Electric Power Systems Research 46 (1998) 59 – 66

Service restoration in compensated distribution networks using a

hybrid genetic algorithm
A. Augugliaro *, L. Dusonchet, E. Riva Sanseverino
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Elettrica, Uni6ersità di Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy

Received 10 April 1997; received in revised form 22 January 1998; accepted 26 January 1998

Abstract

In this paper a genetic algorithm (GA) based approach to the service restoration (SR) problem in automated distribution
networks is presented. Normal operation within the network comprises both automatic reconfiguration and compensation so as
to reduce power losses, allow load balancing and improve the voltage profile. In the restorative state, the reconfiguration is
performed together with compensation, taking mainly into account the load supply requirement and secondarily, the losses
reduction requirement. After a general discussion on the restoration problem together with a short review of recent papers on the
topic, a solution strategy is proposed. Then, a short account about classical GA searching mechanism is reported in order to
emphasize the difficulties arising from the application of a classical GA to the restoration problem. Therefore, the hybridization
strategy of the GA is presented in depth, with particular regard to the description of some new operators, of the objective function
and of the constraints expression. Finally, test results and concluding remarks are reported. © 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights
reserved.

Keywords: Service restoration; Distribution networks; Hybrid genetic algorithm

1. Introduction In the restorative state, loss reduction, such as meet-

Radial network reconfiguration allows cost-effective
and efficient electrical systems planning and operation.
Indeed, in the planning phase, network reconfiguration
can be undertaken to delay network reinforcement and
in a normal operating state, it allows improvement of
efficiency, reduction of power losses and provision of
load balancing. A number of tie-switches must then be
controlled during normal operation in order to achieve
the stated objectives. When a network element is out of
service, reconfiguration can be performed in order to
restore as many loads as possible.
A supervisory control system comprises and orga-
nizes real-time control operations in the network. Reac-
tive load compensation, through remote capacitor bank
control, is one of these. A suitable compensation system
setting can reduce losses and helps to meet the voltage
profile constraint.
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 91 6566111; fax: + 39 91
488452; e-mail: augugliaro@diepa.unipa.it
ing other normal operating state constraints, becomes
secondary; they can be taken into account only after
having provided service to the maximum number of
de-energized loads. The above-mentioned objectives can
be integrated into a unique optimization strategy which
emphasizes one or the other aspect, depending on the
difference between the amount of power supply still
available at HV/MV substations and the amount of
power required by disconnected loads (in what follows,
this difference is called the ‘power margin’). Compensa-
tion can still be performed during service restoration,
influencing the new network configuration and the new
load setting. Furthermore, loss reduction achieved
through compensation and reconfiguration increases
the power margin, making it possible to supply more
customers.
An efficient approach to the service restoration prob-
lem in radial distribution networks equipped with auto-
mated systems for compensation and reconfiguration is
presented here. A solution strategy of the mentioned
problem should then lead to a solution consisting of:
(i) a particular radial configuration; (ii) a particular

0378-7796/98/$19.00 © 1998 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.

