Welcome to the Physiology Course!

Course Director: Motoc Daniela MD, PhD motocdana2005@yahoo.com

Course Requirements/Recommendations:
1) Attend lectures 2) Readings a) Class handouts required readings b) Textbooks i) Medical Physiology by Boron and Boulpaep ii) Physiology by Berne and Levy

iii) Textbook of Medical Physiology by Guyton

iv) Review of Medical Physiology (Lange series) by Ganong

AP Biology

PHYSIOLOGY BOOKS

AP Biology

Human Physiology
Study of how the human body functions. Pathophysiology: How physiological processes are altered in disease or injury.

AP Biology

Goal of this course: 1) To understand cellular physiology 2) To understand how each organ system works to maintain the composition, volume and pressure of the extracellular fluid. 3) Understanding from the whole human body level to the molecular level

AP Biology

What is Physiology?
Focuses on homeostasis, the maintenance of important properties of living organisms in a narrow range in the face of significant environmental fluctuations Examples of properties blood pressure ionic composition of blood osmolarity of blood oxygen and carbon dioxide content of blood acid-base balance of blood glucose concentration of blood body temperature Goals are to identify the processes that control and regulate the important properties of living systems sensors afferent pathways integrating centers - set points effectors efferent pathways How do these systems respond to perturbations in order to return to normal?
AP Biology

Physiology is Different Than Histology or Anatomy

Concepts vs Memorization like physics there are things to memorize but it is the concepts that are essential you must put in the intellectual effort to understand the concepts you must think about the ideas to become comfortable with them do not expect that you will learn physiology by cramming for exams Dynamic vs Static subject new discoveries new insights so what you learn today may need to be revised in the future

AP Biology

What is Physiology?
Focuses on homeostasis, the maintenance of important parameters in living organisms in a narrow range (in the steady state) in the face of significant environmental fluctuations
Example: body temperature Sweat Ducts elevated Sweating

Core Body Temperature Sensors

CNS Integrating Center

normal range

AP Biology

Skeletal Muscle, Brown Fat

Shivering

decreased

Physiology is the Basis of Medicine

many diseases cause organ dysfunction medicine tries to correct dysfunction or minimize its effects trying to restore system towards normal homeostatic setpoint need to understand physiological parameters that can be manipulated Example Congestive Heart Failure (CHF) leads to pump failure inability to maintain adequate level of circulation need to know causes of failure some may be reversible others irreversible if irreversible what else can be done to maximize pumping minimize symptoms changes in blood volume, arterial or venous blood pressure at molecular level need to know potential targets that can be modulated
AP Biology

Chemical Composition of the Body

AP Biology

Elements
Four elements important to living organisms Carbon (C) Nitrogen (N) Oxygen (O) Hydrogen (H)

AP Biology

Four main classes of organic molecules

Lipids Carbohydrates Proteins Nucleic Acids

AP Biology

Lipids
GR: Lipos=Fat Diverse group of molecules. Insoluble in polar solvents (H20). Hydrophobic (nonpolar) Consist primarily of hydrocarbon chains and rings.

AP Biology

Lipids
Hydrocarbons Fatty acids Triglycerides Ketone Bodies Phospholipids Steroids Prostaglandins

AP Biology

Carbohydrates
Organic molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. CH20 General formula: CnH2nOn -ose denotes a sugar molecule

AP Biology

Carbohydrates
Supply energy
Glucose Complex carbohydrates

Provide structural support

cellulose

Part of plasma membrane Monomer: monosaccarides

AP Biology

Carbohydrates
Monosaccharide: the simple sugars
Pentoses (5-carbons):
Ribose: in RNA Deoxyribose: in DNA

Hexoses (6-carbons):structural isomers

Glucose, fructose and galactose Characteristics
Soluable Sweet Alcoholic fermentation
AP Biology

Carbohydrates
Disaccharide: 2 monosaccharides joined covalently.
Sucrose
Glucose and fructose

Maltose
Glucose and glucose

Lactose
Glucose and galactose

AP Biology

Carbohydrates
Polysaccharides: Many monosaccharides joined covalently. General formula: (C6H10O5)n Characteristics:
Devoid of taste Do not form solutions Iodine test
Iodine +starch+blue
AP Biology

Polysaccarides
Kinds:
Starch
Glucose subunits branched

Dextrins Glycogen (animal starch)

