Foundations

Foundations
Function
The foundations of houses must carry the dead loads (weight of the structure) of the walls, roof and floors etc., together with the imposed loads of occupants and furniture, and transmit them safely into the ground. They must be designed so that settlement is sufficiently controlled to keep any distortion (and possibly cracking) to within acceptable limits.

Introduction to foundation types

The three paragraphs below provide a brief introduction to the main foundation types in the UK. The strip foundation is by far the most common and, in most cases, the cheapest. It has been used, in one form or another, for hundreds of years and, for low rise housing, is suitable for the majority of ground conditions likely to be found. The other two foundation types are more likely to be used where sites and ground conditions are more complex. The strip foundation is basically a strip, or ribbon, of insitu concrete running under all the loadbearing walls. This will normally include all the external walls and possibly some, or all, of the internal walls. The depth and width of the strip depends on the building load and the nature of the ground. In many cases these foundations do not need specialist design, the foundation size can be determined by referring to the Building Regulations. Piled foundations can be of various types. They can be used to transmit the loads from the foundations through weak, compressible, or unstable strata, to firmer ground beneath (end bearing piles). In clay and other cohesive soils piles can be used to distribute the loads into the ground through the friction forces along the length of the pile sides. Piles are usually made from insitu or precast concrete but can also be steel and timber. In housing built from loadbearing brickwork, a reinforced concrete beam bridges the piles and directly supports the building. Rafts are an expensive form of construction, probably the most expensive of the three, and are used where only a very low load can be applied, for example, on soft or variable ground. They are also used where differential settlement is likely or where there is a risk of subsidence (they are common in mining areas). The raft is a rigid slab of concrete, reinforced with steel, which spreads the building load over the whole ground floor area.

Site Investigation
Before foundation design can begin there are a number of preliminary stages. These, separate stages, are generally referred to as Site Investigation. Site Investigation normally involves three basic stages: A desk study which takes into account existing information about the site. This information will come from a variety of sources and will include such diverse matters as the history of the site, its topography, geology, vegetation etc. A walk-over survey which is a direct inspection of the site giving the engineer/designer the opportunity to identify the nature of the ground and the nature of any hazardous features. A physical exploration and inspection, of the ground by means of boreholes or trial pits. This third stage is sometimes called the ground investigation.

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The desk study is the first stage in the site investigation. Essentially, it comprises the collection and analysis of existing information about the site. The information will come from a variety of sources and, and, once analysed, will form the basis for the second stage, the walk-over survey. The desk study has two main objectives: to determine the nature, past use, and condition of the site. to determine whether this has any implications for the proposed building and its foundations.

A sensible starting point is to consult large scale maps of the proposed site and check site boundaries, building lines, existing buildings and other man-made, or natural, features which will affect the future buildings. A comparison with older maps may give some clues to determine former use and, therefore, potential hazards. Geological maps, other written records, and local knowledge will help identify the likely nature of the subsoil and determine the extent of difficult ground conditions. Most subsoils, including firm and stiff clays, compact sands, gravels and rocks will easily support the relatively low loads of two and three storey housing using simple strip foundations. However, soft cohesive soils, peaty soils, and of course, fill, pose problems. A site that has been mined also needs treating with caution - foundation solutions can be costly. Large scale historical maps, often held at city and county libraries, show the extent of former mining. Thousands of old shafts and tunnels still exist. Other items which should come to light during the desk study include the likelihood of: filled or contaminated ground quarrying or mining rights of way ponds, watercourses, ground water levels and the risk of flooding utility services (drains, electricity, gas, telephone, optical cables etc - see left-hand plan) previous vegetation (ie large felled trees) landslip naturally occurring aggressive chemicals (eg sulfates), harmful gases (radon) and landfill gases (methane and CO2).

A walk-over survey is the second stage in the site investigation. It's a detailed site inspection which: enables much of the material discovered in the desk study to be confirmed or further investigated identifies other potential hazards enables the surveyor to collect photographic records gives the surveyor/engineer the opportunity to make detailed drawings of all those items (trees, existing buildings, watercourses, etc) which will have implications for the building design

A direct ground investigation is the third stage in the site investigation. As far as low rise housing is concerned its main objective is to determine whether strip foundations will be suitable and, assuming they are, whether they can be designed in accordance with the simple 'rule of thumb' approach contained in the Building Regulations. The ground investigation will provide detailed information on: nature and thickness of made up ground/top soil above the subsoil nature, thickness and stratum depth of subsoil an assessment of allowable bearing pressure groundwater levels, chemicals in the ground etc. existing structures or hazards in the ground

Trial pits
For low rise housing, on green-field sites, machine-dug trial pits are probably the most common method of ground investigation. The pits do not normally need to be deeper than 4-5 metres unless specific problems are encountered. Trial pits should be excavated close to the proposed foundation, but not so close as to affect its actual construction. The number of pits is usually a matter for

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Foundations

judgement and will depend on the size of the proposed development, the nature of the site, and the consistency of the soil across the site.