PII S0378-7796(98)00025-X
60 A. Augugliaro et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 46 (1998) 59–66
compensation level; and (iii) a particular set of de-ener-
gized loads pertaining to the set of low-priority cus-
tomers1 (high priority customers are not considered as
variables of the restoration problem).
The problem variables are the status of the tie-
switches (open-closed), of capacitor banks (on-off) and
of loads (energized/de-energized). Since digital strings
represent these sets of status, the faced optimization
problem is intrinsically combinatorial. Therefore, an
evolutionary and heuristic strategy can be a feasible
approach.
Evolutionary strategies provide good sub-optimal so-
lutions having beneficial effects on the stated objectives,
in a reasonable computation time. In this paper, a
genetic algorithm (GA) whose evolutionary strategy has
been adapted is presented and its implementation is
described in detail.
This paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, a
general discussion on the restoration problem is re-
ported together with a short review of recent papers on
the subject. In Section 3, a solution strategy for a
distribution network, where the control of reactive
flows and of tie-switches can be performed automati-
cally, is developed. In Section 4, a short account about
classical GA searching mechanism is reported. The
hybridization strategy of the GA is presented in Section
5, with particular regard to the description of some new
operators, of the objective function and of constraints
expression. Test results and conclusions are reported in
Sections 6 and 7, respectively.
2. The Restoration problem in distribution networks
Radial network configurations have many advan-
tages in the normal operation state (protection and
alarm devices are simple and reliable), but they are not
as reliable in outage conditions. The failure of one
element affects the areas below. Consequently, some
branches equipped with tie-switches connecting differ-
ent areas of the network have to be planned beforehand
and their insertion, in an outage operation state, allows
the restoration of supply in the areas below the faulted
point using the power available at the adjacent feeders
and substations. This process aims at transferring loads
to other supporting distribution feeders (Fig. 1).
Permanent faults in a distribution network can either
concern MV feeders or HV/MV substations. In the first
case, it is usually possible to find a new network
1
In the restorative state, when the available power at substations is
not sufficient to supply all the de-energized loads, it is necessary to
de-energize some of the loads. Customers whose disconnection pro-
duces risks to human life or great financial loss are excluded from this
set. Therefore, the loads that can be disconnected temporarily can be
called ‘low-priority’ customers.
configuration providing service to all the customers,
unless technical constraints are not met. In the latter
situation, as well as in the second case, it is necessary to
have power supplied from neighboring substations, at-
tempting not to overload the nearby elements.
In a compensated network, the restoration strategy
performs reconfiguration in order to reach the loads in
the out of service area and the compensation in order
to achieve more real power supply at HV/MV substa-
tion. The service restoration problem has been widely
studied in the literature; this tendency has been recently
rising, due to the spreading application of enhanced
automation and computation technologies in distribu-
tion system operation.
In Ref. [1] a large review of 38 papers, published
between 1987 and 1994, is presented and discussed.
Later studies [2–6] confirm the general scenario de-
picted in [1], with regard to the solution methods. In
none of the cited papers is any mathematically rigid
optimization methodology proposed. Heuristics and AI
techniques are widely used and the restorative solution
is provided by means of a reconfiguration of the
network.
This paper deals with the service restoration problem
when available power is less than demand. The solution
is obtained through the alternate application of two
reconfiguration strategies based both on maximum ser-
vice restoration and on loss minimization. Compensa-
tion is achieved through both steps. Loss reduction has
little importance if the power margin is greater than the
least de-energized load, but it becomes the leading
criterion if substations are no-longer capable of provid-
ing service to customers. The logical steps building up
the strategy are shown in Fig. 2.
3. Problem formulation
The tested distribution system is a radial network,
where both reconfiguration and compensation for loss
Fig. 1. The usually opened tie-switches allow transferral of loads from
one feeder to the other and from one substation to the other.
 A. Augugliaro et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 46 (1998) 59–66 61

Fig. 2. Service restoration strategy.