Glucose subunits Branched

Cellulose
Glucose subunits Long, unbranched chains
AP Biology

Proteins
General Information: GR: proteios=first rank ~50% of the organic material of the body Functions
Structural:
Cell structures, CTs

Functional:
Enzymes, hormones, Hb, etc!
AP Biology

Proteins
Protein Structure Large molecules (polymers) composed of amino acid sub-units (monomers). Amino Acid structure
amino group (NH2) carboxylic acid group (COOH) Radical group (R): functional group H
AP Biology

Proteins
20 different standard amino acids. Based on the properties of the functional group E.g.:

AP Biology

Proteins
Dipeptide: 2 amino acids Tripeptide: 3 amino acids Polypeptide: many amino acids
Number of amino acids varies Up to 100 aa

Protein
Over 100aa Great variety!
AP Biology

Conjugated proteins
Protein combined with another type of molecule Glycoproteins: carbohydrate with protein
Membranes, hormone

Lipoproteins: Lipid and protein

Membranes, blood plasma

Hemoproteins: iron and protein

Hemoglobin, cytochromes
AP Biology

Nucleic Acids
Include the macromolecules:
DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid RNA: ribonucleic acid

Involved in heredity and genetic regulation Are polymers:

Monomeric subunit:nucleotides Bonded together in a dehydration synthesis reaction
AP Biology

Nucleic Acids

AP Biology

Nucleotides
Structure of a nucleotide: 3 subunits
Pentose sugar Phosphate group Nitrogenous base
Purines: two rings
Guanine Adenine

Pyrimidines: one ring

Cytosine Thymine Uricil
AP Biology

Nucleotide Structure

AP Biology

DNA
Huge molecules with simple structure Big time data storage! Structure
Nucleotides
Pentose sugar: Deoxyribose Bases:
Purines: G and A Pyrimidines: C and T

Form double-stranded helix

AP Biology

DNA

AP Biology

RNA
Means by which DNA directs cellular activities Structure
Pentose sugar: ribose Bases: uracil (not thymine) Single stranded

Three main types

Messenger RNA (mRNA) Transfer RNA (tRNA) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
AP Biology

DNA vs RNA

AP Biology

Cell

Basic living unit of structure & function of the body.

> 100 trillion cells in body. very small (10-5 m in diameter). highly organized. variety of shapes & sizes. each type of cells has a special function.

AP Biology

Primary Tissues
4 Different Primary Tissues: Muscle Nervous Epithelial Connective

AP Biology

Muscle Tissue
Specialized for contraction. 3 Types of Muscle Tissue: Skeletal Cardiac Smooth

AP Biology

Epithelial Tissue Types of Epithelial Tissue:

Cells that form membranes:
Squamous Columnar Cuboidal

Exocrine glands Endocrine glands

AP Biology

Connective Tissue
Large amounts of extracellular (ECF) material in the spaces between connective tissue cells. 4 Types of Connective Tissue:
Connective tissue proper Cartilage Bone Blood
AP Biology

Connective Tissue Proper

Loose connective tissue:
Scattered collagen and tissue fluid.
Dermis of skin

Dense fibrous connective tissue:

Regular arranged.
Collagen oriented in same direction.
Tendons

Irregularly arranged.
Resists forces applied in many directions.
Capsules and sheaths
AP Biology

Organs
Organs:
Composed of at least two primary tissues. Serve different functions of the organ.

AP Biology

Systems
Organs that are located in different regions of the body and perform related functions. Examples:
Skeletal system Cardiovascular system GI system
AP Biology

Cell

All Cells share certain characteristics:

general cell structure & components. general mechanisms for changing nutrients to Energy. deliver end products into their surrounding fluid. almost all have the ability to reproduce.

AP Biology

Cell (continued)
Great diversity of function.
Organ physiology derived from complex functions of the cell.

3 principal parts:
Plasma membrane. Cytoplasm and organelles. Nucleus.

AP Biology

General Cell structure:

o The

cell has two major compartments: the nucleus & the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm contains the major cell organelles & a fluid called cytosol.

AP Biology

General Cell Structure & Function

Component
Cell membrane

Structure
Membrane composed of double layer of phospholipids in which proteins are embedded Fluid, jellylike substance b/w cell membrane & nucleus in which organelles are suspended Double-layered membrane that surrounds nucleus, composed of protein & lipid molecules Dense nonmembranous mass composed of protein & RNA molecules Fibrous strands composed of protein & DNA

Function
Surrounds, holds cell together & gives its form; controls passage of materials into & out of cell Serves as matrix substance in which chemical reactions occur.