Concrete
House foundations are invariably formed in concrete. It is available in a range of strengths and is usually brought onto site ready-mixed as, and when, required. What is concrete? The word concrete is derived from the latin word concretus, meaning grown together. It is a mixture of several constituents which behaves as a single material. In its simplest form concrete comprises cement, aggregate and water. The major constituent by weight in concrete is aggregate - stone with a range of particle size from 40mm down to 0.1mm. The aggregate is a mixture of: coarse aggregate - naturally occurring gravel or crushed rock fine aggregate - sand or crushed rock.

The aggregate is bound together by cement paste, a mixture of cement and water. Properties The properties of the cement paste are extremely important and largely determine the properties of the concrete: it must be fluid enough for some time after mixing to allow the concrete to be placed and compacted into its final shape it must then set and gain strength so that it binds the aggregates together to make a strong material. The mechanism by which cement sets and hardens depends on the type of cement, usually due to a chemical reaction between the cement and the mixing water (eg Portland cement)

Uses The great advantage of concrete as a construction material is that after mixing it is a fluid (plastic) material which can be compacted into any shaped mould or formwork. This may be done on site (in situ concrete), or for very high quality finishes, under factory conditions (precast concrete). When the cement paste solidifies due to the hydration reaction between cement and water it becomes a structural material. Concrete is very strong in compression. Its compressive strength makes concrete an ideal material for foundations and floor slabs and other structural elements that are mainly loaded in compression. However, the tensile strength of concrete is relatively low, about one tenth of the compressive strength. Therefore in structural elements such as beams, which, when loaded, are in compression at the top and tension at the bottom, it is necessary to use reinforced concrete.

Reinforced concrete contains steel reinforcing rods, usually 20-30mm in diameter. These rods are positioned where the principal tensile stresses will occur in the structure, and then the concrete is poured and compacted around the reinforcement. Reinforced concrete is therefore a composite material, where the concrete takes the compressive forces and the reinforcing steel takes the tensile forces.

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Foundations

Strip Foundations
In the latter part of the 19th century it was common to find the external walls of houses built directly on the ground. Legislation towards the end of the 19th century required concrete foundations under the walls. Then, as now, the depth of the foundation would depend on local conditions. A typical house from the 1900s or so would have a thin strip of concrete under all the loadbearing walls. Prior to this walls were often built directly onto the levelled ground; sometimes there might be a bed of stone or ashes to provide an even surface.

Nowadays, the design of foundations is controlled by national Building Regulations. Strip foundations, the most common form, can either be 'traditional' or trench-fill (see below). They are usually 500 to 700mm wide and as deep as necessary for the type of ground. In clays for example they are usually at least 1 metre deep to avoid problems of ground movement caused by seasonable change in moisture content. In very dry conditions, for example, clays will shrink slightly as the clay loses water. In very wet conditions the clay will swell. In weaker ground the foundation has to be wider than 700mm to spread the building load over an adequate area of ground.

Foundations must conform to certain standards explicit in the Regulations, or be designed by someone competent in structural calculation. Either way, the design requires approval before work can commence. The loads from two storey houses are fairly modest and in most ground types and conditions traditional strip foundations or trench fill foundations are more than adequate. In principle they are very similar; they differ in that the concrete in trench fill foundations is deeper, with the result that there are savings in brickwork and blockwork. Reasons for choosing traditional strip foundations: Proven method, most builders are familiar with traditional strip foundations Mistakes (eg, setting out) are not too expensive to rectify once concrete is poured Builder may want work to keep bricklayer occupied Services will mostly cross the wall above the concrete - so not an immediate problem Cheaper than trench fill for wider foundations

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BUT Working space for bricklayers required Walls easily damaged during backfill Deep trenches require planking and strutting AND CAN BE DANGEROUS

Reasons for trenchfill foundations Foundations are completed fairly quickly Clay soils less likely to swell or shrink because trenches can be completed speedily Reduced need for planking and strutting - considerable cost savings No need for people to work at base of trench - much safer, especially in deep foundations No risk of trenches collapsing (after concrete is placed) and damaging blockwork Will bridge minor soft spots in base of trench

BUT Service entry ducts need to be carefully placed Good access for concrete lorry required; (or concrete pump needed) Expensive if foundations have to be wide (or become wide)

The photos above show a trenchfill foundation for a new two storey house. The trenches are just over 1 metre deep and about 500mm wide. They are filled with concrete to a level about 300mm or so below finished ground level. The drawing below shows a typical foundation plan. The foundation runs under all the external walls and under the internal loadbearing walls.

