*. . . a library of the subject in miniature, affording helpful insights and convenient material for students at all levels.

'

N o t i o n s o f w i t c h c r a f t have h a u n t e d and fascinated the h u m a n m i n d fi h e i g h t o f w i t c h c r a f t persecutions in s i x t e e n t h - a n d s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n 5 0 , 0 0 0 people were executed, they were accused o f acts i n c l u d i n g m black m a g i c and devil worshipping :ction ters a selection o f the best historical writ :gan, a n d the social and cultural c o f historical perspectives is collect recent research o n the r in w i t c h trials, ideas a b o u t the

possession, a n d reasons for the decline o f w i t c h trials. T h e m a j o r t h e m e s and debates in the study o f w i t c h c r a f t are b r o general i n t r o d u c t i o n , w h i c h places the extracts in a critical c o n t e x t , wide range o f i m p o r t a n t w o r k in a single, accessible v o l u m e , The essential reading for a n y o n e intrigued by this c o m p l e x a n d fascinatin The Witchcraft Casement, Reader includes the w o r k o f W o l f g a n g Behringer, R o Clark, Norman Cohn, Owen Davies, Malcol Lou

Stuart

G e n t i l c o r e , C a r l o G i n z b u r g , M a r i a n n e Hester, Clive H o l m e s , Levack, Daniel Maier-Katkin, H.C.E. Midelfort, E.

J e n k i n s , E d m u n d K e r n , R i c h a r d Kieckhefer, G a b o r Klaniczay, C h r i William M u c h e m b l e d , D a v i d N i c h o l l s , Eva I o c s , Lyndal Roper, J i m oharpe

is L e c t u r e r

liversity C o l l e g e Worcester.

11 N e w Fetter Lane, L o n d o n E C 4 P 4 E E 2 9 West 35th Street, N e w York N Y 10001 www, routledge .com Printed in Great Britain
' * Franc'

ISBN

0-415-21493-9

9 '780415

214933

The Witchcraft Reader

Edited by

Darren Oldridge

NEWCASTLE 202

UNIVERSITY 0214 3 8 Vv 6 0 .

LIBRARY

>vy,

London and New York

First published 2 0 0 2 bv R o u t l e d g e 11 N e w F e t t e r Lane, London E C 4 P 4 E E Simultaneously published in the U S A and Canada by Routledge 2 9 W e s t 35th S t r e e t , N e w Y o r k , N Y 1 0 0 0 1 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor S^Francis Group

Individual chapters the original copyright holders Selection and editorial m a t t e r 2 0 0 2 D a r r e n Oldridge T y p e s e t in Perpetua and Bell Gothic by F l o r e n c e Production Ltd, Stoodleigh, D e v o n Printed and bound in Great Britain bv T J International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall All rights reserved. N o part of this b o o k mav be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in anv form or bv anv e l e c t r o n i c , mechanical, o r o t h e r means, n o w k n o w n or hereafter invented, including photocopying and r e c o r d i n g , o r in anv information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue r e c o r d for this b o o k is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging p. c m . Includes bibliographical r e f e r e n c e s and i n d e x . 1. W i t c h c r a f t History. B F 1 5 6 6 . W 7 3 9 5 2001 1 3 3 . 4 ' 3 ' 0 9 dc21 ISBN 0 - 4 1 5 - 2 1 4 9 2 - 0 (hbk) ISBN 0 - 4 1 5 - 2 1 4 9 3 - 9 (pbk) 2001048166 I. Oldridge D a r r e n , 1966in Publication Data

T h e W i t c h c r a f t R e a d e r / [edited bv] Darren Oldridge

Contents

Acknowledgements

General I n t r o d u c t i o n
Darren Oldridge

PART ONE Mediaeval Origins

Richard WITCH

Kieckhefer IN MEDIAEVAL EUROPE

TRIALS

Norman THE

Cohn HERETICS

D E M 0 N I Z A T I O N OF M E D I A E V A L

PART TWO W i t c h c r a f t , Magic and Culture

3 Robin THE Briggs OF BEWITCHMENT

EXPERIENCE

Wolfgang WEATHER,

Behringer HUNGER AND FEAR: ORIGINS OF T H E EUROPEAN

WITCH-HUNTS

IN C L I M A T E ,

SOCIETY

AND

MENTALITY

E. THE

William

Monter OF J U R A WITCHCRAFT

SOCIOLOGY

viii

CONTENTS

David

Gentilcore NARRATIVES ITALY AND FOLKLORE MOTIFS

16

Brian

Levack AND WITCH HUNTING IN EARLY

WITCHCRAFT IN SOUTHERN

STATE-BUILDING MODERN EUROPE

PART

THREE

The Idea of a W i t c h Cult

7 H.C. Erik Midelfort OF T H E WITCHCRAZE

P A R T SIX W i t c h c r a f t , Possession and the Devil

17 David THE Nicholls IN RENAISSANCE FRANCE

HEARTLAND

DEVIL

Carlo

Ginzburg THE WITCHES' SABBAT

18

H.C. THE

Erik DEVIL

Midelfort AND THE GERMAN PEOPLE

DECIPHERING

Eva THE

Pocs ALTERNATIVE WORLD OF T H E W I T C H E S ' SABBAT

19

Moshe A

Sluhovsky APPARITION OR D E M O N I C POSSESSION?

DIVINE

10

Robert SATANIC

Muchembled MYTHS AND CULTURAL REALITIES

PART

SEVEN

W i t c h c r a f t and Gender
11 Stuart Clark MISRULE AND THE MEANING OF WITCHCRAFT 20 Christina WAS Larner WOMAN-HUNTING? INVERSION,

WITCH-HUNTING

P A R T FOUR W i t c h c r a f t and the Reformation

12 Stuart Clark WITCHCRAFT, CATHOLIC WITCHCRAFT

21

Marianne

Hester RECONSTRUCTION AND WITCH-HUNTING

PATRIARCHAL

22

Jim

Sharpe PROCESS

PROTESTANT

WOMEN, WITCHCRAFT AND THE LEGAL

13

Edmund

Kern IDENTITY AND MAGIC BITHNER IN T H E AND LATE WITCHCRAFT

23

Clive

Holmes WITCHES AND WITNESSES

CONFESSIONAL SIXTEENTH IN STYRIA

WOMEN:

CENTURY:

JAKOB

PART
14 Gary K. Waite THE DEVIL AND THE INQUISITOR: AND MAGICAL ANABAPTISTS, BELIEFS 24 BETWEEN

EIGHT

Reading Confessions
Lyndal OEDIPUS Roper AND THE DEVIL

DIABOLICAL

CONSPIRACIES

PART

FIVE

25

Malcolm

Gaskill AND POWER IN EARLY MODERN ENGLAND:

W i t c h c r a f t , the State and Social Control

15 Christina THE CRIME Larner OF W I T C H C R A F T IN EARLY MODERN EUROPE

WITCHCRAFT THE CASE

OF M A R G A R E T

MOORE

CONTENTS

26

Louise
AND

Jackson
WIVES AND MOTHERS: IN WITCHCRAFT PERSECUTION CONFESSIONS S E V E NT E E NT H-C E NT U R Y 353

WITCHES,

WOMEN'S

ENGLAND

PART NINE The Decline of W i t c h c r a f t

27 Brian
THE

367

Acknowledgements

Levack
OF WITCH TRIALS 373

END

28

Gabor
THE

Klaniczay
OF WITCHES AND THE RISE OF VAMPIRES 387

DECLINE

29

Owen

Davies
AND OF THE DECLINE OF WITCHCRAFT: 399

URBANIZATION AN

EXAMINATION

LONDON

T h e author and publishers wish t o thank the following for their permission to r e p r o duce copyright material: ' W i t c h T r i a l s in M e d i a e v a l E u r o p e ' f r o m European Witch Trials: Their Foundations in of

PART TEN A New W i t c h - H u n t ?

30 Philip Jenkins and Daniel
OCCULT SURVIVORS: THE

413
Maier-Katkin
MAKING OF A MYTH 419

Popular

and Learned

Culture

13001500

by Richard Kieckhefer (Routledge & Kegan Inner Demons by N o r m a n Cohn (copy-

Paul 1 9 7 6 ) , pp. 1026, by permission o f T a y l o r & Francis; ' T h e D e m o n i z a t i o n M e d i a e v a l H e r e t i c s ' r e p r o d u c e d f r o m Europe's

right N o r m a n C o h n 1 9 7 S , 1 9 9 3 ) , p p . 5 1 7 8 , published by P i m l i c o and r e p r i n t e d bv p e r m i s s i o n o f T h e R a n d o m H o u s e G r o u p Ltd and P F D o n b e h a l f o f P r o f e s s o r Norman Cohn; 'The Experience of Bewitchment' from (HarperCollins 1996), pp. 6395, History, Witches and by Neighbours permission by of Robin Briggs reproduced

31

Patrick
THE

Casement
NOT TO KNOW 433

WISH

H a r p e r C o l l i n s Publishers L t d , Felicity Bryan and t h e a u t h o r ; ' W e a t h e r , H u n g e r and F e a r ' b y W o l f g a n g B e h r i n g e r f r o m German 1 3 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , p p . 127, b y p e r during the Reformation by E. and mission of T h e G e r m a n History Society; 'The Sociology of Jura Witchcraft' reprinted f r o m Witchcraft mission of the in France and Switzerland: Cornell The Borderlands Press; Bishop William M o n t e r (copyright publisher 1 9 7 6 C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y ) , p p . 1154-1, u s e d b y p e r University 'Witchcraft to Witch Narratives of the by David Gentilcore author; 31 the Today,

Index

437

F o l k l o r e M o t i f s in S o u t h e r n I t a l y ' f r o m From (Manchester University Press 'Heartland o f the W i t c h c r a z e ' (February 1 9 8 1 ) , pp. by H. C.

1 9 9 2 ) , pp. 238

5 8 , by permission o f History Modern Today; European

E r i k M i d e l f o r t f r o m History

2736, by permission

'Deciphering Witchcraft,

W i t c h e s ' S a b b a t ' b y C a r l o G i n z b u r g f r o m Early by B e n g t A n k a l o o and Gustav H e n n i n g s e n t h e t i t l e Hdxomas Europa 14001100,

edited

( O x f o r d University Press

1 9 9 3 ) , pp.

1 2 1 3 5 , o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 8 7 b y I n s t i t u t e t f o r R a t t s h i s t o r i s k F o r s k n i n g u n d e r by p e r m i s s i o n o f O x f o r d University Press and the Institutet for Rattshistorisk Forskning; ' T h e Alternative W o r l d of the W i t c h e s ' S a b b a t ' f r o m Between the Living and the Dead b y E v a P o c s ( 1 9 9 9 ) , p p . 7 3 1 0 5 , b y p e r University Press; Modern 'Satanic M y t h s and European Witchcraft, Cultural edited by mission o f the Central European

R e a l i t i e s ' b v R o b e r t M u c h e m b l e d f r o m Early

B e n g t Ankaloo and Gustav H e n n i n g s e n ( O x f o r d University Press 1 9 9 3 ) , p p . 1 3 9 6 0 ,

Xii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS r e p r o d u c e d b y p e r m i s s i o n o f t h e Journal Scare, of Social

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

xiii

o r i g i n a l l y p u b l i s h e d in 1 9 8 7 b y I n s t i t u t e t f o r R a t t s h i s t o r i s k F o r s k n i n g u n d e r t h e t i t l e Hdxomas Institutet Europa 14001700, by permission Forskning; of Oxford University Press and the of for Rattshistorisk 'Inversion, Misrule and the Meaning

History;

' O c c u l t Survivors: T h e Satanism

M a k i n g o f a M y t h ' b y P h i l i p J e n k i n s a n d D a n i e l M a i e r - K a t k i n f r o m The

edited by J a m e s T . Richardson, J o e l Best and David G . B r o m l e y (Aldine D e Treating Survivors of Satanist

W i t c h c r a f t ' b y S t u a r t C l a r k f r o m Past and Present, copyright Witchcraft

8 7 ( 1 9 8 0 ) , p p . 9 8 - 1 2 7 , by perwith Demons: The Idea of

G r u y t e r 1 9 9 1 ) , ch. 8 , r e p r o d u c e d by permission o f Aldine D e G r u y t e r , N e w Y o r k ; 'The W i s h N o t to K n o w ' by Patrick Casement from Abuse, of Tavlor & Francis. E v e r y effort has b e e n m a d e t o obtain p e r m i s s i o n t o r e p r o d u c e c o p y r i g h t m a t e r i a l . I f a n y p r o p e r a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t has n o t b e e n m a d e , w e w o u l d i n v i t e h o l d e r s t o i n f o r m us o f t h e o v e r s i g h t . copyright edited by Valerie Sinason ( R o u t l e d g e 1 9 9 4 ) , ch. 2, p p . 2 2 - 5 , by permission

mission o f O x l o r d University Press; 'Protestant Witchcraft, Catholic W i t c h c r a f t ' , S t u a r t C l a r k 1 9 9 7 , r e p r i n t e d f r o m Thinking Modern Europe in Early by Stuart Clark ( 1 9 9 7 ) by permission o f O x f o r d Century' Century Journal, 2 5 ( 2 ) ( 1 9 9 4 ) , pp. 32340, copyRadical

U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ; ' C o n f e s s i o n a l I d e n t i t y a n d M a g i c in t h e L a t e S i x t e e n t h b y E d m u n d K e r n f r o m The Sixteenth mission; Reformation

right 1 9 9 4 by T h e Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers, I n c . , reproduced by per' B e t w e e n the Devil and the Inquisitor' by Gary K. W a i t e f r o m Studies, edited by W e r n e r O . Packull and Geoffrey L. Dipple (Ashgate Witchcraft by and Religion permission by Christina of Blackwell edited by

1 9 9 9 ) , c h . 8 , p p . 1 2 0 4 0 ; ' T h e C r i m e o f W i t c h c r a f t in E a r l y M o d e r n E u r o p e ' a n d 'Was Witch-Hunting Woman-Hunting?' from Larner (Blackwell 1984), pp. 3567 and 7991 Studies

P u b l i s h e r s L t d ; ' S t a t e - B u i l d i n g a n d W i t c h H u n t i n g in E a r l y M o d e r n E u r o p e ' b y B r i a n L e v a c k f r o m Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe: in Culture and Belief, Jonathan B a r r y , M a r i a n n e H e s t e r and G a r e t h R o b e r t s ( C a m b r i d g e University Press 1 9 9 6 ) by permission o f C a m b r i d g e University Press and Brian Levack; ' T h e Devil in R e n a i s s a n c e F r a n c e ' b y D a v i d N i c h o l l s f r o m History p p . 2 5 3 0 , b y p e r m i s s i o n o f History H . C . E r i k M i d e l f o r t f r o m Religion 11 o f Sixteenth Century Essays and Studies, Today; and Culture Today, 30 (November 1980), and Reformation, vol. ' T h e Devil and the G e r m a n P e o p l e ' by in the Renaissance

edited by Steven O z m e n t (Sixteenth Centurv University The

Journal Publishers 1 9 8 9 ) , pp. 9 9 1 1 9 , by permission o f T r u m a n State Sixteenth Century Journal, 2 7 ( 4 ) ( 1 9 9 6 ) , pp. 1 0 3 9 - 5 5 , ' c o p y r i g h t