Cytoplasm Nucleus:
- Nuclear envelope - Nucleolus

Supports nucleus & controls passage of materials b/w nucleus & cytoplasm Produces ribosomal RNA for ribosomes

- Chromatin
AP Biology

Contains genetic code that determines which proteins (including enzymes) will be manufactured by the cell

Cytoplasm and Organelles

AP Biology

Cytoplasm, Organelles, Nucleoli

(continued)

AP Biology

Cytoplasm and Cytoskeleton

Cytoplasm:
Jelly-like matrix within the cell. Includes organelles and cytosol. Highly organized structure with microtubules and microfilaments that function as cytoskeleton. Actin and myosin (microfilaments). Spindle apparatus (microtubules).

Cytoskeleton:

AP Biology

Cytoplasm The aqueous content of a cell (fluid, jellylike

substance), that lies beetwen cell membrane and nucleus in which organelles are suspended. Serves as matrix substance in which chemical reactions occur. Cytosol is the term used to describe fluid portion of the cytoplasm.
AP Biology

Organelles
Subcellular structures within the cytoplasm that perform specific functions.

o Mammalian cell showing organelles common to all cells and specialized structures (e.g., cilia) found only in some cells. AP Biology

Cytoplasmic Organelles: Structure & Function

Component
Endoplasmic reticulum Ribosomes

Structure
System of interconnected membrane-forming canals & tubules Granular particles composed of protein & RNA membranous sacs

Function
Agranular (smooth) ER metabolizes nonpolar compounds & stores Ca2+ in striated muscle cells; granular (rough) ER assists in protein sysnthesis Synthesize proteins

Golgi complex Cluster of flattened Mitochondria Lysosomes

AP Biology
Membranous sacs w folded inner partitions Membranous sacs

Synthesizes carbohydrates & packages molecules for secretion. Secretes lipids & glycoproteins Release energy from food molecules & transform energy into usable ATP Digest foreign molecules & damaged organelles

Cytoplasmic Organelles: Structure & Function

(continued)

Component
Peroxisomes Centrosome Vacuoles
Microfilaments & microtubules

Structure
Spherical membranous vesicles

Function
Contain enzymes that detoxify harmful molecules & break down hydrogen peroxide

Nonmembranous mass Helps to organize spindle fibers & distribute of 2 rodlike centrioles chromosomes during mitosis Membranous sacs Store & release various substances within the cytoplasm Support cytoplasm & fx as cytoskeleton, transport materials within the cytoplasm Move particles along cell surface, or move the cell

Thin, hollow tubes Minute cytoplasmic projections that extend from the cell surface

Cilia & flagella

AP Biology

Cell Nucleus
Is a large spheroid body. Largest of organelles. Contains the genetic material (DNA). Most cells have a single nucleus. Enclosed by inner & outer membrane (nuclear envelope).
Outer membrane is continuous w ER.

Nuclear pore complexes fuse inner & outer membranes together.

Selective active transport of proteins & RNA.
AP Biology

Cell Nucleus

AP Biology

Cell Nucleus (continued)

Nucleoli:
Dark areas within the nucleus, not surrounded by membrane. Centers for production of ribosomes.

Chromatin:
Threadlike material that makes up chromosomes.

AP Biology

Plasma membrane:
Surrounds, holds cell together and gives its form. 10 nanometer thick. Not solid. Separates cell s internal structures from extracellular environment. Is selectively permeable, controls passage of materials into and out of cell. Participates in intracellular communication.

AP Biology

Plasma (Cell) Membrane

Composed of:
Double layer of phospholipids (hydrophobic/ hydrophilic parts). Proteins span, or partially span the membrane. Negatively charged carbohydrates attach to the outer surface.

AP Biology

The Cell Membrane

AP Biology

General composition of cell membrane

Proteins . 55% Lipids .. 41%
- Phospholipids 25% - Cholesterol . 12% - Glycolipids .. 4% Lipids

Carbohydrates 3%

AP Biology

Cell membrane phospholipids

Consists of: a. Glycerol head that contains phosphate gp (polar & hydrophilic). b. 2 fatty acid tails (nonpolar & hydrophobic). The hydrophobic parts restricts the passage of H20 & H20- soluble ions.

