLC project because of its inconvenience.
Amount of the interrupted capacities by In addition, the energy saved in the DLC will be paid back
the DLC at the th stage. when the air-conditioner load is reconnected to the system. The
Interrupted load by the ILM at stage energy payback associated with DLC may thus cause second
. peak loads. Furthermore, peak load shaving by pre-scheduling
Maximal off-line duration of the th in- the DLC is affected by forecasting errors and load uncertainties.
terruptible load. Interruptible load management (ILM) is another load manage-
Minimal on-line duration of the th in- ment approach for reducing the system peak load. However,
terruptible load. any electric power interruption due to the ILM may cause a
larger disturbance than the DLC for customers involved in the
Manuscript received February 21, 2004. project.
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Cheng Shiu The problems mentioned above must be solved when the
University, Kaohsiung 833, Taiwan, R.O.C. (e-mail: kyhuang@csu.edu.tw;
huangyc@csu.edu.tw). DLC and ILM are operated. An optimal power flow analysis [1]
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRS.2004.831705 has been proposed to select interruptible load using the power
0885-8950/04$20.00 © 2004 IEEE
HUANG AND HUANG: INTEGRATING DIRECT LOAD CONTROL WITH INTERRUPTIBLE LOAD MANAGEMENT
factor in real-time. The introduced algorithm also considers
the network constraints and the limits on the generator ramp
rate. An appropriate incentive rate structure [2] was designed
to encourage more customers to participate in the ILM, and
three alternative ILM methods have also been presented for
the Taipower system. Based on the optimal power flow [3], a
suitable interruptible load can be selected by the loss coefficient
to obtain the reserves of deregulated power systems. Therefore,
the independent system operator can use ancillary services to
maintain the system security. A quasistatic model has been
presented to reduce the system spinning reserve, and savings of
1.5% to 8.5% of operation costs have been reported in [4].
The strategy of coordinating DLC with unit commitment [5]
has been proposed to reduce the system peak load and thus re-
duce operation cost. The capacity of DLC was employed as the
system spinning reserve and was coordinated with unit com-
mitment to minimize the operation cost [6]. Fuzzy logic-based
approaches [7], [8] have been used to control flexibly air-con-
ditioner load and thus improve the brute force on/off control
strategy in the DLC. In [7] and [8], customers’ satisfactions and
requirements were considered by the fuzzy variables approaches
to interrupt the air-conditioner load softly. Therefore, inconve-
nience to customers can be reduced as much as possible.
As well as reducing operation costs, the DLC also seeks to
reduce the peak load [9]–[13]. A dynamic programming (DP)
approach [10] has been introduced to enable the DLC to mini-
mize the load reduction. This method [10] intended to minimize
the load reduction in order to reduce the customers’ discom-
fort and to maintain the incomes of utility. Additionally, to sat-
isfy the customers’ requirements, the air-conditioner load on/off
control time was considered in the problem formulation. A com-
bined linear programming and DP-based approach [11] has been
proposed to enable an acceptable level of services to be pro-
vided to customers when the peak load reduction is maximal. A
profit-based DLC [12] has been presented to increase the profit
of utilities and the benefit to customers by shifting the load from
one that provides a low profit margin to one that provides a high
profit margin. The customers’ willingness is incorporated into
the fuzzy logic-based DLC [13] to shift the residential water
heater load and air-conditioner load from periods of high to pe-
riods of low electricity demand.
In a deregulated power system, customers’ satisfaction is im-
portant in load management. The on/off control of the air-con-
ditioner load by the DLC has fewer customers’ disturbance than
the ILM. Nevertheless, the DLC cannot obtain a certain amount
of peak load reduction because of the energy payback. There-
fore, a hybrid DLC and ILM-based approach is presented in
the paper to remove the energy payback phenomenon in the
DLC and provide instantaneous reserves for ancillary services.
In this paper, the fuzzy dynamic programming is firstly used to
pre-schedule the DLC and satisfy the customers’ requirements.
Then, the adaptive control strategy further operates the inter-
ruptible load to adjust the DLC scheduling in real-time. The pro-
posed algorithm was practically tested on the Taipower system
to verify its effectiveness. The test results reveal that the pro-
posed soft load management posses fewer customers’ distur-
bance, and the influences of energy payback, load uncertainties
and forecasting errors on the final schedule can be excluded.
1627
Moreover, the proposed load management strategy can be easily
applied to the competitive energy market to provide instanta-
neous reserves for ancillary services.
The main contributions of this paper are
1) proposing an adaptive control strategy to solve the prob-
lems of energy payback and load uncertainty in the direct
load control;
2) reducing the disturbance to customers caused by inter-
rupted load management;
3) providing a specific instantaneous reserve to maintain the
system reliability;
4) embedding the customers’ willingness into the problem-
solving procedure for load management in the deregu-
lated power systems.
II. PROBLEM FORMULATION
A. Objective Function
The operation cost can be minimized by applying the fuzzy
dynamic programming to the DLC problem to reduce the peak
load as much as possible. Therefore, the objective function of
the DLC is formulated in DP recursive form [14] to optimize
the solution. At stage , the minimal cost of state is written as
(1)
B. Constraints
1) Load Balance Constraints: The power outputs of the
generators must satisfy the modified load demand
(2)
The variable is positive when the DLC is executed.
Although different energy payback models have been discussed
[7], [15], [16], accurate models are difficult to establish. Thus,
the widely employed 3-stage payback model is used in this
paper.
(3)
where , and are the coefficients of the energy payback
model in stages , and , respectively.
2) Control Duration Constraints:
a) Interrupted Duration Constraints: If the interrupted
duration of the air-conditioner load reaches the customers’
endurance threshold, then the air-conditioner load must be
reconnected to the system. The “0” and “1” in the constraints
represent the off-line and on-line states of the air-conditioner
load, respectively. The must be set to “1” when the ac-
cumulated duration of the interruptions reaches the customers’
endurance threshold.
(4)
b) Connected Duration Constraints: The connected du-
ration of the air-conditioner load must to set to satisfy the cus-
1628 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 19, NO. 3, AUGUST 2004