Press; 'A Divine Apparition o r D e m o n i c Possession?' bv M o s h e Sluhovsky f r o m Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers, Inc., reproduced by permission; R e c o n s t r u c t i o n and W i t c h - H u n t i n g ' by Marianne H e s t e r f r o m Modern Europe: Studies in Culture and Belief,

1 9 9 6 by T h e 'Patriarchal in Early

Witchcraft

edited by Jonathan Barry, Marianne Hester

and G a r e t h R o b e r t s ( C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press 1 9 9 6 ) , p p . 2 8 8 3 0 8 , by p e r m i s sion o f C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s a n d M a r i a n n e H e s t e r ; ' W o m e n , W i t c h c r a f t a n d t h e L e g a l P r o c e s s ' b y J i m S h a r p e f r o m Women, Crime and the Courts, edited by J e n n y and K e r m o d e and Garthine W a l k e r ( U C L Press 1 9 9 4 ) , p p . 1 0 6 2 4 , by permission o f T a y l o r & F r a n c i s ; ' W o m e n : W i t c h e s a n d W i t n e s s e s ' b y C l i v e H o l m e s f r o m Past Present, a n d t h e D e v i l ' f r o m Oedipus and the Devil 1 4 0 ( 1 9 9 3 ) , pp. 4578, by permission o f O x f o r d University Press; 'Oedipus by Lyndal R o p e r ( R o u t l e d g e 1 9 9 4 ) , ch. Crime and the Courts, edited by Women's

1 0 , p p . 2 2 6 4 8 , b y p e r m i s s i o n o f T a y l o r & F r a n c i s ; ' W i t c h c r a f t a n d P o w e r in E a r l v M o d e r n E n g l a n d ' b y M a l c o l m G a s k i l l f r o m Women, J e n n y K e r m o d e and Garthine W a l k e r ( U C L Press 1 9 9 4 ) , ch. 6 , by permission o f Taylor & Francis; ' W i t c h e s , W i v e s and M o t h e r s ' by Louise Jackson f r o m History Review, 4 ( 1 ) ( 1 9 9 5 ) , by permission o f Louise Jackson; Europe T r i a l s ' b y B r i a n L e v a c k f r o m The Witch Hunt in Early Modern ' T h e End of W i t c h (2nd edition copySupernatural of

right Longman G r o u p Ltd 1 9 9 5 ) , reprinted by permission o f Pearson Education L t d ; ' T h e D e c l i n e o f W i t c h e s a n d t h e R i s e o f V a m p i r e s ' f r o m The Uses of by permission of Princeton University Press; of Social 'Urbanization History, Power b y G a b o r K l a n i c z a y ( c o p y r i g h t 1 9 9 0 P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ) , r e p r i n t e d and the Decline W i t c h c r a f t ' b y O w e n D a v i e s f r o m Journal 30 ( 1 9 9 7 ) , pp. 597617,

General Introduction

OST

P E O P L E

I N T E R E S T E D

in w i t c h c r a f t a r e f i r s t a t t r a c t e d t o t h e high films, f r o m the c a n o n Body and will

s u b j e c t by s t o r i e s a n d i m a g e s f r o m p o p u l a r c u l t u r e . W i t c h e s e n j o y a Witch Project;

p r o f i l e in c h i l d r e n ' s b o o k s a n d T V ; t h e y p o p u l a t e i n n u m e r a b l e of W a l t D i s n e y t o The Blair and colourful sub-genre of p o p u l a r literature.

a n d t h e y a r e t h e s u b j e c t of a n e c l e c t i c If y o u v i s i t t h e ' M i n d ,

S p i r i t ' d e p a r t m e n t of a n y l a r g e b o o k s h o p , y o u w i l l n o r m a l l y find a d i s p a r a t e c o l l e c t i o n of p u b l i c a t i o n s under the heading of ' W i t c h c r a f t ' . The texts displayed c o v e r a r a n g e of t o p i c s l o o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e h i s t o r y a n d p r a c t i c e of m a g i c , i n c l u d i n g w o r k s by t h e n e o - p a g a n m o v e m e n t , a c a d e m i c t e x t s , m o d e r n e d i t i o n s of m u c h o l d e r books like the Malleus Maleficarum, and reprints of e c c e n t r i c but still popular reflects on p u b l i c a t i o n s l i k e M o n t a g u e S u m m e r s ' History of Witchcraft. This mixture

t h e e x t r e m e l y d i v e r s e r a n g e of i n t e r e s t s t h a t c o n v e r g e on t h e s u b j e c t , a n d i n d i c a t e s its f a s c i n a t i o n f o r a w i d e a u d i e n c e . It is a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t , p e r h a p s , t h a t b o o k s t h e s u b j e c t a r e c o m m o n l y d i s p l a y e d in a s e c t i o n of t h e i r o w n . R a t h e r l i k e J a c k t h e Ripper, the Kennedy a s s a s s i n a t i o n and the search f o r the H o l y G r a i l , the t o p i c has e s t a b l i s h e d i t s e l f a s a g e n r e in its o w n r i g h t , c o m b i n i n g e l e m e n t s of h i s t o r y , m y t h , and religious speculation. T h e w i d e s p r e a d i n t e r e s t in w i t c h c r a f t is n o t h i n g n e w . A t t h e t i m e of t h e m o s t intense w i t c h tises on the persecutions problem of in t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , t h e r e satanic magic to ballads recounting the activities was of that a l r e a d y a large m a r k e t f o r p u b l i c a t i o n s on the subject, r a n g i n g f r o m learned t r e a individuals entirely a c c u s e d of t h e c r i m e . In s o m e
1

i n s t a n c e s , d e m a n d w a s so g r e a t

fictitious

accounts were created.

P o p u l a r t a l e s of w i t c h c r a f t c o n t i n u e d t o magical

c i r c u l a t e in t h e e i g h t e e n t h a n d n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , w h i l e a c a d e m i c w o r k s on t h e subject generally assumed a more sceptical tone. These texts attributed b e l i e f s t o t h e f o l l y a n d s u p e r s t i t i o n of t h e ' v u l g a r ' m a s s e s , a n d v i e w e d t h e p e r s e c u t i o n of w i t c h e s a s a t o k e n of a less e n l i g h t e n e d a g e . B y t h e e a r l y y e a r s of t h e

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , a m o r e r o m a n t i c v i e w of t h e s u b j e c t h a d e m e r g e d in s o m e q u a r ters. Championed by t h e English Egyptologist Margaret Murray, the idea that w i t c h c r a f t w a s a n a n c i e n t f e r t i l i t y c u l t s u p p r e s s e d by t h e C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h a t t r a c t e d considerable publicity and some academic support.
2

Gardner,

it is a l t o g e t h e r less s i m p l e t o d i s c o u n t t h e i d e a t h a t n o n - C h r i s t i a n

reli-

g i o u s p r a c t i c e s e x i s t e d in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d , a n d w e r e s o m e t i m e s in m o d i f i e d f o r m in t h e w o r k of h i s t o r i a n s like C a r l o

implicated Gabor his

in a c c u s a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t . E v e n M u r r a y ' s i d e a of a p a g a n f e r t i l i t y c u l t h a s s u r v i v e d Ginzburg and Klaniczay. E q u a l l y , t h e p o p u l a r i m a g e of t h e c r u e l w i t c h finder who imposed

By the 1 9 5 0 s , when the phrase

' w i t c h - h u n t i n g ' w a s c o i n e d in A m e r i c a , w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s u p p r e s s i o n of d e v i a n t g r o u p s by p o l i t i c a l e l i t e s . T h i s v i e w w a s e x e m p l i f i e d in A r t h u r M i l l e r ' s play The Crucible, w h i c h w a s b a s e d l o o s e l y on t h e S a l e m w i t c h t r i a l s of have survived into the present age, 1 6 9 2 . A l l t h e s e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t d r a w n to the t o p i c .

o b s e s s i o n s on t h e v i c t i m s of t o r t u r e r a i s e s p r o f o u n d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e o r i g i n s of w i t c h t r i a l s . W h i l e t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r o s e c u t i o n s w e r e n o r m a l l y s i n c e r e in t h e i r m o t i v e s , it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e y s o m e t i m e s i m p o s e d t h e i r o w n v i e w s of t h e c r i m e t h e c o u r s e of i n t e r r o g a t i o n s . S o m e c o n f e s s i o n s w e r e e n t i r e l y f a l s e . In 1 6 2 8 in the

a n d a r e r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e v a r i o u s b o o k s t h a t c o m p e t e f o r t h e a t t e n t i o n of r e a d e r s

m a y o r of B a m b u r g , J o h a n n e s J u n i u s , s m u g g l e d a t r a g i c l e t t e r t o his d a u g h t e r f r o m his c e l l in t h e t o w n ' s ' w i t c h p r i s o n ' , d e c l a r i n g t h a t his c o n f e s s i o n t o t h e c r i m e w a s ' s h e e r lies a n d m a d e - u p t h i n g s . . . F o r a l l t h i s I w a s f o r c e d t o s a y t h r o u g h f e a r of

Pagan cults, hysteria, and evil witch finders

D e s p i t e t h e d i v e r s i t y o f p o p u l a r w r i t i n g o n w i t c h c r a f t , a n u m b e r of g e n e r a l t h e m e s occur frequently w o r k of Murray, in t h e g e n r e . One c o m m o n a s s u m p t i o n , d e r i v e d p a r t l y f r o m the is t h a t w i t c h c r a f t w a s a p a g a n c u l t d r i v e n u n d e r g r o u n d by t h e

the t o r t u r e w h i c h w a s threatened, beyond w h a t

I had already endured'.

In t h i s

i n s t a n c e , t h e w i l l i n g n e s s o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t o use t o r t u r e w a s s u f f i c i e n t t o e n s u r e a c o n v i c t i o n , w h a t e v e r t h e o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s of t h e c a s e . T h e f a c t t h a t t h i s w a s p o s s i b l e p r e s e n t s h i s t o r i a n s w i t h s o m e a w k w a r d p r o b l e m s . Is it n e c e s s a r y t o a s s u m e t h a t a n y t h i n g ' r e a l ' lay b e h i n d a l l e g a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t ? on popular support, since the authorities were capable t h r o u g h t h e use of t o r t u r e alone? finders c a n be v i e w e d a s Did witch trials of securing depend convictions

C h r i s t i a n a u t h o r i t i e s . U n s u r p r i s i n g l y , t h i s c l a i m f e a t u r e s m o s t o f t e n in t h e w o r k of n e o - p a g a n s a n d s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d ' w i t c h e s ' , w h o w i s h t o t r a c e t h e l i n e a g e of t h e i r b e l i e f s b a c k t o t h e a n c i e n t w o r l d . T h i s a s p i r a t i o n is s u m m e d up n e a t l y in t h e t i t l e of a b o o k by V i v i a n n e C r o w l e y , Wicca: The Old Religion in the New Age (1989).
3

T h e p o p u l a r s t e r e o t y p e s of p a g a n c u l t s a n d e v i l w i t c h t h e best w a y t o e x p l a i n a l l e g a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t

s i m p l i f i e d v e r s i o n s of p o s i t i o n s a v a i l a b l e t o a c a d e m i c h i s t o r i a n s . F o r m a n y s c h o l a r s , is t o a s s u m e t h a t s o m e of t h e p r a c t i c e s d e s c r i b e d by e a r l y m o d e r n d e m o n o l o g i s t s w e r e b a s e d o n r e a l a c t i v i t i e s o r a s p e c t s of f o l k r e l i g i o n . T h i s p r i n c i p l e is o f t e n used t o a c c o u n t f o r a l l e g a t i o n s of h a r m f u l m a g i c , b u t c a n be e x t e n d e d t o e x p l a i n d e t a i l s of t h e w i t c h e s ' s a b b a t . T h u s C a r l o G i n z b u r g a n d E v a P o c s a r g u e in t h i s b o o k t h a t t h e o r i g i n s of t h e s a b b a t c a n be f o u n d in f o l k b e l i e f s . On t h e o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e , s o m e h i s t o r i a n s h a v e a r g u e d t h a t all t h e e l e m e n t s in w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n s s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s l e a r n e d f a n t a s i e s . T h e r e is no r e a s o n t o a s s u m e t h a t a n y c h a r g e s a g a i n s t w i t c h e s w e r e b a s e d o n f o l k t r a d i t i o n s , a c c o r d i n g t o M . J . K e p h a r t , ' w h e n w e a l r e a d y k n o w t h a t it w a s p e r f e c t l y easy t o f a b r i c a t e a c c u s a t i o n s of s o r c e r y , h e r e s y a n d s u n d r y d i s g u s t i n g None of the writers in t h i s collection go quite so f a r , but the behaviours
7

In a v a r i a t i o n of t h i s i d e a , s o m e f e m i n i s t w r i t e r s h a v e s t r e s s e d t h e f e m a l e - c e n t r e d n a t u r e o f t h e ' o l d r e l i g i o n ' , w h i c h w a s b r u t a l l y s u p p r e s s e d by t h e Christian church.

4

male-dominated in

A n o t h e r t h e m e in p o p u l a r a c c o u n t s is t h e c r e d u l i t y a n d ' s u p e r -

s t i t i o n ' of t h o s e m e n a n d w o m e n w h o a c c e p t e d t h e e x i s t e n c e of h a r m f u l m a g i c

t h e p a s t , a n d r e a c t e d ' h y s t e r i c a l l y ' t o t h e n o n - e x i s t e n t t h r e a t of a w i t c h c u l t . T h i s n o t i o n is l i n k e d t o t h e t e n d e n c y t o a s s u m e t h a t m o s t w i t c h t r i a l s t o o k p l a c e in t h e Middle Ages, when western society was somehow less r a t i o n a l t h a n it is t o d a y . Middle T h e s e i d e a s a r e c o m b i n e d in t h e c o m m o n E n g l i s h p h r a s e , ' I f I'd l i v e d in t h e

A g e s t h e y ' d h a v e b u r n t m e a s a w i t c h ' . A t h i r d c o m m o n a s s u m p t i o n is t h e b e l i e f t h a t w i t c h - h u n t s w e r e p u r s u e d by r u t h l e s s a n d s a d i s t i c m e n w h o s t o p p e d a t n o t h i n g t o s e c u r e c o n v i c t i o n s f o r t h e c r i m e . In t h i s v e r s i o n , a l l e g a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t inevitably to torture, enforced confession and death. It w o u l d be t e m p t i n g a t t h i s p o i n t t o e x p l o d e t h e s e p o p u l a r c o n c e p t i o n s . The led

a g a i n s t a n y g r o u p o r p e r s o n w h o m a u t h o r i t i e s w a n t e d t o g e t r i d of f o r a n y r e a s o n ' . extracts Muchembled and L a r n e r e m p h a s i s e t h e r o l e of t h e f a n t a s i e s of e d u c a t e d m e n

from in

v i e w s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e a r e , u n d o u b t e d l y , o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s of t h e h i s t o r y of w i t c h c r a f t , a n d s o m e of t h e m a r e s i m p l y u n t r u e . R e l a t i v e l y f e w w i t c h t r i a l s o c c u r r e d in the M i d d l e A g e s . There w a s nothing inherently i r r a t i o n a l about w i t c h c r a f t a n d t h e m o s t e x t r e m e of t h e s e b e l i e f s beliefs, i n v o l v i n g t h e i d e a of s e c r e t a s s e m b l i e s of

w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s . T h e m a j o r i t y of h i s t o r i a n s o c c u p y g r o u n d s o m e w h e r e in b e t w e e n . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e y t r y t o s t r i k e a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n t h e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t i n g t h a t w i t c h t r i a l s r e f l e c t e d t h e r e a l a c t i v i t i e s a n d b e l i e f s of o r d i n a r y p e o p l e , a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t p r o s e c u t i o n s w e r e s i m p l y i m p o s e d by e l i t e g r o u p s . T h e a t t e m p t t o l y i n g t h e m e s of w i t c h c r a f t research, and recurs in d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s find t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e p o s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s is one of t h e u n d e r throughout t h i s b o o k . T h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n w i l l e x p l o r e s o m e of t h e p r o b l e m s i n v o l v e d in g e t t i n g t h e b a l a n c e r i g h t . It w i l l a l s o c o n s i d e r t h e p o p u l a r i m a g e of w i t c h c r a f t a s a n ' i r r a t i o n a l ' b e l i e f , w h i c h h a s a t t r a c t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n of h i s t o r i a n s a n d p h i l o s o p h e r s p r o v i d e a b r i e f s u r v e y of w h a t is k n o w n a b o u t w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s in Europe. in r e c e n t y e a r s . B e f o r e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e s e issues in d e t a i l , h o w e v e r , it is n e c e s s a r y t o

D e v i l - w o r s h i p p i n g c a n n i b a l s - w e r e d e v e l o p e d by t h e m o s t e d u c a t e d m e n in E u r o p e a n s o c i e t y . If a n y f e r t i l i t y c u l t s e x i s t e d in t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e y h a v e no h i s t o r ical or intellectual c o n n e c t i o n to the twentieth-century w i t c h c r a f t movement, w h i c h w a s i n v e n t e d in t h e 1 9 5 0 s by a r e t i r e d c i v i l s e r v a n t f r o m Gardner.