AP Biology

Phospholipid bilayer Phospholipids

Are the most abundant lipid in the plasma membrane Are amphipathic, containing both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions

Scientists studying the plasma membrane

Reasoned that it must be a phospholipid bilayer

AP Biology

Phospholipid bilayer (cross section)

WATER

Hydrophilic head Hydrophobic tail

WATER

AP Biology

Phospholipids
Fatty acid tails hydrophobic Phosphate group head hydrophilic Arranged as a bilayer

Phosphate

Fatty acid

AP Biology

Membrane fat composition varies

Fat composition affects flexibility
membrane must be fluid & flexible % unsaturated fatty acids in phospholipids keep membrane less viscous cold-adapted organisms, like winter wheat increase % in autumn cholesterol in membrane

AP Biology

The Fluidity of Membranes:

Phospholipids in the plasma membrane
Can move within the bilayer

The type of hydrocarbon tails in phospholipids

Affects the fluidity of the plasma membrane

The steroid cholesterol

Has different effects on membrane fluidity at different temperatures

AP Biology

The fluidity of membranes

Lateral movement (~107 times per second)

Flip-flop (~ once per month)

(a) Movement of phospholipids

Fluid

Viscous

Unsaturated hydrocarbon tails with kinks

Saturated hydroCarbon tails

(b) Membrane fluidity

Cholesterol

AP Biology

(c) Cholesterol within the animal cell membrane

The Permeability of the Lipid Bilayer

A cell must exchange materials with its surroundings, a process controlled by the plasma membrane Membrane structure results in selective permeability
Hydrophobic molecules
Are lipid soluble and can pass through the membrane rapidly

Hydrophilic molecules
Do not cross the membrane rapidly
AP Biology

More than lipids

In 1972, S.J. Singer & G. Nicolson proposed that membrane proteins are inserted into the phospholipid bilayer

AP Biology

A Mosaic of Membrane Proteins A membrane

Is a mosaic of different proteins embedded in the fluid matrix of the lipid bilayer

AP Biology

Cell membrane proteins

1. Integral proteins: / Internal or intrinsic proteins
- span the membrane. - transport proteins. - provide structural channels or pores.

2. Peripheral proteins: / external or extrinsic proteins

- embedded in one side (face) of the membrane. - carrier proteins. - bind w substances to be transported. - include hormone receptors and cell surface antigens.
AP Biology

Membrane is a collage of proteins & other molecules embedded in the fluid matrix of the lipid bilayer
Extracellular fluid
Glycolipid

Glycoprotein

Phospholipids Cholesterol Peripheral protein

AP Biology

Transmembrane proteins Filaments of cytoskeleton

Cytoplasm

The detailed structure of an animal cell s plasma membrane, in cross section

Fibers of extracellular matrix (ECM) Glycoprotein Carbohydrate

Glycolipid
EXTRACELLULAR SIDE OF MEMBRANE

Microfilaments of cytoskeleton

Cholesterol

AP Biology

Peripheral protein

Integral protein

CYTOPLASMIC SIDE OF MEMBRANE

Why are proteins the perfect molecule to build structures in the cell membrane?

AP Biology

Classes of amino acids

What do these amino acids have in common?

AP Biology

nonpolar & hydrophobic

Classes of amino acids

What do these amino acids have in common?

AP Biology

polar & hydrophilic

Proteins domains anchor molecule

Within membrane nonpolar amino acids hydrophobic anchors protein into membrane On outer surfaces of membrane polar amino acids hydrophilic extend into extracellular fluid & into cytosol
Polar areas of protein

AP Biology

Nonpolar areas of protein

General functions of cell membrane proteins

1. Provide structural support. 2. Transport molecules across the membrane. 3. Enzymatic control of chemical reactions at cellular surface. 4. Some fx as receptors for hormones. 5. Some fx as regulatory molecules, that arrive at outer surface of the membrane. 6. Some serve as markers (antigens), that identify blood & tissue type of an individual.
AP Biology

Functions of Membrane Proteins

Outside Plasma membrane Inside Transporter Enzyme activity Cell surface receptor

AP Biology

Cell surface identity marker

Cell adhesion

Attachment to the cytoskeleton

Major functions of membrane proteins

(a) Transport. (left) A protein that spans the membrane may provide a hydrophilic channel across the membrane that is selective for a particular solute. (right) Other transport proteins shuttle a substance from one side to the other by changing shape. Some of these proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across the membrane. ATP (b) Enzymatic activity. A protein built into the membrane may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution. In some cases, several enzymes in a membrane are organized as a team that carries out sequential steps of a metabolic pathway. Enzymes

(c)

Signal transduction. A membrane protein may have a binding site with a specific shape that fits the shape of a chemical messenger, such as a hormone. The external messenger (signal) may cause a conformational change in the protein (receptor) that relays the message to the inside of the cell.