reduction can be performed automatically in the nor-
mal operating state. The new algorithm has then been
used to find a restorative solution when a permanent
fault occurs. Depending on the fault location and seri-
ousness, it may be necessary simply to change the
network configuration, relying upon the load capacity
of the surrounding network elements, or even to restore
the service in the affected areas from different source
points. Permanent faults taking place in HV/MV sub-
stations are usually quite serious. In this case, during
the restorative state, compensation importance lies in
reducing the reactive contribution required from sub-
stations rather than providing active power supply
through loss reduction.
On the basis of the considerations above, the pro-
posed restorative strategy is organized into two parts.
The first one is activated while some loads still remain
de-energized. In this phase, the main objective is to
supply as many customers as possible and secondarily,
to reduce losses through compensation of reactive
flows. The second part is activated when there is no
more power availability at HV/MV substations. In this
situation, loss reduction becomes the primary objective
achievable through both reconfiguration and compen-
62 A. Augugliaro et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 46 (1998) 59–66
sation. If the power contribution so obtained is large
enough to supply some other customers, the first part
of the strategy is again activated.
The final solution may not provide service restora-
tion in the whole affected area. Apart from that, the
proposed strategy does not consider high priority cus-
tomers as control variables; it is assumed that they
should never be de-energized. As a result, the restora-
tive solution
“ provides supply to the maximum number of cus-
tomers; and
“ allows loss reduction;
while meeting the following constraints:
“ network elements operate within their load capacity;
“ the voltage magnitude at each node lies within the
permissible range; and
“ the network is operated with a radial topology.
4. Genetic algorithms
Genetic algorithms (GAs) [7,8] are search techniques,
emulating species evolution through generations. The
most important aspects in the genetic approach are the
following:
“ GAs search from a population of points, not a single
point;
“ GAs use objective function’s value and information,
not derivatives or other auxiliary knowledge; and
“ GAs work with a coding of the parameter set not the
parameters themselves.
The main steps in the GA procedure are given below.
4.1. Parameter set coding
The decision parameters, which in the SR problem
are intrinsically digital, are coded into a finite length
string.
4.2. Initialisation
A first set of solutions (individuals) is randomly
generated and the GA control parameters are set (num-
ber of individuals, number of generations, crossover
percentage,…).
4.3. Objecti6e function e6aluation
Each solution (individual) is evaluated through the
fitness function. This function is related to the objective
function and to the constraints expression.
4.4. Population reproduction
Individuals taking part in successive generations are
obtained through the reproductive process. This process
is usually composed of three genetic operators: selec-
tion, crossover and mutation. In the selection proce-
dure, individual strings are copied according to their
objective function values. This means that strings with
a high fitness value have a higher probability of con-
tributing one or more offspring in the next generation.
After selection, crossover is applied. This operator aims
at mixing up genetic information coming from two
different individuals to make a new individual. Apply-
ing this operator may be of benefit, but could also
provoke a worsening in offspring quality. In addition,
the results of the combination of two, even very good,
individuals are not predictable. What can be said about
crossover is that its application is not effective when
generations are not diversified. This usually happens
after a number of generations and in this case, muta-
tion is required. This operator randomly changes one
bit in the string and it is applied with a probability,
which has been set in the initialization phase. Flatten-
ing of quality at a high value usually happens at the
end of the search process, but if no artificial diversifica-
tion operator, such as mutation, is used, premature
convergence to local optima is possible.
The potential of GAs lies in their ability to process a
large quantity of information through simple operators
such as selection, crossover and mutation. The stopping
criterion can either be the execution of a given number
of iterations or when a predefined heuristic ending
condition is met.
GAs are search processes, which can be applied to
unconstrained problems. Constraints may be included
into the fitness function as added penalty terms. The
main drawback of these search processes is that a huge
computational effort is required, especially when the
fitness function is difficult to evaluate.
5. GA hybridization for service restoration
GAs used as function optimizers behave in an effi-
cient manner if the reproductive operators are able to
create feasible solutions themselves. Sometimes, it is not
easy to include constraints into the fitness function
expression. In the SR problem, the solutions of which
are different basically due to the network configuration,
the compensation level and the set of de-energized
loads, it is necessary to take into account the following
statements:
“ whatever is the open/close configuration of tie-
switches, radiality is not guaranteed;
“ the number of open tie-switches should be equivalent
to the number of independent loops in the network,
but this condition is not itself a guarantee for radial-
ity; and
“ whatever the compensation level and the load set-
ting, the topological feasibility of solutions is not
affected.
 A. Augugliaro et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 46 (1998) 59–66
Since the radiality constraint has to be met through
the search process, genetic operators in their classical
version cannot be applied to the whole solution string,
since a part of it contains information about the current
configuration (status of the set of tie-switches in the
network).
Specific knowledge about the parameter domain and
the optimization problem may help the definition of
new operators and of some heuristic rules. In this way,
the search process can be fruitfully addressed by some
of these, also in order to maintain topological feasibility
of solutions. Furthermore, logical links among the three
sets of parameters (status of tie-switches, capacitor
banks and loads) can be introduced and implemented.
The proposed GA hybridization consists of the alter-
ation of some genetic operators and the creation of
some new ones. As it mentioned in Section 3, a fault
occurring at one of the HV/MV substations is certainly
one of the most serious. In the following, the proposed
methodology is described with regard to this type of
fault. The tested distribution network comprises:
“ NSS HV/MV substations;
“ NL load-buses (HV/MV transformers; MV loads),
NLD of these are low priority customers, i.e. they can
be de-energized;
“ NB branches, NS of these can be sectionalized; and
“ NQ capacitor banks connected at NC buses (more
than one bank can be connected to the same node).
The proposed strategy is organized into two different
parts, each of which may be activated depending on (a)
the total amount of power available at the operating
substations; and (b) the total power demand.
If (a) is greater than (b) (positive power margin), then
the leading objective will be that of finding an optimal
compensation setting and tie-switch configuration for
loss minimization, while meeting a suitable set of tech-
nical constraints. If instead, quantity (b) is greater than
quantity (a) (negative power margin), there are two
different leading objectives for reconfiguration and
compensation: (1) if the power margin is greater than
the least de-energized load then the strategy tries to
63
The form of the fitness function depends on the
activated strategy. When the available power is suffi-
cient to fulfil load demand or the power margin is less
than the least de-energized load, it is expressed as:
1
f.f.= (1)
DP + Pen+ Pend − e
where DP are active power losses in the network; Pen
are penalties for overloading of branches and HV/MV
transformers and for bus voltages out of the prescribed
limits; and Pend-e is the penalty term for de-energized
loads.
Instead, if load demand is greater than available
power and power margin is greater than the least
de-energized load, the fitness function is expressed as
: ;
follows:
1 1 1
DP exp(Ad − e/AT) Pen+ Pend − e
,
f.f.= , + (2)
DPm
where D°P are power losses in relative values, referred
to the total currently supplied loads; and D°Pm are
power losses, calculated with all the tie-switches in
closed position and in relative values, referred to the
total amount of load (energized and de-energized).
It is now important to notice that the use of relative
values for power losses is of basic importance, since it
appropriately weights the power losses terms. If they
were expressed in absolute values, they would have a
negative influence on the fitness function, bringing its
value to zero, thus de-energizing all the loads.
Ad-e is the total amount corresponding to de-ener-
gized loads; AT is the total load demand, energized and
de-energized; and Pen and Pend-e are the penalty terms
described above. All the penalty terms taking into
account branches and HV/MV transformer overloading
and voltage profile constraints, are weighed with a
penalty factor of different entity for different constraint
violations, WI, WV, WA :
NB NL NSS

