Atomic Structure The atom consists of a heavy control portion called the nucleus.

The nucleus contains protons and neutrons ( together called nucleons ). Electrons orbit the nucleus. Relative masses and charges Particle Relative mass Relative charge P (a.m.u) 1 +1 N (a.m.u) 1 0 e (a.m.u) Negligible( 1/1840 ) -1

The mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus. 1 a.m.u = 1.67* 10^-27 kg

(1) Electrons:

J.J Thompsons experiment

Electrons are fired from a heated filament, and streamed toward positive plate, hence given a negative charge. Vessel used was at low pressure Magnetic Field

Magnetic field deflects charged particles (2) Protons:

A proton is a positively charged hydrogen ion. In an electric field the proton is deflected in a similar manner but towards the negative pole. In a magnetic field it is also directed at right angles but in the opposite direction.

(3)Neutron: The neutron is not deflected in a magnetic field, indicating it has no charge. N.B Path in an electric field

Composition of the nucleus Element Atomic # # of neutrons

Li (mass # =7,atomic # =3) P (mass # =31,atomic # =15) Fe (mass # =56,atomic # =26 U (mass # =238,atomic # =92)

15

16

26

30

92

146

-For lighter elements protons and neutrons are either same or close in atomic # to # of neutrons. -For heavier elements the protons and neutrons far exceed. I.e. they have a higher n/p ratio and often predispose to radioactivity. Isotope- are atoms of the same species that has the same proton #/ atomic #, but have different neutrons #. E.g. Cl (mass # =37, atomic # =17) and Cl (mass # =35, atomic # =17) N.B -Isotopes have the same chemical properties, but different physical properties.

Electron distribution in atoms Niels Bohr: Modern ideas on electron distribution originated with the model of the H atom (1913). Quantum Theory: -states that matter cannot absorb or emit energy in continuous amounts, but only in discrete units called quanta (packets of energy).

-Only some quanta are allowed. These are the ones in which the electron possess a whole number multiple of a unit of energy (1 quanta). Energy levels were given principal number n=1, n=2, n=3 etc. The first energy level in which an electron is present is called the ground state. -If the electron absorb enough energy it may jump to a higher energy level called the excited state. This excited state is unstable and the e- will fall back to the original level and release energy in the form of radiation.

E = E2 E1= hf where h = Plancks constant = 6.63*10^-24 v or f = frequency of radiation If the principal quantum numbers are examined accurately using x-ray technology, they are seen to consist of two or more lines close together. These are assumed to be sublevels (orbitals) in which the electrons differ slightly in energy. Orbital: a region in space in which an electron is likely to be found. The first main energy level has 1 sub-level (s) The second main energy level has 2 sub-levels(s, p) The third main energy level has 3 sub-levels(s, p, d) The fourth main energy level has 4 sub-levels(s, p, d, and f) s sharp* p principal* d different* f fine* *not important Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons. 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s Increasing energy 3d*

Orbitals with electrons may also be illustrated like this: using example with Li = 1s 2s Order of Es s < p <d <f

Or, H- = 1s Cl = 1s2s2p^6 3s3p^6

Shapes and Symmetry of s and p orbitals The probability of an electron to be located within the orbital is not the same every time. The path traced by an electron in an orbital is called an electron cloud. For s-orbitals: The electron cloud is distributed as a sphere O.

For p-orbitals: The p-orbital is dumbbell shaped.