Signal

Receptor

AP Biology

(d)

Cell-cell recognition. Some glyco-proteins serve as identification tags that are specifically recognized by other cells.

Glycoprotein

(e)

Intercellular joining. Membrane proteins of adjacent cells may hook together in various kinds of junctions, such as gap junctions or tight junctions

(f)

Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix (ECM). Microfilaments or other elements of the cytoskeleton may be bonded to membrane proteins, a function that helps maintain cell shape and stabilizes the location of certain membrane proteins. Proteins that adhere to the ECM can coordinate extracellular and intracellular changes .

AP Biology

Overview of major functions of membrane proteins:

Transport Enzymatic activity Signal transduction Cell-cell recognition Intercellular joining Attachment to the Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

AP Biology

Synthesis and Sidedness of Membranes

Membranes have distinct inside and outside faces This affects the movement of proteins synthesized in the endomembrane system Membrane proteins and lipids Are synthesized in the ER and Golgi apparatus
1 Transmembrane glycoproteins Secretory protein Glycolipid Golgi 2 apparatus Vesicle

3 4 Secreted protein Plasma membrane: Cytoplasmic face Extracellular face Transmembrane glycoprotein

Membrane glycolipid

AP Biology

Cell membrane carbohydrates

Primarily attached to the outer surface of the membrane as:
- Glycoproteins (most of it). - Glycolipids (1/10).

AP Biology

General functions of cell membrane carbohydrates

1. 2. 3. 4. Attach cells to each other. Act as receptor substances. Some enter in immune reactions. Give most of cells overall surface charge, which affects the interaction of regulatory molecules of the membrane.

AP Biology

The Role of Membrane Carbohydrates in CellCell Recognition Cell-cell recognition

Is a cell s ability to distinguish one type of neighboring cell from another

Membrane carbohydrates
Interact with the surface molecules of other cells, facilitating cell-cell recognition

AP Biology

Membrane carbohydrates
Play a key role in cell-cell recognition ability of a cell to distinguish one cell from another antigens important in organ and tissue development basis for rejection of foreign cells by immune system (ex. HLA SYSTEM).

AP Biology

Transport through the Cell Membrane

AP Biology

Transport through the Cell Membrane

Cell membrane is selectively permeable to some molecules & ions.
Not permeable to proteins, nucleic acids, & other molecules.

Lipid or fat-soluble substances, e.g. O2, CO2, OH; enter directly into cell membrane through the lipid bilayer. Water-soluble substances, e.g. ions, glucose, water; enter through proteins of the cell membrane.
AP Biology

Bilayer is Not as Rigid or Static as it is Usually Depicted

Importance of thermal motion at the molecular level

AP Biology

Life is dynamic constant fluctuations

Categories of transport through Cell Membrane

Carrier mediated transport: Non-carrier mediated transport. Passive transport:
Does not require metabolic energy (ATP).

Active transport:
Requires ATP.
AP Biology

Types of membrane transport

1. Diffusion (passive transport)
net movement of molecules & ions across a membrane from higher to lower conc.
(down conc gradient)

2. Active transport
o

net movement across a membrane that occurs against conc gradient.

(to region of higher conc)

doesn t require metabolic energy. AP Biology

Requires metabolic energy (ATP), & involves specific carrier proteins.

Types of membrane transport

1. Diffusion (passive transport)
a. Simple diffusion. b. Facilitated diffusion. (Carriermediated) c. Osmosis.

2. Active transport

a. Primary active transport. b. Secondary active transport.