Fig. 1. Block diagram of the adaptive control strategy.

tomers. Therefore, if the on-line duration of the air-conditioner

load is less than the customers’ minimum required connected
time, the air-conditioner load must be connected to the system
continuously. The constraint is as follows.

(5)

For convenience of computation, the control duration

is set to a positive number when the air-condi-
tioner load changes from an on-line to an off-line state, and is
set to a positive accumulation when the air-conditioner load
is lasting off-line state. In contrast, the is set
to a negative number when the air-conditioner load changes
from the off-line to the on-line state, and is set to a negative
accumulation when the air-conditioner load is lasting on-line
state. The is given as shown in (6) at the bottom
of the page.
Fig. 2. Flowchart of inference.

III. IMPLEMENTATION OF DLC AND ILM

A. Adaptive Control Strategy
Adaptive control [17] applies both a priori knowledge of the
controlled process and the automatic incorporation of acquired
outline knowledge, based on on-line process observations or
output residuals. The reference model is designed in parallel
with the plant to specify the performance of the system to be
followed. Accordingly, the parameters of the controller are ad-
justed based on the error between the system output and the ref-
erence model. Fig. 1 displays the block diagram of the modified
model-following adaptive control strategy for the ILM.
The DLC pre-scheduling of air-conditioner load obtained by
the fuzzy dynamic programming can shave the system peak load
according to the forecasted load. However, forecasting errors are
inevitable in the forecasting model, and the results of the peak
load reduction are disturbed dynamically by the energy payback
and load uncertainties. In Fig. 1, the controller adjusts the DLC
scheduling according to the error between the system output and
the forecasted load (reference model). The error is defined as
(7)
The controller is important to enable the adaptive control
strategy to respond immediately to dynamic disturbances. In
this paper, the controller consists of a set of inference rules that
involve simple and real-time operating characteristics. Fig. 2
presents the flowchart of inference. Based on the capacity
and incentive rate-based priority [18], the interruptible load is
selected by the real-time operation of the inference rules to
modify the pre-scheduling of the DLC. The “0” and “1” in the
inference rules indicate the off-line and on-line states of the
interruptible load, respectively.