5

England named

Gerard

Nonetheless,

it w o u l d

be w r o n g t o d i s m i s s t h e s e p o p u l a r

assumptions

e n t i r e l y . D e s p i t e t h e i r o b v i o u s s h o r t c o m i n g s , t h e y d o e n c a p s u l a t e s o m e s e r i o u s issues in t h e h i s t o r y of w i t c h c r a f t . W h i l e it is e a s y t o d i s c r e d i t t h e c l a i m s o f M u r r a y a n d

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

European witch trials, c. 1400-1750

T h a n k s to the w o r k of R i c h a r d K i e c k h e f e r and N o r m a n C o h n , the c h r o n o l o g y lady, of

in m u c h of E u r o p e by t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e y r e a c h e d t h e i r p e a k in impose a single-cause e x p l a n a t i o n f o r the t r a g e d y . P r o t e s t a n t states like

Poland England

a n d H u n g a r y in t h e s a m e p e r i o d . T h e s e v a r i a t i o n s h a v e t h w a r t e d m o s t a t t e m p t s t o E u r o p e a n w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s is n o w f a i r l y w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e e a r l i e s t k n o w n p r o s e c u t i o n o c c u r r e d in K i l k e n n y in I r e l a n d in 1 3 2 4 , w h e n a n a r i s t o c r a t i c K y t e l e r , w a s a c c u s e d of p r a c t i s i n g h a r m f u l magic and participating in Alice diabolical idea idea a n d t h e N e t h e r l a n d s s u f f e r e d r e l a t i v e l y f e w p e r s e c u t i o n s , b u t t h e s a m e c a n be s a i d f o r C a t h o l i c I t a l y a n d S p a i n . E q u a l l y , t h e f e r o c i t y of s o m e w i t c h p a n i c s in C a t h o l i c France was matched of by events but in Presbyterian witch Scotland. Intense place persecutions in relatively o c c u r r e d in r e g i o n s s u f f e r i n g s u s t a i n e d w a r f a r e in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , l i k e t h e principalities Germany; major panics also took peaceful regions like As well as these Scandinavia. regional variations, there were differences between social

r i t e s w i t h a s m a l l g r o u p of a s s o c i a t e s . T h i s c a s e i n v o l v e d m a n y of t h e key e l e m e n t s f o u n d in l a t e r a l l e g a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t , t h o u g h s o m e of t h e m notably the of a p a c t w i t h t h e D e v i l - w e r e o n l y i m p l i e d in t h e s u r v i v i n g d o c u m e n t s . T h e l a t e r f o u r t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d r e s u r f a c e d in 1 4 3 7 in a l e t t e r f r o m Pope

of a s e c r e t s o c i e t y of D e v i l w o r s h i p p e r s a p p e a r s t o h a v e d e v e l o p e d s l o w l y in t h e Eugenius I V ' t o a l l i n q u i s i t o r s of h e r e t i c a l d e p r a v i t y ' . T h i s e x p r e s s e d t h e c o n c e p t of w i t c h c r a f t m o r e f u l l y , a n d d e s e r v e s t o be q u o t e d a t l e n g t h :

g r o u p s a b o u t t h e m e a n i n g of w i t c h c r a f t i t s e l f . A l l t h o s e w h o a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e e x i s t e n c e of w i t c h e s a c c e p t e d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m h a r m f u l m a g i c , o r maleficium, m o s t o f t e n i n v o l v i n g d i s e a s e , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of c r o p s o r d i s t u r b a n c e s in t h e w e a t h e r . A l l e g a t i o n s o f t h i s k i n d m a d e up t h e b u l k o f t h e a c c u s a t i o n s l e v e l l e d by o r d i n a r y people against suspected witches. The emphasis in t h e s e allegations was over-

T h e y s a c r i f i c e t o d e m o n s , a d o r e t h e m , seek o u t a n d a c c e p t r e s p o n s e s f r o m t h e m , do h o m a g e to t h e m , and m a k e w i t h t h e m a w r i t t e n a g r e e m e n t or a n o t h e r k i n d of p a c t t h r o u g h w h i c h , by a s i n g l e w o r d , t o u c h o r s i g n , t h e y m a y p e r f o r m w h a t e v e r e v i l d e e d s o r s o r c e r y t h e y w i s h a n d be t r a n s p o r t e d to or away f r o m wherever they wish . . . In t h e i r s o r c e r y t h e y a r e n o t a f r a i d t o use t h e m a t e r i a l s o f b a p t i s m , t h e e u c h a r i s t , a n d o t h e r s a c r a m e n t s . T h e y m a k e i m a g e s of w a x o r o t h e r m a t e r i a l s , w h i c h by t h e i r i n v o c a t i o n s t h e y b a p t i s e o r c a u s e t o be b a p t i s e d . S o m e t i m e s t h e y m a k e a r e v e r s a l of t h e h o l y c r o s s , u p o n w h i c h o u r s a v i o u r h a n g e d f o r us. Not h o n o u r i n g the mysteries, they s o m e t i m e s inflict upon the representations a n d o t h e r s i g n s of t h e c r o s s v a r i o u s s h a m e f u l t h i n g s by e x e c r a b l e m e a n s .
8

w h e l m i n g l y o n t h e h a r m c a u s e d by t h e w i t c h , r a t h e r t h a n t h e o r i g i n s of t h e i r p o w e r . In c o n t r a s t , u n i v e r s i t y - t r a i n e d l a w y e r s a n d c h u r c h m e n t e n d e d t o s t r e s s t h e s a t a n i c n a t u r e of t h e w i t c h ' s m a g i c , a n d i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e i r a b i l i t i e s d e r i v e d f r o m a p a c t w i t h t h e D e v i l . T h e r e is s o m e e v i d e n c e t h a t f o l k t r a d i t i o n s l i n k e d maleficium the Devil, p a r t i c u l a r l y in E n g l i s h w i t c h c r a f t a n d c a s e s i n v o l v i n g d e m o n i c s i o n ; b u t e v e n in t h e s e c a s e s , t h e v i c t i m s o f w i t c h c r a f t w e r e f a r m o r e w i t h t h e e f f e c t s of maleficium P r i m a r y a l l e g a t i o n s also tended to focus on individuals with posses-

concerned The ranks

t h a n the supposed pact between S a t a n and the w i t c h . rather than groups.

idea that witchcraft was a collective enterprise involving nocturnal gatherings for Devil w o r s h i p , desecration and m u r d e r w a s generally confined to the higher of E u r o p e a n s o c i e t y . T h i s i d e a p l a y e d a c e n t r a l r o l e in t h e w o r k s of l e a r n e d d e m o -

This account

lacks the

i d e a of i n f a n t i c i d e a n d c a n n i b a l i s m t h a t f e a t u r e d

promi-

nologists like H e n r i Boguet, J e a n B o d i n a n d K i n g J a m e s V I of S c o t l a n d , but w a s mostly absent f r o m the a l l e g a t i o n s brought by European villagers against their n e i g h b o u r s . D u r i n g t h e c o u r s e of a t r i a l , h o w e v e r , it w a s e a s y f o r t h e s e e s t e d in t h e s a t a n i c a s p e c t s of w i t c h c r a f t t h a n s i m p l e maleficium. disparate

n e n t l y in l a t e r d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h e c r i m e , b u t i n c l u d e s m o s t of t h e o t h e r by t h e G e r m a n Maleficarum. witch panics inquisitors Heinrich K r a m e r and J a c o b which Sprenger

ingredients Malleus the

of t h e R e n a i s s a n c e c o n c e p t of w i t c h c r a f t . In 1 4 8 6 t h e s e i n g r e d i e n t s w e r e c o m b i n e d in t h e T h e p u b l i c a t i o n of t h e Malleus in F r a n c e and Germany, o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e f i r s t w a v e of m a j o r lasted until the early y e a r s of 1 5 6 0 , when a second

e l e m e n t s to m e r g e t o g e t h e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n the legal a u t h o r i t i e s w e r e m o r e inter-

sixteenth century.

Prosecutions then declined until around

w a v e of t r i a l s began, this t i m e e x t e n d i n g beyond G e r m a n y a n d F r a n c e to S w i t z e r l a n d a n d E n g l a n d . A n o t h e r o u t b r e a k o c c u r r e d t o w a r d s t h e e n d of t h e c e n t u r y , e x t e n d i n g t o F l a n d e r s a n d S c o t l a n d . A f t e r a p e r i o d of r e s p i t e in t h e e a r l y 1 6 0 0 s , a f i n a l w a v e of s e v e r e p e r s e c u t i o n s b e g a n a r o u n d 1 6 2 0 a n d c o n t i n u e d in m u c h of E u r o p e n u m b e r a n d i n t e n s i t y . In 1 6 9 2 t h e f a m o u s e p i s o d e in S a l e m , one of t h e l a s t w i t c h p a n i c s in t h e w e s t e r n w o r l d . It is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h a t t h e r e w e r e c o n s i d e r a b l e r e g i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n t h i s p a t t e r n . T h e r e w e r e r e l a t i v e l y f e w t r i a l s in I t a l y , t h e N e t h e r l a n d s a n d t h r o u g h o u t the w h o l e period, and E n g l i s h t r i a l s t e n d e d t o be s m a l l - s c a l e u n t i l a s p e c t a c u l a r e r u p t i o n of p e r s e c u t i o n in 1 6 4 5 . In c o n t r a s t , G e r m a n y Spain affairs suffered until in the last q u a r t e r of the seventeenth century. Subsequently, w i t c h t r i a l s declined

The confession

of Frangoise

Secretain
ideas, and the p r o b l e m it p r e s e n t s f o r t h e inter-

T h e c o n f l a t i o n of t h e s e v a r i o u s

p r e t a t i o n o f w i t c h c r a f t c o n f e s s i o n s , c a n be i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e t e s t i m o n y of F r a n g o i s e S e c r e t a i n , a F r e n c h w o m a n c o n v i c t e d in 1 5 9 8 . A c c o r d i n g t o H e n r i B o g u e t ' s a c c o u n t of h e r i n t e r r o g a t i o n , she w a s i m p r i s o n e d f o r t h r e e d a y s b e f o r e m a k i n g h e r initial a d m i s s i o n of g u i l t . S u b s e q u e n t l y , she a d d e d n e w d e t a i l s t o t h i s s t a t e m e n t ' f r o m d a y t o d a y ' . E v e n t u a l l y , he w a s a b l e t o p r e s e n t t h e ' p r i n c i p a l p o i n t s ' of h e r c o n f e s s i o n as f o l l o w s :

New England, was

F i r s t , t h a t she h a d w i s h e d five d e v i l s o n L o y s e t h a t t i m e h a d t h e l i k e n e s s of a b i g b l a c k man.

Maillat.

S e c o n d , t h a t she h a d l o n g s i n c e g i v e n h e r s e l f t o t h e D e v i l , w h o a t

p a r t i c u l a r l y savage panics, as d i d S c o t l a n d after 1 6 2 0 . W h i l e w i t c h t r i a l s had ended

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

T h i r d , t h a t the Devil h a d f o u r or five t i m e s k n o w n her c a r n a l l y , f o w l ; a n d t h a t his s e m e n w a s v e r y c o l d .

in

This process a l l o w e d suspects to weave their own fantasies and beliefs

into

the that

t h e f o r m s o m e t i m e s o f a d o g , s o m e t i m e s of a c a t , a n d s o m e t i m e s o f a F o u r t h , t h a t she h a d c o u n t l e s s t i m e s been t o t h e s a b b a t a n d a s s e m b l y of w i t c h e s n e a r t h e v i l l a g e of C o y r i e r e s in a p l a c e c a l l e d C o m b e s by t h e w a t e r ; a n d t h a t she w e n t t h e r e o n a w h i t e s t a f f w h i c h she p l a c e d b e t w e e n her legs. F i f t h , t h a t a t t h e s a b b a t she h a d d a n c e d , a n d h a d b e a t e n w a t e r t o cause hail. Sixth, that she and Groz-Jacques Bocquet had caused Loys had M o n n e r e t t o d i e by m a k i n g h e r e a t a p i e c e of b r e a d w h i c h t h e y d u s t e d w i t h a p o w d e r g i v e n t o t h e m by t h e D e v i l . S e v e n t h , t h a t she h a d c a u s e d s e v e r a l c o w s t o d i e , a n d t h a t she d i d so by t o u c h i n g t h e m w i t h h e r h a n d o r w i t h a w a n d w h i l e s a y i n g c e r t a i n words.
9

o u t l i n e n a r r a t i v e p r o v i d e d by o f f i c i a l s o f t h e c o u r t s . In t h i s c a s e , it a p p e a r s

S e c r e t a i n m i x e d d e t a i l s f r o m l o c a l f o l k l o r e i n t o h e r s t o r y . T h e i m a g e of S a t a n a s ' a b i g b l a c k m a n ' , o r a s a d o g o r c a t , w a s r e m i n i s c e n t of p o p u l a r t a l e s a b o u t t h e D e v i l . T h e t e n d e n c y of w i t c h e s t o c r a f t s t o r i e s o f d e m o n i c e n c o u n t e r s f r o m l o r e is n o t e d by D a v i d G e n t i l c o r e from some event in h e r o w n life, in C h a p t e r 6 . W h i l e w e c a n d o no m o r e like the confessions discussed by Roper s p e c u l a t e on t h e s u r v i v i n g e v i d e n c e , it is p o s s i b l e t h a t S e c r e t a i n ' s f a n t a s y folkthan and

derived

M a l c o l m G a s k i l l in C h a p t e r s 2 4 a n d 2 5 . T h u s t h e c o n f e s s i o n c o m b i n e d i d e a s f r o m l e a r n e d d e m o n o l o g y w i t h m o r e w i d e l y h e l d c o n c e p t s of maleficium, and possibly beliefs was to of first i n c o r p o r a t e d m o r e p e r s o n a l e l e m e n t s a s w e l l . T h i s c o m b i n a t i o n of d i v e r s e t y p i c a l of w i t c h t r i a l s in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d , a n d m a k e s

e a c h a p p e a l i n g t o d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l a c t o r s in t h e d r a m a o f a p r o s e c u t i o n it e v e n h a r d e r in t e r m s of a s i n g l e c a u s e t h a t s h a p e d t h e b e h a v i o u r

e x p l a i n the p h e n o m e n o n

a l l t h e g r o u p s i n v o l v e d . W i t h t h i s n o t e of c a u t i o n in m i n d , it is n o w t i m e t o c o n s i d e r some of the elements t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d to E u r o p e a n w i t c h persecutions. T h e t h e m e t o e x p l o r e is t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t w i t c h b e l i e f s w e r e i n s p i r e d by s o m e k i n d of real cultic activity.