AP Biology

1. Diffusion (passive transport)

Random movement of substance through the membrane, either directly or in combination w carrier protein down an electrochemical gradient. a. simple diffusion b. facilitated diffusion c. osmosis

AP Biology

Diffusion (passive transport)

2nd Law of Thermodynamics governs biological systems universe tends towards disorder (entropy)

Diffusion movement from high low concentration AP Biology

Diffusion
Move from HIGH to LOW concentration passive transport no energy needed

movement of water

AP Biology

diffusion

osmosis

Diffusion across cell membrane

Cell membrane is the boundary between inside & outside separates cell from its environment
Can it be an impenetrable boundary? IN
food carbohydrates sugars, proteins amino acids lipids salts, O2, H2O

NO!

OUT OUT IN
waste ammonia salts CO2 H 2O products

AP Biology

cell needs materials in & products or waste out

Diffusion through phospholipid bilayer

What molecules can get through directly? fats & other lipids lipid salt

inside cell NH3

What molecules can NOT get through directly?

polar molecules
H2O

ions outside cell

AP Biology

sugar aa

H 2O

salts, ammonia

large molecules
starches, proteins

Channels through cell membrane

Membrane becomes semi-permeable with protein channels specific channels allow specific material across cell membrane

inside cell

H 2O

aa

sugar

NH3 AP Biology

salt

outside cell

Facilitated Diffusion
Diffusion through protein channels channels move specific molecules across cell membrane facilitated = with help no energy needed
open channel = fast transport high

low
AP Biology

The Bouncer

The Special Case of Water Movement of water across the cell membrane

AP Biology

Osmosis is diffusion of water

Water is very important to life, so we talk about water separately Diffusion of water from high concentration of water to low concentration of water across a semi-permeable membrane

AP Biology

Concentration of water
Direction of osmosis is determined by comparing total solute concentrations Hypertonic - more solute, less water Hypotonic - less solute, more water Isotonic - equal solute, equal water

water net movement of water

APhypotonic Biology

hypertonic

Managing water balance

Cell survival depends on balancing water uptake & loss

AP Biology
freshwater

balanced

saltwater

Managing water balance

Isotonic
animal cell immersed in mild salt solution example: blood cells in blood plasma problem: none no net movement of water flows across membrane equally, in both directions volume of cell is stable

AP Biology
balanced

Managing water balance

Hypotonic
a cell in fresh water example: Paramecium problem: gains water, swells & can burst water continually enters Paramecium cell solution: contractile

vacuole

ATP

pumps water out of cell

ATP

plant cells turgid

AP Biology
freshwater

Aquaporins

1991 | 2003 NOBEL P.

Water moves rapidly into & out of cells evidence that there were water channels

AP Biology

GHEORGHE BENGA UMF Cluj Napoca

Peter Agre
AP Biology

John Hopkins

Roderick MacKinnon
Rockefeller

Active transport:
Protein-Carrier mediated transport. Involves net transport (uphill), i.e. against electrochemical gradient (from lower to higher conc). Requires metabolic energy (ATP).

AP Biology

Active Transport
Cells may need to move molecules against concentration gradient shape change transports solute from one side of membrane to other protein pump conformational change costs energy = ATP low

ATP

high
AP Biology

The Doorman

Types of active transport

I. Primary active transport II. Secondary active transport

AP Biology

I. Primary Active Transport

Energy is supplied directly from hydrolysis of ATP for the fx of the protein carriers. Molecule or ion binds to recognition site on one side of carrier protein. Binding stimulates phosphorylation (breakdown of ATP) of carrier protein. Carrier protein undergoes conformational change. Hinge-like motion releases transported molecules to opposite side of membrane. Some of these carriers transport only one molecule or ion for another.
AP Biology

Primary active transport (continued) Examples: a. Sodium-Potassium pump (Na+/K+ pump). b. Primary active transport of calcium (Ca2+ ATPase). c. Primary active transport of hydrogen ions (H+/K+ ATPase)

AP Biology

Sodium-Potassium pump (Na+/K+ pump): Present in most cell membranes. e.g. in basolateral membrane of the kidneys, & in intestines. Energy dependent transport, because both ions are moved against their conc gradient.

AP Biology

Na+/K+ Pump
Is also an ATP enzyme that converts ATP to ADP and Pi. Actively extrudes 3 Na+ & transports 2 K+ inward against conc gradient. Steep gradient serves 4 fxs: Provides energy for coupled transport of other molecules. Regulates resting calorie expenditure & BMR. Involvement in electrochemical impulses. Promotes osmotic flow.