(6)
HUANG AND HUANG: INTEGRATING DIRECT LOAD CONTROL WITH INTERRUPTIBLE LOAD MANAGEMENT
Fig. 3. Membership Functions.
B. Fuzzy Dynamic Programming
In this paper, the fuzzy variables are used to describe the cus-
tomers’ satisfaction in the DLC. The minimal operation cost of
the DLC given the various customer and system constraints can
be determined by the DP. The objective function, the control du-
ration, and the available capacities of the DLC are fuzzified as
illustrated below.
1) Membership Function of Operation Cost: The objective
function of the DLC is reformulated to minimize the operation
cost.
(8)
Fig. 3(a) plots the membership function. The value of
membership function linearly declines as the operation cost
increases.
2) Membership Function of Control Duration: The control
duration of the air-conditioner load is varied because of the dis-
comfort of the customers in different environments. Each inter-
ruptible air-conditioner load is given its own best control du-
ration to satisfy the customers in their particular environment.
Therefore, based on the requirements of the various customers,
the membership function of the control duration is described as
(9)
Fig. 3(b) presents this membership function. The membership
value is 1 when the control time is in the best range of the control
duration.
1629
Fig. 4. The search structure of the FDP.
3) Membership Function of Available Capaci-
ties: Constrained by the customers’ needs, the interruptible
capacities of the air-conditioner load should be as large as
possible. Therefore, a larger interruptible capacity corresponds
to a larger membership value, as shown in Fig. 3(c).
(10)
4) Optimization Strategy: Through the FDP, the customers’
satisfactions for DLC were fuzzfied by the fuzzy membership
functions, and the optimal membership value was obtained
through the DP algorithm. The control characteristics of the
controllable air-conditioner loads were determined by the
questionnaires, so as to satisfy the customers’ requirement.
Based on the analysis results of the questionnaires, the mem-
bership values of control duration, , and available
capacities, , can be calculated. The memberships
values of the operation cost, , were computed by
the results of the economic dispatch.
To acquire the maximal intersection of the fuzzy sets
, and , the DP optimization
approach was employed. The search structure was displayed
in Fig. 4. Only feasible states were branched for preventing
the explosion of the dimension needed, and the states with
larger membership values were saved. Additionally, the max-
imum-minimum operation was employed to maximize the
membership value, described as
(11)
where is the set of saved states in the th stage.
As shown in Fig. 4, for each state, the minimal membership
values were computed from the previous stage and saved. Then,
the maximal membership value can be obtained from saved
membership values. An optimal decision in the FDP was the
one with the highest membership value at the last stage. There-
fore, the trajectory of maximal membership values can be traced
1630 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 19, NO. 3, AUGUST 2004

by backtracking all states with in each stage from

the highest membership value at the last stage. The trajectory of
the maximal membership values is the optimal or near-optimal
DLC pre-scheduling. Moreover, the solution quality is based on
the computer memory. Therefore, if the memory is sufficient,
an optimal or a near optimal solution can be obtained by the
proposed method. Additionally, for the DP optimization search
structure, if there are more than two states with the same max-
imal membership values at the last stage, the multiple solutions
exist.

C. Implementation of the Proposed Procedure

The proposed procedure includes the following steps.
Step 1) The control periods of the air-conditioner loads and
the interruptible loads are determined by question-
naires to elucidate the customers’ requirements.
Fig. 5. Load curve.
Step 2) Similar control characteristics of the controlled
loads are grouped by statistical analysis.
Step 3) Customers’ requirements of the air-conditioner load TABLE I
groups are fuzzified by applying the membership CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERRUPTIBLE LOAD
functions.
Step 4) The dynamic programming is used to obtain a near-
optimal pre-scheduling for the DLC.
Step 5) The interruptible load management is performed ac-
cording to the adaptive control strategy during the
peak load periods of interest.
a) The pre-scheduling of air-conditioner load is
fed into the adaptive control system.
b) The output errors between the real system and
the reference model are monitored continu-
ously.
i) If the error signal is positive, then the
interruptible load groups are inter-
rupted in real-time according to the
inference rules to compensate for defi-
ciencies in the DLC. the characteristics of the interruptible load and air-conditioner
ii) If the error signal is negative, then the load, respectively, which are distributed in northern, central
interruptible load groups are not inter- and southern Taiwan. Therefore, the maximum off-time and
rupted to maintain the optimal results minimum on-time differed somewhat among the loads. Each
of the fuzzy DP. stage of the fuzzy dynamic programming is set to last for five
iii) The control results are fed back to the minutes to satisfy the customers’ requirements, and each state
controller in the next control period. represents the on/off combinations of the air-conditioner load.
Two cases were considered for the Taipower system to verify
Step 6) The control procedure continued until the control
the robustness of the proposed adaptive control strategy. In Case
period is over.
I, the DLC with different payback models were tested by the
adaptive control strategy. Case II concerned the integration of
IV. NUMERICAL EXAMPLES DLC with ILM to yield instantaneous reserves when the system
is in an emergency.
The proposed algorithm has been tested on the Taipower The proposed algorithm was implemented through following
38-unit, 20 air-conditioner loads, and 15 interruptible loads two steps. In the first step, the near optimal DLC scheduling was
system [19] to demonstrate its effectiveness. After the capac- obtained by the off-line FDP. The FDP was implemented by the
ities of must-run and hydro units are taken off, the 24-hour Turbo C program language, and executed on PC with Pentium
system forecasted load, which must be provided by the 38 IV 2.0 GHz CPU and RAM 256 Mega-byte. The execution time
units, is as plotted in Fig. 5. The average forecasting error of is 10 seconds for the studied cases. In the second step, based on
the system load is about 4%. As shown in Fig. 5, the daily the FDP outputs and error signal defined in (7), the proposed
peak load period is between 14:00 and 19:00 hours. Therefore, adaptive control strategy is used to real-time interrupt the inter-
the DLC is executed in this period. Tables I and II display ruptible load.
HUANG AND HUANG: INTEGRATING DIRECT LOAD CONTROL WITH INTERRUPTIBLE LOAD MANAGEMENT 1631