service the maximum number of customers; (2) if the
power margin is less than the least de-energized load
then the strategy tries to reduce power losses.
In the GA process, the population is composed of
NPOP solutions, whose coding is of the binary type. The
first NS elements in the string refer to tie-switches, the
NQ elements refer to capacitor banks and finally the
last NLD elements refer to those loads which can be
disconnected. The initial solutions have been created,
with regard to the network configuration, so as to meet
the radiality constraint. Starting from a string relevant
to a radial configuration, this part of the total string is
submitted to a ‘branch exchange’ operator for a num-
ber of times equal to the population size. For each
individual, the remaining part of the string is randomly
initialized to zero or one.
Pen=WI % DIf + WV % DVb + WA % DAt (3)
f−1 b=1 t=1
In the same way, the penalty for not providing service
to some customers NLd − e is expressed by:
NL
d
Pend − e = WL % AI (4)
l=1
Once all the solutions are evaluated through the
relevant fitness function, the fitness values are ‘scaled’
in order to prevent premature convergence, especially if
some elitist selection technique is applied. An altered
reproductive process is then applied to the whole set of
solutions, composing one generation. Since the radiality
constraint must be met, the part of each selected solu-
tion-string relevant to the configuration is only submit-
ted to a ‘branch-exchange’ operator, which exchanges
64 A. Augugliaro et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 46 (1998) 59–66

the status of two tie-switches in the network, so as to probability of branch exchange in the neighbor-
maintain the radial structure. The remaining part of hood of an open tie-switch: 0.5;
each selected solution-string is then submitted to the “ Compensation
classical genetic operators, crossover and mutation. crossover probability: 0.33;
Once the population is again filled, a strong elitist mutation probability: 0.01;
mechanism is applied in order to substitute some of the link probability: 0.5;
worst individuals (lowest fitness value) of the current number of individuals submitted to link operator
generation, with some other hopefully ‘very good’ solu- per generation: 5;
tions. These solutions are obtained by applying to the “ Service restoration
best individuals two new heuristics-based operators. crossover probability: 0.33;
One of these, called ‘link’, makes compensation depen-
mutation probability: 0.03;
dent on the current network configuration, promoting
the insertion of ‘terminal’ capacitor banks within the
tree-network. The other operator, called ‘follow me’,
links the load connection to the power amount still
available at HV/MV substations, promoting load con-
nection only if there is power available.
When there is no more available power at HV/MV
substations, the objective of the strategy is power loss
minimization. In this phase, another new operator has
been used, called ‘load exchange’, which exchanges the
status connected/disconnected of two loads. This load
reconfiguration may reduce losses, setting free some
power for service restoration.
The whole procedure ends with the execution of a
given number of generations or when some heuristic
stopping criterion is met.