It is i m p o s s i b l e t o k n o w f o r c e r t a i n t h e o r i g i n of t h e s e b i z a r r e d i s c l o s u r e s . A s L o u i s e J a c k s o n p o i n t s o u t in C h a p t e r 2 6 , a c o n f e s s i o n t e x t is ' a p a l i m p s e s t m a d e of d i f f e r e n t l a y e r s of d e t a i l a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a d d e d one o n t o p of a n o t h e r as d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e b e c a m e i n v o l v e d in t h e p r o c e s s of a c c u s a t i o n a n d c o n f e s s i o n ' . of m e a n i n g a p p e a r t o be p r e s e n t in B o g u e t ' s d o c u m e n t . a c t s o f maleficium allegations poisoning against a woman Secretain. She was accused
1 0

A t least t w o layers specific cattle, girl.

First, there are the death of

Did a witch cult exist?

In Margaret Murray's original formulation, the 'witch cult' in of suppressed in the the been

a g a i n s t n a m e d i n d i v i d u a l s , w h i c h p r o b a b l y c o n s t i t u t e d the initial of c a u s i n g to death and sending devils i n t o t h e b o d y of a y o u n g

sixteenth

century

was a folk gods' which

religion

practised widely

Europe

to ensure and

S e c o n d , she c l a i m e d t o h a v e a t t e n d e d t h e s a b b a t a n d i n d u l g e d in s e x w i t h t h e D e v i l . T h e a l l e g a t i o n s of p o i s o n i n g a n d k i l l i n g l i v e s t o c k w e r e c o m m o n in c a s e s of s u s p e c t e d b e w i t c h m e n t in s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y F r a n c e , a n d m u c h of c o n t e m p o r a r y Europe. The more* of c l a i m that S e c r e t a i n was responsible for a d e m o n i c possession was a little unusual; but possession w a s closely associated w i t h w i t c h c r a f t

f e r t i l i t y of harvests. M e n a n d w o m e n w o u l d g a t h e r at s a c r e d sites to offer devotion to 'ancient had s u r v i v e d the advent Christianity, p a r t i a l l y a s s i m i l a t e d by t h e m e d i a e v a l c h u r c h . T h e r e l a t i v e t o l e r a n c e o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t o w a r d s t h i s p r a c t i c e e n d e d in t h e late M i d d l e A g e s , w h e n t h e o l d g o d s w e r e c o n d e m n e d as d e m o n s a n d t h e i r w o r s h i p p e r s w e r e r e d e f i n e d a s w i t c h e s . T h i s i n t e r pretation Demons is n o w u n s u s t a i n a b l e . A s Norman C o h n p o i n t e d o u t in Europe's Inner ( 1 9 7 5 ) , M u r r a y ' s evidence was drawn entirely f r o m witchcraft confessions flying at

in t h e f o l k l o r e

F r a n c e , G e r m a n y a n d E n g l a n d . In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e , B o g u e t r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e first allegation against Secretain came f r o m 8-year-old Loyse M a i l l a t , whose parents s u s p e c t e d p o s s e s s i o n w h e n she w a s s t r u c k by a m y s t e r i o u s s i c k n e s s . In c o n t r a s t t o t h e s e a c t s of m a l i c i o u s m a g i c , t h e r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e s a b b a t w e r e p r o b a b l y n o t p a r t of t h e o r i g i n a l allegations. If t h e y w e r e reflect introduced Boguet's in t h e c o u r s e of own Secretain's with the sexual interrogation, this would certainly preoccupation

w h i c h she e d i t e d s e l e c t i v e l y t o c r e a t e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e y d e s c r i b e d r e a l e v e n t s . W h e n t h e s e c o n f e s s i o n s a r e r e a d in f u l l , c o m p l e t e w i t h d e t a i l s of w i t c h e s n i g h t a n d t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e m s e l v e s i n t o a n i m a l s , it b e c o m e s o b v i o u s t h a t t h e y a r e n o t s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a c c o u n t s of a c t u a l h a p p e n i n g s . M o r e o v e r , C o h n o b s e r v e d t h a t a l l e g a t i o n s s i m i l a r to those m a d e a g a i n s t w i t c h e s had been levelled at erings involving cannibalism and m u r d e r . A p a r t f r o m the allegations dissenting themselves such g r o u p s s i n c e a n t i q u i t y , w h e n C h r i s t i a n s t h e m s e l v e s w e r e a c c u s e d of n o c t u r n a l g a t h 1 2

s u b j e c t , w h i c h he d e s c r i b e d a t l e n g t h e l s e w h e r e in h i s t e x t . S i m i l a r l y , t h e types. Even the lurid detail that his s e m e n was cold reflected the

relationship between the accused w o m a n and the Devil owed m u c h to learned stereotheological since he assumption that Satan's earthly b o d y w a s c o m p o s e d of l i f e l e s s m a t t e r ,
1 1

a n d o c c a s i o n a l c o n f e s s i o n s e x t r a c t e d by f o r c e -

t h e r e is no e v i d e n c e t h a t

p o s s e s s e d no p h y s i c a l b o d y of his o w n .

meetings ever t o o k place. C o h n ' s a r g u m e n t s have achieved general acceptance since t h e m i d - 1 9 7 0 s , a n d h a v e been r e i n f o r c e d by m u c h n e w r e s e a r c h . M o s t of Spain in t h e e a r l y s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , find strikingly, region were 1610, G u s t a v H e n n i n g s e n ' s w o r k o n A l f o n s o S a l a z a r , a n i n q u i s i t o r in t h e B a s q u e has s h o w n t h a t c o n t e m p o r a r i e s unable to p h y s i c a l e v i d e n c e of a l l e g e d s a b b a t s w h e n t h e y c a r e f u l l y

W h i l e m a n y aspects of S e c r e t a i n ' s final c o n f e s s i o n were p r o b a b l y added to the i n i t i a l c l a i m s of maleficium, it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e w o r d s of h e r t e s t i m o n y w e r e not s i m p l y i m p o s e d on h e r by t h e a u t h o r i t i e s . L y n d a l R o p e r a r g u e s in C h a p t e r 2 4 t h a t w i t c h c r a f t c o n f e s s i o n s c o u l d i n v o l v e a p r o c e s s of n e g o t i a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e a c c u s e d a n d h e r q u e s t i o n e r s , even t h o u g h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m w a s d e e p l y u n e q u a l .

searched

f o r it. A f t e r a g r o u p o f y o u n g w o m e n c o n f e s s e d t o a t t e n d i n g a s a b b a t in

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

Salazar

conducted

an exhaustive

investigation

of t h e i r

supposed
1 3

activities,

and

a n d it is q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e y o r i g i n a t e d in p o p u l a r c u l t u r e . B o g u e t , f o r e x a m p l e , r e p u d i a t e d t h e i d e a t h a t ' f o r t h e m o s t p a r t it is o n l y in s p i r i t t h a t w i t c h e s g o t o t h e s a b b a t ' , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t one of t h e w i t c h e s a c c u s e d a l o n g s i d e Frangoise S e c r e t a i n c l a i m e d it w a s ' q u i t e p o s s i b l e ' t o d o s o . H e p r o v i d e d a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f t h e b e l i e f , w h i c h s u g g e s t s t h a t it w a s a c c e p t e d in F r e n c h f o l k l o r e in t h e l a t e s i x t e e n t h century:

c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e y c o u l d be r e g a r d e d o n l y as d e l u s i o n s .

Agrarian

cults

and

fairies

W h i l e M u r r a y ' s c o n c e p t of a w i t c h c u l t c a n be s a f e l y d i s g a r d e d , a m o r e s u b t l e a n d p e r s u a s i v e v e r s i o n of t h e t h e o r y h a s been d e v e l o p e d by o t h e r h i s t o r i a n s . T h e p r i n c i p a l a r c h i t e c t of t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is C a r l o G i n z b u r g , w h o s e w o r k is b a s e d l a r g e l y o n t h e F r i u l i r e g i o n of n o r t h e r n I t a l y . F r o m 1 5 8 0 o n w a r d s , a s e r i e s of e x t r a o r d i n a r y t e s t i m o n i e s w e r e r e c o r d e d t h e r e by t h e R o m a n I n q u i s i t i o n . T h e s e r e l a t e d t o a l o c a l c u l t k n o w n as t h e benandante, one of its m e m b e r s : w h o s e b e l i e f s w e r e d e s c r i b e d as f o l l o w s by

S o m e l i t t l e t i m e a g o , t h e r e w a s a m a n of O r g e l e t w h o b r o u g h t his w i f e t o t h i s p l a c e a n d a c c u s e d h e r of b e i n g a w i t c h , s a y i n g a m o n g other t h i n g s t h a t w h e n t h e y w e r e in bed t o g e t h e r o n e T h u r s d a y n i g h t he n o t i c e d t h a t his w i f e w a s a b s o l u t e l y s t i l l , w i t h o u t e v e n b r e a t h i n g ; w h e r e u p o n he b e g a n t o s h a k e her, b u t c o u l d n o t w a k e n h e r . . . T h i s l a s t e d f o r t w o o r three hours until the c o c k c r o w e d ; a n d then his wife suddenly awoke, a n d w h e n he a s k e d h e r w h a t w a s a m i s s , she a n s w e r e d t h a t she w a s so t i r e d f r o m t h e w o r k she h a d d o n e t h e d a y b e f o r e t h a t she w a s w e i g h e d d o w n w i t h s l e e p a n d f e l t n o t h i n g of w h a t h e r h u s b a n d h a d d o n e t o h e r . T h e m a n t h e n s u p p o s e d t h a t she h a d been t o t h e s a b b a t , f o r he n e i g h b o u r s , w h o m she h a d t h r e a t e n e d , h a d been d y i n g . had a l r e a d y h a d s o m e s u s p i c i o n of h e r b e c a u s e t h e c a t t l e of s o m e of t h e i r
1 6

I a m a benandante

because I go w i t h the others to

fight

four times

y e a r , t h a t is d u r i n g t h e e m b e r d a y s , a t n i g h t ; I g o i n v i s i b l y in s p i r i t a n d t h e b o d y r e m a i n s b e h i n d ; w e g o f o r t h in t h e s e r v i c e of C h r i s t , a n d t h e w i t c h e s [ g o f o r t h ] in t h e n a m e of t h e Devil; we fight
1 4

each other,

we

w i t h b u n d l e s of f e n n e l a n d t h e y w i t h s o r g h u m

stalks.

On t h e b a s i s of t h i s r i c h b o d y of m a t e r i a l , G i n z b u r g h a s r e c o n s t r u c t e d t h e s y s t e m of t h e benandante.

beliefJ a m e s V I of S c o t l a n d n o t e d v e r y s i m i l a r c l a i m s in 1 5 9 7 , d e s p i t e his c o n v i c t i o n t h a t they were merely d e l u s i o n s .

1 7

M e m b e r s h i p of t h e g r o u p w a s d e t e r m i n e d a t b i r t h , w h e n t r a v e l l e d in s p i r i t o n c e r t a i n n i g h t s of t h e

certain individuals were born with their 'cauls', or a m n i o t i c sacs, still intact around t h e i r b o d i e s . A s a d u l t s , t h e benandante y e a r - t h e ' e m b e r d a y s ' in D e c e m b e r - t o m e e t w i t h a s s e m b l i e s of e v i l s p i r i t s t h e y d e s c r i b e d as w i t c h e s . T h e i r p u r p o s e w a s t o fight t h e w i t c h e s , a r m e d w i t h t h e b u n c h e s of f e n n e l m e n t i o n e d in t h e d e p o s i t i o n , w i t h t h e o u t c o m e of t h i s c o m b a t the fate torture, of t h e next harvest. details None of t h e s e t e s t i m o n i e s consistent were obtained of and their were remarkably over a period deciding through several

R e p o r t s t h a t t h e s p i r i t s o f w i t c h e s left t h e i r b o d i e s a t little literature.

n i g h t w e r e a l s o r e c o r d e d in G e r m a n y in t h e late s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h o u g h c r e d e n c e w a s g i v e n t o t h i s i d e a in t h e r e g i o n ' s d e m o n o l o g i c a l
1 8

A s well as these i n t r i g u i n g details, G i n z b u r g ' s thesis receives i n d i r e c t

support

f r o m a n o t h e r b o d y of e v i d e n c e . T h i s r e l a t e s t o s o - c a l l e d ' f a i r y c u l t s ' in e a r l y m o d e r n E u r o p e . L i k e t h e b e l i e f t h a t w i t c h e s c o u l d t r a v e l a t n i g h t in s p i r i t f o r m , r e f e r e n c e s t o f a i r i e s o c c u r q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y in c o n n e c t i o n t o w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y h a d no p l a c e in t h e l e a r n e d s t e r e o t y p e o f t h e w i t c h . A g a i n , it is u n l i k e l y t h a t these details were i m p o s e d by l a w y e r s o r t h e o l o g i a n s , w h o o f t e n a p p e a r in E n g l a n d in 1 4 9 9 . fairies'. These to h a v e f o u n d t h e m i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . A n e a r l y e x a m p l e of f a i r y b e l i e f s w a s p r e s e r v e d in t h e r e g i s t e r o f t h e a r c h d e a c o n ' s c o u r t of N o r w i c h for consorting with spirits they described Three m e m b e r s of t h e C l e r k f a m i l y f r o m S u f f o l k w e r e c o n v i c t e d of ' h e r e t i c a l as ' g r a c i o u s Marion depravity' creatures to

d e c a d e s . It a p p e a r s t h a t G i n z b u r g h a s u n c o v e r e d a n a g r a r i a n c u l t r e l a t e d t o w i t c h c r a f t , w h o s e m e m b e r s p e r c e i v e d t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r n o c t u r n a l f o e s in v e r y d i f f e r e n t t e r m s f r o m t h o s e u n d e r s t o o d by t h e m e n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e i r p r o s e c u t i o n . M o r e o v e r , he d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t t h e benandante w e r e g r a d u a l l y r e d e f i n e d by t h e i n q u i s i t i o n as s a b b a t - a t t e n d i n g w i t c h e s , a n d t h i s n e w d e f i n i t i o n of t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s w a s e v e n t u a l l y a c c e p t e d by t h e c o m m u n i t i e s in w h i c h t h e y l i v e d . A t a regional level, then, G i n z b u r g ' s w o r k reveals t h a t a f e r t i l i t y cult did exist, a n d its a c t i v i t i e s p r o v o k e d a c c u s a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t f r o m t h e a u t h o r i t i e s . H i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b e c o m e s m o r e c o n t r o v e r s i a l , h o w e v e r , w h e n he t r i e s t o e x t e n d t h i s m o d e l t o o t h e r a r e a s of Europe. His argument is p r e s e n t e d in C h a p t e r 8 . S u p p o r t Klaniczay, for who G i n z b u r g ' s thesis has c o m e f r o m the v e r s i o n , c u l t m e m b e r s , o r taltos, of t h e w e a t h e r .
1 5

p e r f o r m e d v a r i o u s f e a t s on t h e f a m i l y ' s b e h a l f , h e l p i n g t h e m t o c u r e d i s e a s e s a n d l o c a t e h i d d e n t r e a s u r e , a s w e l l as t r a n s p o r t i n g Canterbury cathedral. seventeenth c e n t u r y .