TABLE II
CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR-CONDITIONER LOAD

Fig. 6. Load with/without DLC ( = 0:5;  = 0:4; = 0:1).

= 0:1).
A. Eliminating Energy Payback
The reactions of energy payback are determined by the in-
sulating material in the buildings, the thermal environment, the
duration of the interruption of air-conditioners, and the temper-
ature inside. Therefore, the exact payback phenomenon is dif-
ficult to model. The 3-stage energy payback model [16] in the
DLC is used in this paper. The energy payback is reacted during
three stages after the air-conditioner load is interrupted. How-
ever, the ratios of the energy payback among the three stages
affect the outcomes of the DLC. Two energy payback models
are discussed to investigate the influences of the payback ra-
tios. The energy saved by the DLC is assumed to be 100% paid
back in the three stages. The two payback models are Model I
and Model II
. less of the different payback models used.
Fig. 7. Load with/without DLC ( = 0:7;  = 0:2;
Figs. 6 and 7 present the results of the DLC obtained using
different energy payback models. The figures reveal that the
peak loads at 14:00 are indeed shaved by the DLC. However,
the energy payback generates the second peak loads. This situ-
ation becomes more serious when the DLC reduces more peak
loads. The adaptive control strategy further operates the ILM to
solve this problem. The soft ILM is applied in the peak load pe-
riod (14:00 to 15:00) to eliminate the second peak loads, and the
forecasted load in Fig. 5 is used as a reference model.
Figs. 8 and 9 present the load profiles after ILM is applied. Al-
though the energy payback is affected by the different payback
models and temperature, the adaptive control strategy success-
fully prunes these loads. These results imply that the proposed
algorithm can eliminate the energy payback in the DLC, regard-
1632 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, VOL. 19, NO. 3, AUGUST 2004

Fig. 8. Load with DLC and ILM ( = 0:5;  = 0:2; = 0:1). Fig. 10. Simulated load.

Fig. 11. Simulated load with/without DLC.