AP Biology

II. Secondary active transport: (Coupled Transport)

Transport of one or more solutes against an electrochemical gradient, coupled to the transport of another solute down an electrochemical gradient. Energy needed for uphill movement obtained from downhill transport of Na+. Hydrolysis of ATP by Na+/K+ pump required indirectly to maintain [Na+] gradient.
AP Biology

Secondary Active Transport (continued)

If the other molecule or ion is moved in the same direction as Na+ (into the cell), the coupled transport is called either: cotransport or symport . If the other molecule or ion is moved in the opposite direction as Na+ (out of the cell), the process is called either: countertransport or antiport .

AP Biology

a. Co-transport (Symport)
All solutes move in the same direction to the inside of the cell e.g. - Na+ glucose Co transport - Na+ amino acid Co transport In the intestinal tract, & kidney s brush borders.

AP Biology

Na+ glucose Co transport

AP Biology

b. Counter transport (Antiport)

Na+ is moving to the interior causing other substance to move out.

e.g. - Ca2+ Na+ exchange (present in many cell membranes) - Na+ H+ exchange in the kidney - Cl- HCO3- exchange across RBCs.

AP Biology

Active transport
Many models & mechanisms

ATP

ATP

AP Biology
antiport

symport

Transport summary simple diffusion facilitated diffusion

active transport
AP Biology

ATP

How about large molecules? Bulk transport

Bulk transport across the plasma membrane occurs by exocytosis and endocytosis

AP Biology

Bulk Transport
Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
Interaction of molecules in ECF with specific membrane receptor proteins. Membrane invaginates, fuses, pinches off and forms vesicle. Vesicle enters cell.

Exocytosis:
Process by which cellular products are secreted into extracellular environment. Proteins and other molecules to be secreted are packaged in vesicles by Golgi complex. Vesicles fuse with plasma membrane and release contents into extracellular environment. AP Biology

 Endocytosis
Phagocytosis:
Phagocytic cells use pseudopods to surround and engulf particles. Pseudopods join, fuse, and surround ingested particle (food vacuole). Lysosomes digest food vacuole. Protects from invading organisms. Removes debris.

Pinocytosis:
Nonspecific process. Plasma membrane invaginates, fuses, vesicle containing ECF pinches off, and vesicle enters cell.
AP Biology

Endocytosis
fuse with lysosome for digestion

phagocytosis

pinocytosis

non-specific process

receptor-mediated endocytosis AP Biology

triggered by molecular signal

Exploring Endocytosis in Animal Cells

In phagocytosis, a cell engulfs a particle by wrapping pseudopodia around it and packaging it within a membraneenclosed sac large enough to be classified as a vacuole. The particle is digested after the vacuole fuses with a lysosome containing hydrolytic enzymes.

PHAGOCYTOSIS
EXTRACELLULAR FLUID CYTOPLASM Pseudopodium 1 m

Pseudopodium of amoeba Food or other particle Food vacuole

Bacterium Food vacuole An amoeba engulfing a bacterium via phagocytosis (TEM).

In pinocytosis, the cell gulps droplets of extracellular fluid into tiny vesicles. It is not the fluid itself that is needed by the cell, but the molecules dissolved in the droplet. Because any and all included solutes are taken into the cell, pinocytosis is nonspecific in the substances it transports.

PINOCYTOSIS
Plasma membrane 0.5 m

Pinocytosis vesicles forming (arrows) in a cell lining a small blood vessel (TEM)

Vesicle

AP Biology

Receptor-mediated endocytosis
enables the cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances, even though those substances may not be very concentrated in the extracellular fluid. Embedded in the membrane are proteins with specific receptor sites exposed to the extracellular fluid. The receptor proteins are usually already clustered in regions of the membrane called coated pits, which are lined on their cytoplasmic side by a fuzzy layer of coat proteins. Extracellular substances (ligands) bind to these receptors. When binding occurs, the coated pit forms a vesicle containing the ligand molecules. Notice that there are relatively more bound molecules (purple) inside the vesicle, but other molecules (green) are also present. After this ingested material is liberated from the vesicle, the receptors are recycled to the plasma membrane by the same vesicle.

RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS
Coat protein Receptor Coated vesicle

Ligand

Coated pit

Coat protein

A coated pit and a coated vesicle formed during receptormediated endocytosis (TEMs).

Plasma membrane 0.25 m

AP Biology