2 0 1 9

Clerk through the air

Fairies continued to

figure

in E n g l i s h w i t c h t r i a l s u n t i l t h e to

In S c o t l a n d , J a m e s V I n o t e d t h a t ' s u n d r y w i t c h e s h a v e g o n e could other estabhumble

Hungarian historian, Gabor fight

to death w i t h the c o n f e s s i o n t h a t they have been t r a n s p o r t e d w i t h the f a i r i e s such a hill, w h i c h o p e n i n g , they w e n t in, and there s a w a f a i r q u e e n ' . He o n l y e x p l a i n s u c h c l a i m s by a s s u m i n g t h e y w e r e s a t a n i c d e l u s i o n s . s i d e of E u r o p e , G u s t a v
2 1

h a s i d e n t i f i e d s i m i l a r b e l i e f s in t h e c o n f e s s i o n s o f w i t c h e s in t h a t c o u n t r y . In t h i s t r a v e l l e d in s p i r i t t o r i v a l taltos for control compelling F o r those s y m p a t h e t i c to G i n z b u r g ' s case, the most and were generally

On t h e

Henningsen has s h o w n t h a t f a i r y beliefs were w e l l

e v i d e n c e c o m e s f r o m d e t a i l s in w i t c h c r a f t c o n f e s s i o n s t h a t c o n t r a d i c t e d t h e a s s u m p t i o n s of d e m o n o l o g i s t s , r e j e c t e d by e d u c t a t e d w r i t e r s on t h e s u b j e c t . It is d i f f i c u l t t o see h o w t h e s e d e t a i l s c o u l d h a v e been i m p o s e d f r o m a b o v e ,

l i s h e d in S i c i l y d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y . H e r e , m e n a n d w o m e n f r o m

b a c k g r o u n d s were organised into ' c o m p a n i e s ' , whose m e m b e r s believed they were conveyed through the a i r to attend joyful gatherings w i t h fairies, and travelled with

10

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

11

t h e c r e a t u r e s a s t h e y p e r f o r m e d g o o d d e e d s in t h e h o m e s of t h e i r n e i g h b o u r s . T h e s e e v e n t s w e r e r e i n t e r p r e t e d by t h e i n q u i s i t i o n as s a b b a t s .
2 2

Social and political contexts

It is i n s t r u c t i v e a t t h i s p o i n t t o r e t u r n t o t h e c a s e o f F r a n g o i s e S e c r e t a i n . A c c o r d i n g t o B o g u e t ' s a c c o u n t , t h e e v e n t s l e a d i n g t o h e r a p p r e h e n s i o n b e g a n w h e n she v i s i t e d t h e h o u s e of H u m b e r t e a n d C l a u d e M a i l l a t t o a s k f o r o v e r n i g h t l o d g i n g s . W i t h h e r husband away, Humberte first r e f u s e d a n d a s k e d h e r t o l e a v e , t h e n r e l e n t e d in t h e

T h e r o l e of f a i r y

beliefs notion

in E u r o p e a n w i t c h c r a f t is a s u b j e c t t h a t a w a i t s f u l l e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , b u t it is p o s s i b l e t h a t such p o p u l a r ideas p r o v i d e d the r a w m a t e r i a l f r o m w h i c h the learned of a w i t c h c u l t w a s f o r m e d . There are, however, some serious weaknesses in t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . F i r s t of

a l l , it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e k i n d of f u l l y d e v e l o p e d b e l i e f - s y s t e m s t h a t c o u l d h a v e i n s p i r e d t h e i d e a of t h e s a b b a t w e r e c o n f i n e d t o a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l a r e a of E u r o p e . s i m i l a r t o t h o s e h e l d by t h e I t a l i a n benandante c a n be f o u n d in G e r m a n y , Ideas Scotland

f a c e of h e r v i s i t o r ' s p e r s i s t e n c e . T h e n e x t m o r n i n g , h e r y o u n g d a u g h t e r L o y s e w a s a f f l i c t e d w i t h a s t r a n g e illness t h a t w e a k e n e d her l i m b s a n d t w i s t e d her m o u t h 'in a very s t r a n g e m a n n e r ' . S o m e days later, her parents began to suspect bewitchfor m e n t a n d t o o k h e r t o a p r i e s t , w h o c o n f i r m e d t h e d i a g n o s i s of p o s s e s s i o n . It w a s d u r i n g t h e g i r l ' s e x o r c i s m t h a t she n a m e d S e c r e t a i n a s t h e p e r s o n r e s p o n s i b l e her s u f f e r i n g .
2 6

a n d F r a n c e , b u t t h e r e is l i t t l e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e y w e r e i n t e g r a t e d i n t o a c o h e r e n t b o d y of r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s . A s R i c h a r d M u c h e m b l e d p o i n t s o u t in C h a p t e r 1 0 , t h e r e is a d a n g e r t h a t h i s t o r i a n s c a n t a k e f r a g m e n t s f r o m p o p u l a r t r a d i t i o n a n d from them a composite belief-system critics that of never existed have as a whole. Such a p p r o a c h can ignore the specific c u l t u r a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s of w i t c h e s occurred. Second, Ginzburg in w h i c h t h e infer an

T h e d y n a m i c s o f t h i s s t o r y w e r e f a i r l y t y p i c a l of v i l l a g e - l e v e l c a s e s In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e , t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e

o f w i t c h c r a f t . A d i s p u t e b e t w e e n t w o w o m e n w a s f o l l o w e d by t h e i l l n e s s of a c h i l d , s u b s e q u e n t l y a s c r i b e d t o maleficium. g i r l w a s p o s s e s s e d w i t h d e m o n s e n c o u r a g e d a n a l l e g a t i o n of w i t c h c r a f t , s i n c e t h e c o n d i t i o n w a s o f t e n a t t r i b u t e d t o w i t c h e s . B u t in c o m m o n w i t h m o s t o t h e r a c c u s a t i o n s o f h a r m f u l m a g i c , it a p p e a r s t h a t t h e c a s e of F r a n g o i s e S e c r e t a i n s i t u a t i o n o f s o c i a l c o n f l i c t , a n d it o f f e r e d a n e x p l a n a t i o n , a n d p o s s i b l y a served remedy, social t w o m a j o r f u n c t i o n s f o r t h e p e o p l e i n v o l v e d : it p r o v i d e d a n o u t l e t f o r a n g e r in a f o r a m i s f o r t u n e t h a t w a s o t h e r w i s e h a r d t o u n d e r s t a n d . T h e s e t h e m e s of to explain witchcraft ' f r o m below'. during

persecution learned beliefs. were

a r g u e d t h a t the

c o n c e p t of w i t c h c r a f t c o u l d h a v e a r i s e n w i t h o u t a n y r e f e r e n c e t o p o p u l a r

N o r m a n C o h n s h o w s in C h a p t e r 2 t h a t t h e m a j o r i n g r e d i e n t s of t h e s a b b a t t h e i d e a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e w i t c h e s ' g a t h e r i n g , l i k e t h e p r a c t i c e of and infanticide, were occasionally attributed to entirely unrelated William

p r e s e n t in m e d i a e v a l d e s c r i p t i o n s of h e r e t i c s . In t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d , s o m e of Devil-worship groups. Thus unnatural inverted 1 1 . It is Thus James

G o u g e a s s e r t e d in 1 6 2 6 t h a t A m e r i c a n t r i b e s m e n ' e x c e l l e d in
2 3

c o n f l i c t a n d t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of s u f f e r i n g h a v e p l a y e d a p r o m i n e n t r o l e in a t t e m p t s

cruelty, sacrificing their children and offering t h e m to d e v i l s ' . t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of o f f i c i a l r e l i g i o n , as S t u a r t Clark argues

M a n y e l e m e n t s of

t h e s a b b a t c o u l d h a v e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e f a n t a s y of a n ' a n t i - s o c i e t y ' w h i c h in C h a p t e r

The view that w i t c h t r i a l s were a response to increased social tensions

t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y is m o s t c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h E n g l i s h r e s e a r c h . In t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s , t h e s t u d i e s of K e i t h T h o m a s a n d A l a n M a c f a r l a n e s u g g e s t e d t h a t a c c u s a tions typically occurred when a relatively wealthy neighbour. villager felt obliged to refuse of away. largely c h a r i t y t o a less f o r t u n a t e One c o n s e q u e n c e of t h i s w a s a f e e l i n g

s t r i k i n g t h a t s c h o l a r l y a c c o u n t s of w i t c h c r a f t tended to reverse t h e i r a u t h o r s ' most c h e r i s h e d r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s , d o w n t o s p e c i f i c d e t a i l s of c o n f e s s i o n a l p r a c t i c e . t h a t a b l a c k t u r n i p a n d urine w e r e o f f e r e d as the body a n d b l o o d of C h r i s t . t h e C a t h o l i c B o g u e t e m p h a s i s e d t h e d e s e c r a t i o n of t h e m a s s in t h e s a b b a t , a l l e g i n g

2 4

g u i l t , w h i c h c o u l d e a s i l y be t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e p e r s o n w h o h a d been t u r n e d In M a c f a r l a n e ' s v i e w , t h e t e n s i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n e q u a l i t y w e r e c r e a t e d by e c o n o m i c t r a n s i t i o n s f o r t h o s e w h o lost o u t . p r i n c i p a l l y t h e g r o w t h in p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e of c a p i t a l i s m - w h i c h w e r e n o t a c c o m p a n i e d by a n a d e q u a t e s y s t e m of

2 7

V I , in c o n t r a s t , c l a i m e d t h a t a b l a s p h e m o u s p a r o d y o f a s e r m o n w a s t h e c e n t r e p i e c e of t h e w i t c h e s ' a s s e m b l y , w h i c h s e e m e d t o r e s e m b l e a d e m o n i c v e r s i o n of a Scots Protestant service.

2 5

beginnings provision with

T h e s e i m a g i n a r y r e v e r s a l s of a c c e p t e d b e h a v i o u r p r o v i d e

a p l a u s i b l e , a l t e r n a t i v e s o u r c e f o r t h e m y t h of t h e s a b b a t . A t a m o r e b a s i c l e v e l , it is p r o b l e m a t i c t o a r g u e t h a t t h e e x i s t e n c e of f e r t i l i t y cults gave rise to w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s . Even if s u c h c u l t s e x i s t e d in Renaissance intolsimilar E u r o p e , t h i s in i t s e l f c o u l d n o t e x p l a i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a w i t c h p a n i c . It w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y t o e x p l a i n w h y o f f i c i a l a t t i t u d e s c h a n g e d f r o m i n d i f f e r e n c e t o erance, and why popular beliefs were demonised at this p a r t i c u l a r time. A

T h e s t r e n g t h of t h i s a p p r o a c h is t h a t it p r o v i d e s a p l a u is c o n s i s t e n t

s i b l e a c c o u n t of t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s of l o c a l a c c u s a t i o n s , w h i c h

m u c h o f t h e s u r v i v i n g e v i d e n c e ; its p r i n c i p a l w e a k n e s s is t h a t it is less a p p l i c a b l e t o l a r g e - s c a l e w i t c h p a n i c s s u c h a s t h o s e in E a s t A n g l i a in 1 6 4 5 , a n d in S c o t l a n d and central E u r o p e d u r i n g the seventeenth century. M o r e o v e r , the e c o n o m i c changes e x p e r i e n c e d in E n g l a n d w e r e n o t m i r r o r e d in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , l i k e S c o t l a n d , w h i c h s u f f e r e d m o r e i n t e n s e p e r s e c u t i o n s . T h e o t h e r k i n d of e x p l a n a t i o n f o r w i t c h t r i a l s ' f r o m b e l o w ' - b a s e d o n t h e n e e d of e a r l y m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s t o m a k e sense of n a t u r a l c a l a m i t i e s - h a s been a d v a n c e d m o s t p e r s u a s i v e l y by t h e G e r m a n h i s t o r i a n W o l f g a n g B e h r i n g e r . In C h a p t e r 4, B e h r i n g e r p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e m o s t s a v a g e p e r i o d o f w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s f r o m 1 5 6 0 c o i n c i d e d w i t h t h e c l i m a t i c p h e n o m e n o n k n o w n as t h e ' l i t t l e ice a g e ' , w h i c h c a u s e d c r o p f a i l u r e s a c r o s s m u c h of E u r o p e u n t i l t h e m i d d l e y e a r s of t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h i s w e a t h e r p a t t e r n w a s c o r r e c t l y p e r c e i v e d as a b n o r m a l by c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , w h o f o u n d it e a s y t o a t t r i b u t e t o w i t c h e s i n t e n t o n destroying

o b j e c t i o n c a n be m a d e t o o t h e r a t t e m p t s t o e x p l a i n w i t c h t r i a l s in t e r m s of p o p u l a r b e l i e f s . If, f o r e x a m p l e , one a r g u e s t h a t t h e p e r s e c u t i o n s w e r e c a u s e d by f e a r s of maleficium a m o n g the European p o p u l a t i o n , it w o u l d be n e c e s s a r y t o s h o w fifteenth that these fears increased f r o m the late century onwards, or that the authorities prosecutions were imposed 'from

were prepared to take t h e m more seriously for some reason. These points relate to t h e m u c h w i d e r q u e s t i o n of w h e t h e r w i t c h c r a f t to that question. a b o v e ' o r s h o u l d be r e g a r d e d a s a r e s p o n s e t o p o p u l a r c o n c e r n s . W e c a n n o w t u r n