Fig. 9. Load with DLC and ILM ( = 0:7;  = 0:2;
= 0:1).
B. Providing Instantaneous Reserves
Load interruption can instantaneously reduce the system
load when the system suffers from capacity shortage or is in
an emergency. Although the utility offers incentive rates to
customers, large power interruptions greatly inconvenience
these customers. In a deregulated power system, instantaneous
reserves can be obtained from ancillary services. However,
mass power interruptions reduce the profits of power pool
participants. The DLC is an effective load management strategy
for reducing peak load, and the disturbance and operation
costs of the DLC are less than those of ILM. However, the
pre-scheduling of the DLC cannot provide exact instantaneous
reserves because of the energy payback, load uncertainties and
load forecasting errors.
In this paper, instantaneous reserves were obtained by incor-
porating the ILM into DLC. The influences of energy payback,
load uncertainties and load forecasting errors on the DLC can be
circumvented by interrupting the interruptible load in real-time.
The practical load pattern is simulated by adding a random and
uniform % to 5% forecasting error to the forecasted load in
Fig. 5, to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed adaptive
control strategy for a real system. Fig. 10 plots the simulated
real load. If the available units can provide only 8500 MW, then
the system is in an emergency and will require instantaneous re-
serves during the peak load periods.
As shown in Fig. 11, the DLC curtails the peak load. How-
ever, due to the energy payback, the system peal load was still
over the available capacity. Therefore, the proposed adaptive
control strategy is implemented to provide an exact instanta-
neous reserve for the system during the capacity deficiency pe-
riods, 15th and 16th hours. The available capacity (8500 MW) is
used as the reference for the adaptive control strategy. As shown
in Fig. 12, the load reduction by the DLC during the 15th to 16th
hour is negative, because of the energy payback in the DLC.
The DLC reduces the system load demand in the peak load pe-
riod. However, it also generates energy payback to the system,
such that the DLC in fact only reduces the demand by 330.9
MWh during the two hours. The ILM removes 444.7 MWh de-
mand during the same periods. The total reduction energy was
HUANG AND HUANG: INTEGRATING DIRECT LOAD CONTROL WITH INTERRUPTIBLE LOAD MANAGEMENT
Fig. 12. Load reduction by DLC and ILM.
Fig. 13. Simulated load with/without DLC and ILM.
MWh. That means, the
load management can provide system 775.6 MWh in instan-
taneous reserves. As shown in Fig. 13, the system peak load
is reduced successfully to the safe margin. The results reveal
that instantaneous reserves can be provided by the developed
approach, greatly reducing disturbance to the customers below
that caused by the ILM only, because about one half of the re-
serves are provided by the soft DLC.
C. Discussion
Although this paper demonstrates the effectiveness of the pro-
posed technique for a small test system, the approach can also be
applied to larger systems. However, two issues must be consid-
ered. The statistical analysis of the customers’ questionnaires
becomes more complex as the size of the system increases.
Moreover, the memory required by the dynamic programming
increases with the number of controllable air-conditioner load
groups.
Additionally, the time delay problem must be overcome for
the large-scale system application. This problem can be im-
1633
proved by the following two methods. The first method is to
adjust the sampling period larger than the delay time. Although
it may reduce the real-time control ability, a satisfied control
results still can be obtained. The other one is to overcome the
system delay characteristics by replacing the controller. After
proper training, the neural network possesses the system char-
acteristics and can response rapidly [20]. Further study on the
neural network controller to improve the time delay problem for
the large-scale system is now ongoing, and the results will be re-
ported in the near future.
V. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, the adaptive control strategy successfully incor-
porates the ILM into the DLC. Using the proposed algorithm,
the interruptible load is interrupted in real-time to adjust the
pre-scheduling of the DLC. Therefore, if the forecasted load is
used as the reference model for the adaptive control strategy,
then the control strategy can remove the energy payback in the
DLC, despite the use of energy payback models. Additionally,
if the system suffers from a capacity shortage, instantaneous re-
serves can be provided using the available capacity as a refer-
ence. Through the adaptive control strategy, the system secu-
rity can be maintained with fewer disturbances to customers.
The proposed algorithm was practically tested on the Taipower
system to verify its effectiveness. The test results are robust
against the forecasting errors and load uncertainties, because
the load is adaptively controlled in real-time. Moreover, the pro-
posed load management can be easily implemented to the dereg-
ulated power system because the solution procedure considers
the customers’ satisfaction. In the competitive power market, a
specific instantaneous reserve can be obtained through the pro-
posed algorithm for bidding in the wholesale electricity market.
Therefore, the proposed load management strategy can be easily
applied to the competitive power market and thus provide the in-
dependent system operator with the ancillary services to main-
tain the system security.
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Kun-Yuan Huang was born in Kaohsiung, Taiwan, R.O.C., on April 25, 1966.
He graduated from Cheng Shiu Institute of Technology, Kaohsiung, in 1986
and received the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from National Cheng Kung University,
Tainan, Taiwan, in 1993 and 1998, respectively, all in electrical engineering.
Currently, he is an Associate Professor at the Department of Electrical Engi-
neering, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung, where he has been since 2001. His
present researches are on load management, planning and operation of power
system, and fuzzy expert system applications in power systems.
Yann-Chang Huang received the B.S. degree from National Taiwan Univer-
sity of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C., in 1993 and the Ph.D.
degree from National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan, in 1996, both in
electrical engineering.
Currently, he is a Professor at the Department of Electrical Engineering,
Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, where he has been since 2002.
His present research interests are artificial intelligence applications in power
systems.
Dr. Huang is a member of the Taiwanese Association for Artificial Intelli-
gence (TAAI).