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Requirements for strip foundations

The Building Regulations set out a number of requirements for strip foundations. Their width is determined by a table in the Regulations which takes into account building load and the nature of the ground. Their depth depends on site conditions and the nature of the soil at least 1000mm is normal in clays. The Regulations also contain requirements regarding thickness of the concrete, position of the wall relative to the foundation, minimum depths near drains and so on.

In some situations strip foundations are not suitable, or are not cost effective. These include for example: where large trees are present in clay soils where trees in clay soils have recently been removed in very weak or unstable soils where strip foundations would have to be very deep to reach firm ground where subsidence is likely (ie in mining areas)

In these situations other foundation solutions have to be considered.

Piling
What is piling? Piles can be made from steel or timber although in most housing work piles are made from insitu or pre-cast reinforced concrete. They are used either to transmit loads from the building through soft or compressible ground to firmer strata below (end bearing pile), or to distribute loads into the subsoil along the length of the pile (friction pile). In housing, a concrete beam across the top of the piles distributes the load from the loadbearing brickwork into the piles themselves.

There are a number of different piling systems. Some, (replacement piles), bore out the ground and then replace the void with concrete. A reinforcement cage is lowered into the wet concrete to resist any lateral forces in the ground which might fracture the pile, and to provide a connection for the ground beam which will support the walls. Others, (displacement piles) are forced into the ground, pushing it out of the way as the piles are driven home.

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Foundations

When the piles are in position a reinforced ground beam (insitu concrete or precast) is positioned over the top. This takes the load from the walls and distributes it into the piles. A typical house might be supported on 10-20 piles.

These are pre-cast piles which are driven into the ground to a depth determined by engineers. A set is reached when a specified number of hammer blows provide a specified amount of downward movement.

In clay soils augered piles are more likely to be found. These are replacement piles.

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Why is piling becoming more common? 20 or 30 years ago piling was comparatively rare for housing (other than medium and high rise flats). Since then, several factors have led to an increase in the use of piled foundations. These include: the increased pressure to re-develop 'brownfield' sites, where strip foundations may not always be appropriate increased costs of 'carting away' and tipping surplus excavation from foundation trenches (particularly in cities) the development and easy availability of smaller piling rigs and piling systems which are, nowadays, cost effective for house foundations greater understanding of piling in general (partly through better building education).

Factors affecting choice There are literally dozens of piling companies in the UK each offering a number of different piling systems. In many cases more than one piling system will suit a particular set of circumstances. However, when choosing a piling system there are four main criteria to consider: building load the nature of the ground (ie, the subsoil) local environmental or physical constraints (noise restrictions, height restrictions) cost

Rafts In the 1940s and 1950s raft foundations were quite common, particularly beneath the thousands of prefabricated pre-cast concrete or steel buildings erected during the years following the Second World War. Most of these houses were built on good quality farm land where the soil was generally of modest to high bearing capacity. Rafts (or foundation slabs as they were sometimes called) were often used because they were relatively cheap, easy to construct and did not require extensive excavation (trenches were often dug by hand). In 1965 national Building Regulations were introduced for the first time (London still had its own building controls), but these did not contain any 'deemed to satisfy' provisions for raft foundations (as they did for strip foundations) - consequently each had to be engineer designed. As a result they quickly fell out of favour. In modern construction rafts tend to be used: Where the soil has low load bearing capacity and varying compressibility. This might include, loose sand, soft clays, fill, and alluvial soils (soils comprising particles suspended in water and deposited over a flood plain or river bed). Where pad or strip foundations would cover more than 50% of the ground area below the building. Where differential movements are expected. Where subsidence due to mining is a possibility.

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Questions 1. What is the purpose of site investigation? 2. What are its key stages? 3. What is concrete? 4. What is the difference between a trenchfill foundation and a traditional strip foundation? 5. When is a wide strip foundation required? 6. In what situations are strip foundations not suitable? 7. Why is piling becoming more common? 8. What is the difference between a displacement and a replacement pile? 9. What is the function of the ground beam which sits on top of the piles? 10. When are rafts sometimes used?

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