12

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

13

w h o l e c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e p o p u l a r c l a m o u r f o r a c t i o n caused the p o l i t i c a l elites of central Europe to move against those b e l i e v e d t o be r e s p o n s i b l e . A s Behringer of a c k n o w l e d g e s , h o w e v e r , t h e h a r d s h i p s i n d u c e d by t h e ' l i t t l e ice a g e ' c a n n o t p r o v i d e a complete explanation for Europe's witch trials. F o r a start, the first wave panics commenced some eighty years earlier. Furthermore, large-scale witch-hunts o f t e n o c c u r r e d w h e n t h e l e a r n e d c o n c e p t of c o l l e c t i v e w i t c h c r a f t w a s i n v o l v e d , s i n c e t h e i d e a of a w i t c h c u l t e n c o u r a g e d t h e c o u r t s t o p u r s u e t h e a l l e g e d of c o n v i c t e d w i t c h e s . Regions where this concept was absent f r o m confederates learned witch

these developments c a m p a i g n s against satanic w i t c h c r a f t could c o n f i r m their agents a s t h e c h a m p i o n s of t r u e r e l i g i o n . I n d e e d , t h e v e r y e x i s t e n c e of w i t c h e s w a s s o m e t i m e s v i e w e d a s a h e l l i s h e n d o r s e m e n t of t h e a u t h o r i t y of r u l i n g g r o u p s . A s Catholic demonologist is p u r s u i n g a v o c a t i o n defender'.
3 1

the of and was

Nicholas in w h i c h

Remy explained, witches had a special hatred he w i l l always have G o d a s his c h a m p i o n in 1 5 9 1

t h e p i o u s m a g i s t r a t e , w h o s h o u l d s t r i k e a g a i n s t t h e m ' w i t h c o n f i d e n c e , k n o w i n g he T h e s a m e a r g u m e n t w a s a d v a n c e d in P r o t e s t a n t S c o t l a n d , w h e r e t h e V I f r o m a p l o t t o d e s t r o y h i m by w i t c h c r a f t

d e l i v e r a n c e of J a m e s policies.

b e l i e f s e x p e r i e n c e d r e l a t i v e l y f e w t r i a l s , d e s p i t e t h e e f f e c t s of c l i m a t i c c h a n g e . T h i s w a s t h e c a s e in D e n m a r k a n d E n g l a n d u n t i l t h e 1 6 4 0 s . In t h e l a t t e r c a s e , t h e n o t i o n of t h e s a b b a t a c h i e v e d p r o m i n e n c e f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e d u r i n g t h e E a s t A n g l i a n t r i a l s of 1 6 4 5 , w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e d by f a r t h e l a r g e s t w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n in While England.
2 8

p r e s e n t e d a s a v i n d i c a t i o n of his f a i t h a n d a t a c i t e n d o r s e m e n t of his e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
3 2

T h e p o l i t i c s of r e l i g i o u s d i v i s i o n n o t o n l y a f f e c t e d t h e p o l i t i c a l e l i t e s of e a r l y modern E u r o p e , b u t a l s o h e l p e d s h a p e t h e b e h a v i o u r of Protestant and Catholic c l e r g y . T h i s w a s e v i d e n t in c a s e s of d e m o n i c p o s s e s s i o n . L y n d a l p o w e r of t h e Roman church. Similarly, Moshe Sluhovsky R o p e r has s h o w n 19

B e h r i n g e r ' s w o r k s h o w s t h e m a j o r r o l e p l a y e d by p o p u l a r c o n c e r n s

in

s o m e w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s , it is h a r d t o see h o w t r i a l s c o u l d h a v e s p r e a d w i t h o u t t h e a c t i v e s u p p o r t of r u l i n g e l i t e s . T h i s i m p r e s s i o n is s u p p o r t e d by t h e p a t t e r n of d e c l i n e in p r o s e c u t i o n s f r o m a r o u n d 1 6 8 0 . A t t h e level of r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s , of maleficium a n d it a p p e a r s t h a t s i m i l a r b e l i e f s p e r s i s t e d in m u c h of m a i n l a n d witch beliefs were flourishing In t h e s a m e p e r i o d , h o w e v e r , e d u c a t e d Europeans were allegations c o n t i n u e d t o be m a d e in E n g l a n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y , Europe. Indeed,
2 9

t h a t G e r m a n J e s u i t s in t h e l a t e r s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y used e x o r c i s m s t o v a l i d a t e t h e
3 3

n o t e s in C h a p t e r

t h a t h i g h - p r o f i l e d i s p o s s e s s i o n s w e r e a p o w e r f u l t o o l of c o n f e s s i o n a l p r o p a g a n d a in F r a n c e . In one i n s t a n c e , B o g u e t t o l d t h e s t o r y of a H u g u e n o t g e n t l e m a n w h o s e s o n w a s p o s s e s s e d by a d e m o n b u t f o u n d t h a t his l o c a l p a s t o r ' h a d no p o w e r against d e v i l s ' . H e ' s e c r e t l y s e n t f o r a C a t h o l i c p r i e s t , w h o used t h e a c c u s t o m e d e x o r c i s m s of t h e R o m a n c h u r c h w i t h s u c h s i n c e r i t y t h a t t h e p o s s e s s e d w a s s o o n d e l i v e r e d ' . D u r i n g a v i s i t t o t h e p o s s e s s e d c o n v e n t of L o u d o n in 1 6 3 4 , t h e D u k e of convert to C a t h o l i c i s m .

3 4

in p a r t s of D e n m a r k a n d S p a i n a s late a s t h e 1 9 6 0 s . increasingly

reluctant to

a c c e p t t h e r e a l i t y of s a t a n i c w i t c h c r a f t , a n d t h e c o u r t s in m o s t c o u n t r i e s c e a s e d t o r e c o g n i s e it as a c r i m e . B r o a d l y s p e a k i n g , it a p p e a r s t h a t m a j o r p a n i c s e n d e d w h e n local authorities ceased to regard witchcraft satanic witchcraft. maleficium as a p r o b l e m . By the same token, about about p r o s e c u t i o n s e n d e d e a r l i e r in r e g i o n s l i k e S p a i n w h e r e e l i t e s w e r e s c e p t i c a l T h i s d o e s n o t m e a n , of c o u r s e , t h a t p o p u l a r a n x i e t i e s

Lauderdale

w a s a s k e d by a p r i e s t if t h e p o w e r of t h e J e s u i t e x o r c i s t s c o u l d p e r s u a d e h i m t o
3 5

P u r i t a n e x o r c i s t s in E n g l a n d w e r e c a u g h t in a t w o - w a y

c o n f l i c t b e t w e e n t h e i r C a t h o l i c r i v a l s a n d t h e h i e r a r c h y of t h e e s t a b l i s h e d c h u r c h , w h i c h f e a r e d t h a t s u c c e s s f u l d i s p o s s e s s i o n s c o u l d b o l s t e r t h e a u t h o r i t y of n o n c o n f o r m i n g m i n i s t e r s . T h i s c o n f l i c t w a s e p i t o m i s e d in t h e 1 5 9 0 s by t h e e x o r c i s t J o h n Darrel, who claimed that papists and their 'secret friends' - including some by c a s t i n g o u t d e v i l s ' . sion was often frequently English b i s h o p s - ' d o w h a t t h e y c a n [ s o ] t h a t t h e t r u e c h u r c h of C h r i s t m a y n o t h a v e c r e d i t
3 6

c o u l d n o t s o m e t i m e s p r o v o k e j u d i c i a l a c t i o n , as h a p p e n e d in s i x t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y B a v a r i a a n d T r i e r ; b u t it s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e s p o n s e of e l i t e g r o u p s t o s u c h a n x i e t i e s h e l p e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t a n d s e v e r i t y of p a n i c s . T h e l e a r n e d c o n c e p t of a s a t a n i c ' a n t i - s o c i e t y ' w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t h e r e , a n d it is n e c e s s a r y to consider the p o l i t i c a l and religious c i r c u m s t a n c e s a c c e p t e d by a s e c t i o n of E u r o p e ' s g o v e r n i n g c l a s s . in w h i c h t h i s i d e a c a m e t o be

T h e r e l e v a n c e of t h e s e p r o p a g a n d a b a t t l e s w a s t h a t p o s s e s to w i t c h c r a f t in p o p u l a r belief, and exorcisms in were and of t h e c r i m e . T h i s w a s t h e c a s e Germany,

attributed

a t t e n d e d by a l l e g a t i o n s

France and England, where at least t w o e x e c u t i o n s .

D a r r e l ' s a c t i v i t i e s led t o a s e r i e s of w i t c h t r i a l s

The effects

of religious

division
in a satanic The

A n o t h e r c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e R e f o r m a t i o n w a s t h e a t t e m p t by l o c a l e l i t e s , b o t h C a t h o l i c a n d P r o t e s t a n t , t o i m p o s e C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f s on t h e p o p u l a t i o n a t l a r g e . A s Edmund Europe'. Kern remarks in C h a p t e r 1 3 , this entailed an a t t a c k on folk ideas and p r a c t i c e s a s p a r t of ' a n o v e r a l l m i s s i o n a r y e f f o r t t o r e f o r m t h e c o m m o n p e o p l e of
3 7

F r o m t h e 1 5 2 0 s o n w a r d s , one m a j o r f a c t o r t h a t e n c o u r a g e d b e l i e f

c o n s p i r a c y w a s t h e d i v i s i o n of E u r o p e i n t o C a t h o l i c a n d P r o t e s t a n t f a c t i o n s .

d o c t r i n e s of P r o t e s t a n t i s m d i d n o t , in t h e m s e l v e s , i n d u c e w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s , d e s p i t e M a r t i n L u t h e r ' s f i r m b e l i e f in t h e e x i s t e n c e of w i t c h e s a n d his i n s i s t e n c e on S a t a n ' s great earthly p o w e r . church was that

3 0

A s p a r t of t h i s p r o c e s s , t r a d i t i o n a l b e l i e f s a b o u t g h o s t s , f a i r i e s a n d s a i n t s , ^interorthodox were If t h e y c o u l d n o t be incorporated within the f r a m e w o r k of t h e o f f i c i a l of

R a t h e r , t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e R e f o r m a t i o n lay in t h e m a n y elites across E u r o p e were forced to identify with one

a n d p o p u l a r e x p r e s s i o n s of p i e t y l i k e p r o p h e t i c v i s i o n s , w e r e s u b j e c t e d t o pretation. religion, or a p p e a r e d to threaten the a u t h o r i t y

i n d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e s of r e l i g i o u s d i v i s i o n . One r e s u l t of t h e s p l i t in t h e m e d i a e v a l political d e n o m i n a t i o n a l f a c t i o n a g a i n s t a n o t h e r . T h i s i n c r e a s e d t h e p o l i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e of m a i n t a i n i n g r e l i g i o u s o r t h o d o x y , a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l t h r e a t p o s e d by r e l i g i o u s d i s s e n t . A t the same time, conflict between C a t h o l i c s and P r o t e s t a n t s recast E u r o p e a n p o l i t i c s a s a c r u s a d e b e t w e e n t h e f o r c e s of G o d a n d H i s e n e m i e s . In t h e c o n t e x t of

c h u r c h , they

r e a d i l y e x p l a i n e d in t e r m s of d e m o n i c a c t i v i t y . S e v e r a l of t h e c o n t r i b u t o r s t o t h i s b o o k d e s c r i b e t h i s p r o c e s s , w h i c h o c c u r r e d in a g r e a t v a r i e t y of d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s : t h e r e d e f i n i t i o n of a g h o s t a s t h e D e v i l in 1 5 6 0 s F r a n c e ( C h a p t e r 1 9 ) ; t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n of t h e benandante ( C h a p t e r 8 ) ; t h e d e n u n c i a t i o n of f o l k m a g i c a s d i a b o l i s m

14

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

15

in s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y A u s t r i a ( C h a p t e r 1 3 ) ; a n d t h e s u p p r e s s i o n of ' v i s i o n a r y ' w o m e n in I t a l y ( C h a p t e r 6 ) . S u c h e v e n t s w e r e s y m p t o m s of a g e n e r a l c l i m a t e of a n x i e t y a b o u t t h e D e v i l ' s p o w e r in t h e w o r l d , a n d in s o m e c a s e s t h e y led d i r e c t l y t o a c c u s a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t . One s u c h i n s t a n c e w a s r e c o r d e d in 1 6 8 8 w h e n a g r o u p devout Protestants w r o t e to the English divine, Richard Baxter, concerning Mr Gibs, of an who a

s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . T h e c h a l l e n g e t o h i s t o r i a n s is t o e x p l a i n resisting the t e m p t a t i o n to impose a single theory to e x p l a i n the tragedy of t h e e x i s t e n c e of h a r m f u l magic, an

how as a

t h e s e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s i n t e r a c t e d in p a r t i c u l a r r e g i o n s a t p a r t i c u l a r m o m e n t s , w h i l e w h o l e . W h a t e v e r t h e l o c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s of w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s , h o w e v e r , t h e y a l l depended on the general a c c e p t a n c e t h a t is w i d e l y r e g a r d e d a s u n t e n a b l e idea in w e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s t o d a y . T h e l a s t section modern

o u t b r e a k o f w i t c h c r a f t in E x e t e r . W h e n a l o c a l a p p r e n t i c e n a m e d N a t h a n C r a b w a s a f f l i c t e d w i t h e p i l e p s y , his p a r e n t s t o o k h i m f o r t r e a t m e n t to one g a v e h i m ' a b a g t o h a n g a b o u t his n e c k ' w i t h instructions to remove it a f t e r

of t h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n w i l l c o n s i d e r t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t in w h i c h t h i s b e l i e f o p e r a t e d , a n d m a k e a c a s e f o r t h e e s s e n t i a l r a t i o n a l i t y of s u c h t h i n k i n g in t h e e a r l y period.

week. A f e w days later, however, this m e d i c a t i o n a r o u s e d the s u s p i c i o n of the boy's G o d - f e a r i n g m a s t e r , w h o b e l i e v e d t h a t it m i g h t be a c h a r m . H e m a d e t h e b o y r e m o v e t h e b a g so he c o u l d i n s p e c t its c o n t e n t s , w h i c h t u r n e d o u t t o be a p a p e r inscribed w i t h m a g i c a l w o r d s . O n c e it w a s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t G i b s w a s a ' c u n n i n g m a n ' r a t h e r than a legitimate physician, C r a b ' s master and parents began to suspect w i t c h c r a f t . A s a r e s u l t , t h e y a c c u s e d t h e h e a l e r o f maleficium when the boy's fits returned.
3 8

The rational basis for witch beliefs

A t t h e level of v i l l a g e c o m m u n i t i e s , f e l l i l l , maleficium i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of it a p p e a r s t h a t w i t c h c r a f t f u n c t i o n e d e s s e n Maillat an

T h e d e s i r e of P r o t e s t a n t s a n d C a t h o l i c s t o r e f o r m p o p u l a r r e l i g i o n w a s a c c o m p a n i e d by a n x i e t i e s a b o u t s e x u a l c o n d u c t . In p a r t , t h i s a r o s e f r o m t h e a b o l i t i o n of m o n a s t i c i s m a n d p r i e s t l y c e l i b a c y in P r o t e s t a n t r e g i o n s , w h i c h m e a n t t h a t h o u s e holds became the focus for religious devotion; this, in t u r n , encouraged new s t a n d a r d s of ' G o d - f e a r i n g ' b e h a v i o u r w i t h i n the f a m i l y . M o r e g e n e r a l l y , the desire t o e n f o r c e s e x u a l m o r a l i t y r e f l e c t e d t h e need t o m a i n t a i n s o c i a l o r d e r in a t i m e of p o l i t i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s c h a n g e , s i n c e t h e s t a b i l i t y of h o u s e h o l d s w a s v i e w e d as e s s e n t i a l t o t h e w e l f a r e of s o c i e t y a s a w h o l e . In s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Augsburg, Lyndal assumed to and R o p e r h a s c h r o n i c l e d t h e r i s e of ' t h e h o l y h o u s e h o l d ' , in w h i c h p a r e n t s development family trends have
4 0

t i a l l y as a t h e o r y of c a u s a t i o n . W h e n t h e d a u g h t e r of H u m b e r t e a n d C l a u d e Frangoise S e c r e t a i n as t h e p e r s o n r e s p o n s i b l e

w a s one of t h e p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e m ; a n d t h e also provided

o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e l i e v e t h e i r c h i l d ' s s u f f e r i n g by a c t i n g a g a i n s t h e r . In t h i s r e s p e c t , a l l e g a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t p l a y e d a s i m i l a r r o l e t o t h e less c o m m o n p r a c t i c e of p r o s ecuting animals for crimes against people and their
4 2

property,

which

occurred assume com-

s p o r a d i c a l l y in e a r l y m o d e r n G e r m a n y a n d F r a n c e .