6. Application

The proposed restorative strategy has been imple-

mented in a software program written in FORTRAN
90, running on a MAINFRAME IBM 3090. The net-
work to be restored is depicted in Fig. 3. A network
model, based on the impedance matrix, used by the
authors in Ref. [9], was used to estimate the coefficients
appearing in the fitness function expression. The tested
system is a distribution network with six HV/MV sub-
stations and 90 nodes; from each bus a load is derived
and can eventually be disconnected. There are also 98
tie-switches on the 98 branches of the network and 14
compensated nodes with 24 capacitor banks.
The maximum current in the HV/MV substations is
175 A. The main features of the evolutionary algorithm
are the following:
“ General features
population size: 25;
generation number: 250;
linear scaling (with two expected copies desired for
the best population member);
elitist strategy choosing the best individuals of the
new and old generations;
“ Reconfiguration
branch exchange probability: 0.8; Fig. 3. Tested network with all tie switches in the closed position.
 A. Augugliaro et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 46 (1998) 59–66 65

Fig. 4. Tested network after restoration. The substation S5 is out of service. Filled circles indicate supplied loads, empty circles indicate unsupplied
loads.

follow-me probability: 0.5; and all the capacitor banks are switched-on (Fig. 4). In
load-exchange probability: 0.5; this configuration, 155 kVA are still available at HV/
number of individuals submitted to load exchange MV substations, but this amount is less than the
operator per generation: 3. smallest load. Power losses are 342 kW.
The restorative solution, relevant to a permanent fault The solution has been found at the 128th generation
at the S5 HV/MV substation, has the following 13 after an elaboration time of 312 s. This amount of
opened tie-switches: calculation time is strongly influenced by the hardware
capabilities and by the adopted simulation model for
10-21-24-34-43-50-51-62-72-79-82-87-98;
the network. The main objective of this application is
the following seven disconnected loads: to test the proposed algorithm coupled with the expres-
sion of the objective function in order to solve the
10-44-45-48-73-74-79 service restoration problem not taking into account the
66 A. Augugliaro et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 46 (1998) 59–66
possible computational optimization (network model
and algorithm implementation).
It must be noted that the number of tie-switches and
the number of compensated buses, both excessive com-
pared to the extension of the network, are unrealistic
assumptions in the optimization problem; the number
of variables corresponds to a much larger system. This
makes the performed application quite a strict test for
the proposed restorative strategy. The parameter do-
main is quite large compared to the extension of the
system.
7. Conclusions
In an automated distribution system, where in the
normal operating state, both reconfiguration and com-
pensation may be performed, a service restoration
problem, can be faced using the potential of both of
these functions.
Indeed, the proposed restorative strategy dynamically
searches a restorative plan based both on loss mini-
mization and on the minimum number of disconnected
loads. A hybridized GA-based technique has been de-
veloped whose main characteristics can be set out:
1. the fitness function expression changes depending
on the existence, or not, of available power at
HV/MV substations;
2. genetic operators depend both on the current strat-
egy and on the part of the string to which are
applied;
3. some new operators have been set up in order to
generate new individuals, by correlating different
parts of the same solution string; and
4. the parameter domain for the tested network has
been deliberately chosen to be quite large, in order
to verify the efficiency of the proposed strategy
when facing a hard problem.
Finally, it is important to point out that no particular
computational refinement has been used, nor possible
simplifications in the network calculation, which could
reduce the computational effort and the memory re-
quirements. The effectiveness of the proposed strategy
in finding high quality solutions with an easy imple-
mentation encourages testing it within some more effi-
cient programming environment.
Acknowledgements
This work is supported by the Italian Ministry of
University and Scientific and Technological Research.
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