They supplied an e x p l a n a t i o n it a f f e c t e d t o in r u r a l

f o r a n o t h e r w i s e a r b i t r a r y event, a n d a l l o w e d t h o s e w h o m

some c o n t r o l over the s i t u a t i o n . S u c h m e c h a n i s m s were i m p o r t a n t

n e w r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r t h e r e l i g i o u s e d u c a t i o n of t h e i r c h i l d r e n a n d s e r v a n t s . T h i s was been paralleled identified by o f f i c i a l in o t h e r intolerance of towards perceived threats

3 9

m u n i t i e s w h o s e l i v e l i h o o d s d e p e n d e d l a r g e l y on f o r c e s b e y o n d h u m a n c o n t r o l , s u c h as t h e w e a t h e r , p h y s i c a l i l l n e s s , a n d t h e h e a l t h of l i v e s t o c k a n d c r o p s . T h e t e n d e n c y t o a t t r i b u t e m i s f o r t u n e t o o n e ' s n e i g h b o u r s w a s a l s o e n c o u r a g e d by a s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t in w h i c h m o s t p e o p l e w o r k e d a n d l i v e d in e x t e n d e d h o u s e h o l d s comprising profound social f a m i l y members, servants or apprentices. Such a r r a n g e m e n t s created a tial to emotional and physical wellbeing. The link between

life, s u c h as p r o s t i t u t e s ,

and increased parts

regulation Germany,

of m a r r i a g e . as well as

Similar accom-

France

England.

A s C h r i s t i n a L a r n e r p o i n t s o u t in C h a p t e r

15, this trend was

p a n i e d by a rise in p r o s e c u t i o n s f o r ' s e c r e t c r i m e s ' l i k e i n f a n t i c i d e , w h i c h r e p r e s e n t e d a n a t t a c k on t h e f a m i l y . In t h e c o n t e x t of t h e s e w i d e r c o n c e r n s , it is e a s y t o see h o w t h e i d e a of s a t a n i c w i t c h c r a f t - w h i c h i n v o l v e d a s e c r e t c u l t d e v o t e d t o s e x u a l i t y a n d t h e m u r d e r of i n f a n t s w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s . In a p a t r i a r c h a l was able to gain support a m o n g illicit educated

sense of i n t e r d e p e n d e n c y , a n d m e a n t t h a t g o o d p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w e r e e s s e n ill health and f r i c t i o n w a s a c k n o w l e d g e d by t h e E n g l i s h p h y s i c i a n , R i c h a r d N a p i e r , in t h e e a r l y

s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . In 1 6 3 4 , f o r e x a m p l e , he n o t e d t h a t one of his p a t i e n t s , J o a n Fellow, was afflicted with acute insomnia and 'light-headedness', adding that 'her m o t h e r in l a w h a t h used h e r v e r y u n k i n d l y ' . On o t h e r o c c a s i o n s , N a p i e r It is r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s u m e t h a t s u c h e x p e r i e n c e s w e r e c o m m o n it is p l a u s i b l e t o a r g u e t h a t t h e d i a g n o s i s of maleficium attributed
4 3

E u r o p e a n s . It is a l s o r e l e v a n t , p e r h a p s , t h a t w o m e n w e r e t h e p r i n c i p a l t a r g e t s of c u l t u r e , d i s o r d e r l y w o m e n w e r e p e r c e i v e d as such t h e m a i n d a n g e r t o f a m i l y l i f e , a n d t h e a t t a c k o n w i t c h e s m i g h t be v i e w e d a s a n a d j u n c t t o t h e p r o s e c u t i o n of o t h e r f e m a l e e n e m i e s of t h e ' h o l y h o u s e h o l d ' , as p r o s t i t u t e s , u n m a r r i e d m o t h e r s a n d w o m e n a c c u s e d of While the impact of religious division offers an infanticide. explanation for 'any

various physical s y m p t o m s to bad feelings between f a m i l y m e m b e r s or n e i g h b o u r s . in e a r l y c o m m u n i t i e s , and s o m e t i m e s provided the basis f o r w i t c h c r a f t a l l e g a t i o n s .

modern Equally,

attractive

in s u c h c a s e s h a d a s o u n d

E u r o p e a n w i t c h t r i a l s , it is h e l p f u l t o r e m e m b e r

Robin Briggs' warning that

m e d i c a l b a s i s . M e d i c a l s t u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t m a n y a d u l t s l i v i n g in t r a d i t i o n a l A f r i c a n societies have a high natural resistance to disease, since those lacking this quality o f t e n p e r i s h in i n f a n c y . A s a r e s u l t , s i c k n e s s f r e q u e n t l y a r i s e s f r o m a w e a k e n i n g of t h e i m m u n e s y s t e m , w h i c h c a n be t r i g g e r e d by s t r e s s f u l s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . m a y w e l l h a v e r e f l e c t e d t h e r e a l o r i g i n of t h e v i c t i m ' s s y m p t o m s in t h e i r relationship with another person.
4 4

a t t e m p t t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e is a s i n g l e c a u s e , o r e v e n a d o m i n a n t one, a h i d d e n key t o t h e m y s t e r y , s h o u l d be t r e a t e d w i t h g r e a t s u s p i c i o n ' . A s B r i g g s p o i n t s o u t , t h e m o s t p l a u s i b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t i n v o l v e t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of n u m e r o u s causes.

4 1

If t h e

The

learned

fantasy

of

the

sabbat,

the

various

consequences

of

the

s a m e c i r c u m s t a n c e s p r e v a i l e d in p r e - i n d u s t r i a l E u r o p e , m a n y c h a r g e s of w i t c h c r a f t strained

R e f o r m a t i o n , a n d t h e s o c i a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e s t h a t e n c o u r a g e d f e a r s of maleficium in s o m e p a r t s of E u r o p e : a l l c o n t r i b u t e d t o w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s in t h e

16

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

17

The idea of w i t c h c r a f t c o u l d also e x p l a i n m e n t a l a n d p h y s i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t w e r e o t h e r w i s e v e r y h a r d t o d e f i n e o r c o m p r e h e n d . T h i s p o i n t is e s p e c i a l l y d e p r e s s i o n . A s Roy P o r t e r has noted, successful e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r these sometimes appear to have been as effective as those of relevant t o c o n d i t i o n s l a t e r d e f i n e d as p s y c h o l o g i c a l ' d i s o r d e r s ' , s u c h a s s c h i z o p h r e n i a a n d syndromes today. r e m a i n e l u s i v e , a n d t h e e f f o r t s of e x o r c i s t s t o r e l i e v e t h e s y m p t o m s of s c h i z o p h r e n i c s psychiatrists
4 5

S i m i l a r p r a c t i c e s w e r e r e c o r d e d in F r a n c e , I t a l y , E n g l a n d a n d S p a i n , a n d w e r e p r o b a b l y t y p i c a l of p o p u l a r c u l t u r e a c r o s s w e s t e r n g o o d a n d b a d p u r p o s e s , m a k e s it l i k e l y t h a t maleficium In 1 5 6 6 , t h e Europe.
5 0

The general

accepboth

t a n c e o f m a g i c a l t e c h n i q u e s , a n d t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e y c o u l d be u s e d f o r E n g l i s h m a g i c i a n J o h n W a l s h d e s c r i b e d h o w the w o r d s of

was sometimes attempted. charms

5 1

c o u l d be r e v e r s e d t o c r e a t e h a r m f u l s p e l l s , t h o u g h he d e n i e d e v e r d o i n g s u c h t h i n g s . Likewise, the visitors to W e i s b a d e n c l a i m e d that spells were p e r f o r m e d 'to h a r m on others or to do good, to m a k e things better or w o r s e ' . ities in m i n d , t h e a u t h o r of a recent study of popular
5 2

W i t c h c r a f t a l s o p r o v i d e d a n e x p l a n a t i o n f o r less s e v e r e h a l l u c i n a t o r y

experiences English

work has

t h a t a r e s t i l l v e r y c o m m o n . M a l c o l m G a s k i l l p o i n t s o u t in C h a p t e r 2 5 t h a t b e r e a v e d p e o p l e o f t e n h a v e v i s i o n s o f t h e d e a d , a n e x p e r i e n c e t h a t w a s d e s c r i b e d in witchcraft awake extreme to confessions find in 1 6 4 5 . A n o t h e r a r e a o f e x p e r i e n c e of ' s l e e p p a r a l y s i s ' and sometimes to attributed immobilised, was linked to in w h i c h w a s sleep d i s t u r b a n c e . T h e s y n d r o m e themselves sensations of f e a r witchcraft individuals or and Thus Henri

W i t h such activin England

culture

c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h o s e a c c u s e d of w i t c h c r a f t w e r e n o t c h o s e n a t r a n d o m : ' t h e y w e r e t h o s e w h o h a d c u l t i v a t e d a r e p u t a t i o n f o r w i t c h c r a f t a s a m e a n s of s u r v i v a l , w h o w e r e l i n k e d t o s u c h p e o p l e by b l o o d o r h o u s e h o l d t i e s , o r w h o a c t u a l l y t h o u g h t t h a t t h e y p r a c t i s e d t h e a r t of b l a c k o r w h i t e w i t c h c r a f t ' . suspected magical their neighbours of witchcraft, whatever

5 3

suffer

hallucinations

readily

maleficium.

T h e r e a l i t y of m a g i c a s a sometimes of actual consequences

Boguet described how a bewitched man was paralysed w a s e v e n u n a b l e t o c a l l t o his n e i g h b o u r s f o r h e l p . t o r m e n t e d in h e r s l e e p ' by a w i t c h ' s f a m i l i a r had sent s p i r i t s to a t t a c k h i m at n i g h t .
4 6

in his b e d o n e n i g h t ,

s o c i a l p r a c t i c e m a k e s it e n t i r e l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t h a t m e n a n d w o m e n the acts.

In 1 5 9 2 , a s i m i l a r

affliction 'strangely

w a s v i s i t e d o n L a d y C r o m w e l l o f H u n t i n g d o n s h i r e in E n g l a n d , w h o w a s in t h e s h a p e of a c a t .
4 7

A s late as

1 8 7 1 , a m a n f r o m D o r s e t w a s t r i e d f o r a s s a u l t i n g a n o l d w o m a n w h o m he b e l i e v e d
4 8

In t h e s e a n d s i m i l a r c a s e s , it a p p e a r s t h a t Given

The credibility

of a witch

cult
in e a r l y

v i c t i m s of w i t c h c r a f t w e r e a t t r i b u t i n g r e a l e x p e r i e n c e s t o m a l i c i o u s m a g i c . wholly reasonable response.

W h i l e it is r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o a c c e p t t h e r a t i o n a l b a s i s f o r f e a r s of maleficium

t h a t m o s t of t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e s t i l l l i t t l e u n d e r s t o o d , t h i s c a n be r e g a r d e d a s a

m o d e r n E u r o p e , it is m o r e d i f f i c u l t p e r h a p s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e less c o m m o n b u t i m p o r t a n t i d e a of a c l a n d e s t i n e , D e v i l - w o r s h i p p i n g c u l t . A f t e r a l l , t h e r e w a s no e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e t o s u p p o r t t h i s b e l i e f , e x c e p t t h e c o n f e s s i o n s of a l l e g e d c u l t m e m b e r s . M a n y of t h e s e w e r e o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h t o r t u r e . W h y , t h e n , d i d t h e c o n c e p t of a w i t c h c u l t s e e m so c r e d i b l e t o e d u c a t e d E u r o p e a n s ? In p a r t , t h e a n s w e r lies in t h e c o n v e n t i o n s of s c h o l a r l y d e b a t e in e a r l y m o d e r n E u r o p e . A s S y d n e y A n g l o h a s o b s e r v e d , m u c h of t h e e v i d e n c e f o r s a t a n i c w i t c h c r a f t w a s d e r i v e d f r o m s c r i p t u r e a n d t h e w r i t i n g s of t h e c h u r c h f a t h e r s . These c i t a t i o n s were g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d as a u t h o r i t a t i v e , a n d c a r r i e d at least as m u c h w e i g h t as e m p i r i c a l witches.

5 4

T h e f e a r o f maleficium many parts of

b e c o m e s s t i l l e a s i e r t o u n d e r s t a n d w h e n it is p l a c e d in from wide1594 beliefs and practices were

t h e c o n t e x t of p o p u l a r r e l i g i o n a s a w h o l e . S i n c e t h e late 1 9 6 0 s , r e s e a r c h E u r o p e has shown that m a g i c a l spread a m o n g the peasant p o p u l a t i o n . P o p u l a r magic, often m i x e d with

elements

of o f f i c i a l r e l i g i o n , w a s e m p l o y e d f o r a w i d e r a n g e of p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s . In lence of s u c h a c t i v i t i e s :

t h e L u t h e r a n i n s p e c t o r s of t h e p r o v i n c e of W e i s b a d e n in G e r m a n y n o t e d t h e p r e v a -

investigations Maleficarum

into the alleged activities

of

V i e w e d in t h i s l i g h t , t h e Malleus

made a very strong case f o r

T h e use o f s p e l l s is so w i d e s p r e a d a m o n g t h e p e o p l e h e r e t h a t n o t

t h e e x i s t e n c e of s a t a n i c w i t c h c r a f t , s i n c e t h e g e n u i n e n e s s of its c l a s s i c a l s o u r c e s w a s b e y o n d q u e s t i o n . It is s t r i k i n g t h a t a l l e g a t i o n s of c o l l e c t i v e w i t c h c r a f t d i d n o t l e a d t o p r o s e c u t i o n s on t h o s e o c c a s i o n s w h e n t h e a u t h o r i t i e s s o u g h t c o r r o b o r a t i n g e v i d e n c e f o r c o n f e s s i o n s , a s w a s t h e c a s e in S p a i n in 1 6 1 0 , a n d a c r o s s m u c h of w e s t e r n E u r o p e f r o m a r o u n d 1 6 8 0 . O n c e t h e c i t a t i o n of c l a s s i c a l s o u r c e s w a s no l o n g e r r e g a r d e d a s s u f f i c e n t e v i d e n c e , it w a s m u c h h a r d e r f o r a c a d e m i c s t o p r o v e t h e e x i s t e n c e of t h e c r i m e ; b u t t h i s e m p h a s i s on e m p i r i c a l i n q u i r y w a s n o t w i d e l y a c c e p t e d a m o n g s c h o l a r s u n t i l t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . B e l i e f in t h e w i t c h c u l t w a s a l s o e n c o u r a g e d by c h a n g e s in i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of p r i n t f r o m t h e late fifteenth century a l l o w e d i n f o r m a t i o n about w i t c h c r a f t to spread quickly reproduced and in w i d e l y a m o n g t h e l i t e r a t e m i n o r i t y of t h e E u r o p e a n p o p u l a t i o n . It a l s o h e l p e d t o c o n s o l i d a t e t h e m y t h of a s a t a n i c c u l t , s i n c e a c c o u n t s of t r i a l s w e r e d e m o n o l o g i e s t h a t w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y used by t h o s e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c o n d u c t i n g f u r t h e r p r o s e c u t i o n s . T h e r e s u l t w a s a l a r g e l y s e l f - r e f e r e n t i a l a n d s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g b o d y of l i t e r a t u r e , w h i c h e n c o u r a g e d e x a c t l y t h e k i n d of c o n f e s s i o n s t h a t c o u l d be f e d b a c k

m a n or w o m a n begins, undertakes, does or refrains f r o m doing a n y t h i n g . . . w i t h o u t e m p l o y i n g some p a r t i c u l a r blessing, incantation, spell, or o t h e r s u c h h e a t h e n i s h m e a n s . . . W h e n e v e r a n a r t i c l e of c l o t h i n g has b e e n m i s l a i d a n d c a n n o t be f o u n d , w h e n s o m e o n e f e e l s s i c k l y o r a c o w a c t s q u e e r , t h e y r u n a t o n c e t o t h e s o o t h s a y e r t o a s k w h o h a s s t o l e n it o r p u t a b a d s p e l l o n it, a n d t o f e t c h s o m e c h a r m t o use a g a i n s t t h e enchanter . . . w i t h the of Christ, A l l t h e p e o p l e h e r e a b o u t s e n g a g e in s u p e r s t i t i o u s God, the Holy Trinity, c e r t a i n angels, the verses f r o m the pracVirgin New tices with f a m i l i a r and unfamiliar words, names, and rhymes, especially n a m e s of M a r y , the twelve apostles, the three kings, n u m e r o u s saints, the w o u n d s his s e v e n w o r d s on t h e c r o s s [and] T e s t a m e n t . . . These are spoken secretly or openly, they are w r i t t e n on s c r a p s of p a p e r , s w a l l o w e d o r w o r n a s c h a r m s .
4 9

18

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

19

into the g e n r e as ' e v i d e n c e ' . On o c c a s i o n s , s c h o l a r l y w r i t e r s r e f e r r e d e x p l i c i t l y t o the c o n s i s t e n c y o f c o n f e s s i o n s a s p r o o f o f a s a t a n i c c u l t . In 1 5 9 5 , f o r e x a m p l e , Nicholas 4

of

Witchcraft

(Robert

Hale, London 1 9 8 4 ) . F o r a non-religious work making Witches Daly, (Crescent, Gyn/Ecology: New York The 1981). of Radical

similar

c l a i m s , see C o l i n W i l s o n , See, for example, (Women's 5 Press, Mary London

R e m y o b s e r v e d t h a t w i t c h e s often d e s c r i b e d h o w they s m e a r e d an o i n t m e n t on t h e i r b o d i e s t o e n a b l e t h e m t o fly t o t h e s a b b a t . H e n o t e d t h a t ' t h e y a r e e v e n p a r t i c u l a r i n d e s c r i b i n g its c o l o u r , w h i c h p r o v i d e s f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e m a t t e r is n o d r e a m , b u t visible and perceptible to the e y e s ' .
5 5

Metaethics

Feminism

1978). moveOxford

F o r a fascinating account of the origins a n d c l a i m s of the m o d e r n w i t c h c r a f t ment, 1989). see T . H. L u h r m a n n , Persuasions to the Witches' Craft (Blackwell,

W i t h t h e b e n e f i t o f h i n d s i g h t , it is t e m p t i n g t o 6

m o c k the a p p a r e n t n a i v e t y of s u c h c l a i m s ; but w e s h o u l d r e m e m b e r t h a t the p o t e n t i a l l y d i s t o r t i n g effects of p r i n t c u l t u r e w e r e i m p o s s i b l e to a n t i c i p a t e , m u c h as the

Alan

Kors

and Edward

Peters,

e d s , Witchcraft

in Europe:

Documentary

History

(University of Pennsylvania 7 M . J . Kephart,

Press,

Philadelphia 1972), 2 5 9 . Among Scholars of W i t c h c r a f t ' , in M a x

i m p a c t o f t h e i n t e r n e t c a n n o t be a d e q u a t e l y p r e d i c t e d t o d a y . This late leads to one f i n a l p o i n t a b o u t the r a t i o n a l i t y of w i t c h b e l i e f s . century, men a set of strikingly in similar ideas attracted and the During support the of The

' R a t i o n a l i s t s vs. R o m a n t i c s and Sorcery 101. of Witches,

M a r w i c k , e d . , Witchcraft 8 9 Kors and Peters, Henri Boguet, An

(2nd edn, Penguin, Harmondworth 1982), 3 4 1 .

twentieth

Witchcraft, Examen

highly

educated

and

women

northern

America

western

Europe.

trans.

Montague

Summers

(John

Rodker,

b e l i e f in s e c r e t s a t a n i c o r g a n i s a t i o n s d e v o t e d t o t h e s e x u a l a b u s e , m u r d e r a n d c a n n i b a l i s m of y o u n g c h i l d r e n and Great of led t o a s e r i e s o f legal proceedings in t h e United States lack 10 11

L o n d o n 1 9 2 9 ) , 5. L o u i s e J a c k s o n , C h a p t e r 2 6 in this c o l l e c t i o n . The means by w h i c h t h e Devil, as a d i s e m b o d i e d at length i n t h e Malleus spirit, w a s able to copulate with

B r i t a i n between 1 9 8 2 evidence. The

a n d 1 9 9 0 , m o s t of w h i c h c o l l a p s e d t h r o u g h of 'satanic in Part abuse' continues to arouse

acceptable

issue

intense some about 12 13

witches w a s discussed Witchcraft, Cohn, Gustav Inquisition 14 136-45. Inner

Maleficarum.

See Kors and Peters,

controversy,

and

is e x a m i n e d

in d e t a i l

10. While

it is p o s s i b l e t h a t

s a t a n i c cults do exist,

it is u n d e n i a b l e t h a t m a n y

of the s p e c i f i c a l l e g a t i o n s

Europe's

Demons, The

152-60. Advocate: Press, Reno Basque 1980). and Agrarian Cults in the Sixteenth and Witchcraft and the Spanish

t h e m h a v e p r o v e d t o be f a l s e , d e s p i t e t h e p a s s i o n a t e a d v o c a c y o f s o m e apists and social w o r k e r s . Walinski-Keihl

5 6

psychotherRobert of

Henningsen,

Witches'

This

has

led h i s t o r i a n s

like

Robin

Briggs and

(University of N e v a d a Battles:

C a r l o G i n z b u r g , The Night Seventeenth Centuries, The

Witchcraft

to suggest that satanic abuse

is a n u p d a t e d v e r s i o n o f t h e m y t h

trans. J o h n a n d A n n e Tedeschi (Routledge, L o n d o n 1 9 8 3 ) , 6. Uses of Supernatural Power (Princeton University Press,

a w i t c h cult, w h i l e the a n t h r o p o l o g i s t P h i l i p Stevens has c l a i m e d t h a t ' a d e m o n o l o g y is flourishing, and variants

5 7

15

Gabor

Klaniczay,

of

it h a v e are

inspired some accurate, it

local witch-hunts appears that the

among capacity

our to 16 17 18

Princeton, Boguet, James, Robert

N J 1 9 9 0 ) , ch. 8. 46-7. 39. ' T h e Devil's Change, Studies Wonderfull Children: Child Witch Trials in E a r l y Modern

contemporaries'.

If

these

claims

Examen,

b e l i e v e in s a t a n i c w i t c h c r a f t w a s n o t c o n f i n e d t o t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d .

Equally,

Daemonologie, Walinski-Keihl, Continuity

t h e p u r s u i t o f s a t a n i c c h i l d a b u s e r s s h o w s t h a t t h e b u s i n e s s o f w i t c h - f i n d i n g c a n be c o n d u c t e d by p e r f e c t l y r e a s o n a b l e a n d m e t h o d i c a l p e o p l e , m o t i v a t e d c h i e f l y by t h e i r compassion for the apparent victims of a t e r r i b l e crime. When the horrors they

Germany', 19 20

and

11 (2), (1996), 1 7 7 . (London 1924), 7 2 - 4 . of the Witchcrafts of in Margaret England,

R. S e t o n - W a t s o n , e d . , Tudor F o r a n i c e e x a m p l e , s e e The and Phillip Flower

d e s c r i b e p r o v e t o be n o m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l t h a n t h e i m a g i n e d s a b b a t s o f t h e s i x t e e n t h century, found it is a p o w e r f u l r e m i n d e r that the Rather, origins of w i t c h beliefs are not to of be

Discoverie

( 1 6 1 9 ) , r e p r i n t e d in B a r b a r a

R o s e n , e d . , Witchcraft

in s u p e r s t i t i o n

or hysteria.

such beliefs were the p r o d u c t s today.

social 21 22

1558-1618 James, Bengt Centres 23 William Boguet, James, Boguet, Alan

(University of Massachusetts Daemonologie, 74-5. Henningsen,

Press 1 9 9 2 ) , 3 7 7 .

and political circumstances that can

recur even

Ankarloo and

and Gustav

e d s , Early

Modern

European

Witchcraft:

Peripheries

(Clarendon, Oxford Duties

1 9 9 3 ) , c h . 7.

Gouge, Examen,

Of Domestical! 60. 36.

(2nd edn, 1626), 2 8 2 .

Notes
1 Fictitious accounts of English w i t c h c r a f t included later editions of the story of M o t h e r S h i p t o n , s u c h a s The Strange 2 Margaret Murray, The Witch and Cult Wonderful in Western History Europe of Mother Shipton (1682). 1921).

24 25 26 27

Daemonologie, Examen, 1-3.

Macfarlane, 1999);

Witchcraft Thomas,

in

Tudor

and and

Stuart

England

(2nd edn, Routledge, (Weidenfeld and

(Clarendon,

Oxford

London

Keith

Religion

the Decline

of Magic

M u r r a y ' s t h e o r y of a w i t c h c u l t w a s e c h o e d in e a r l y e d i t i o n s of C h r i s t o p h e r H i l l ' s t e x t b o o k Reformation to Industrial Revolution (2nd edn, Penguin, Harmondsworth 1969), 28

Nicolson,

London

1971). Christian Johansen's Witchcraft, of Darkness: chapter in A n k a r l o o and Henningsen's

For Denmark, Early Modern

see J e n s European

1 0 9 . H e r w o r k w a s regarded as sufficiently Norman 3 Crowley Cohn's Europe's Inner Demons

i m p o r t a n t t o m e r i t a d e t a i l e d c r i t i q u e in London 1993), 152-60.

ch. 1 3 ; for the 1 6 4 5 - 7 Witchcraft in England,

trials

in E n g l a n d , see (Hamish

(2nd edn, Pimlico,

J a m e s S h a r p e , Instruments Hamilton, 29 Owen

1550-1750

r e m i n d s m o d e r n - d a y w i t c h e s t h a t t h o u s a n d s of t h e i r f e l l o w s p e r i s h e d in the Wicca: The Old Religion in the ABC

L o n d o n 1 9 9 6 ) , c h . 5. Witchcraft, Henningsen, Magic Witches' and Culture, 1736-1951 12-13. (Manchester University

sixteenth a n d seventeenth centuries. Vivianne Crowley, New Age (Aq uarian, Wellingborough

Davies,

1 9 8 9 ) , 5 1 . See also

D o r e e n V a l i e n t e , An

Press 1 9 9 9 ) ;

Advocate,

20

GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

30

For Luther's Between

views

on witchcraft

a n d t h e D e v i l , see H e i k o London 1993),

Oberman,

Luther:

Man

God and the Devil Witchcraft,

(Fontana, 242-3.

102-6.

31 32 33

Kors and Peters, Newes Lyndal Modern from

Scotland Oedipus

(Edinburgh and the

1592), 17, 29. Devil: Witchcraft, Sexuality and Religion in Early

Roper, Europe Examen,

(Routledge, 181-2.

London 1994), ch. 8.

34 35

Boguet,

Lauderdale The Certainty

r e c o u n t e d t h i s s t o r y in a letter t o R i c h a r d of the World The Trial! of Spirits (1691), 9 0 - 1 . (1599), 66.

B a x t e r , w h i c h he p u b l i s h e d in

PART ONE

36 37 38

John

Darrel,

of Maist.

Dorrell

Edmund Lyndal

Kern, Chapter Roper, The Holy

1 3 in this c o l l e c t i o n . Household: Women and Morals in Reformation Augsburg

(Clarendon, Oxford 39 Thomas Anthony University 40 41 Baxter, Robin Robisheaux, Fletcher, Press,

1989). 'Peasants Sex and Pastors', and Social History, in England, 6 (1986), 1500-1800 281-300; (Yale

Mediaeval Origins

Gender,

Subordination 1995).

N e w Haven, Conn. 47-52.

Certainty, Briggs,

'Many

Reasons

Why: Witchcraft

and the

Problem

of

Multiple Witchcraft

E x p l a n a t i o n ' , in J o n a t h a n B a r r y , M a r i a n n e H e s t e r a n d G a r e t h R o b e r t s , e d s , in 42 Early Modern Europe (Cambridge University Press 1 9 9 6 ) , 5 1 .

F o r a d i s c u s s i o n o f a n i m a l t r i a l s in m e d i a e v a l a n d e a r l y m o d e r n Cohen, ' L a w , Folklore and A n i m a l Lore', Past and Present,

E u r o p e , see E s t h e r

110 (1986), 6 - 3 7 .

R I T I N G icler Ralph

IN of

T H E

L A S T

Q U A R T E R the

of the t w e l f t h century, the c h r o n extraordinary climax of a heresy

Coggeshall

described

43 44

Bodleian

Library, Oxford, Ashmole Traditional

M S 4 1 2 , 131r, 150r,150v. and Western Science', in M . Y o u n g , e d . ,

t r i a l in t h e F r e n c h t o w n o f R h e i m s . T h e t r i a l e n d e d w i t h t h e b u r n i n g o f a n y o u n g w o m a n , w h o f a c e d h e r d e a t h so ' s t e a d f a s t l y a n d e a g e r l y ' t h a t even those 82-93. responsible f o r her p r o s e c u t i o n . The w o m a n it

unnamed

R. H o p t o n , ' A f r i c a n Knowledge and Control

Thought

astonished member of

(Addison Wesley, Cambridge, History of Madness

Mass.

1971). London 1996),

was a humble

45 46 47 48 49

R o y P o r t e r , A Social Boguet, Rosen, Davies, This Examen, Witchcraft, Witchcraft, 47.

(2nd edn, Phoenix,

a heretical community whose alleged sentenced to the flames.

leader w a s t r i e d a l o n g s i d e her, a n d w a s

also

T h e o l d e r w o m a n e s c a p e d her p u n i s h m e n t , however, t h r o u g h

254. 41. from Gerald Strauss, 'Success and Failure in t h e German

the i n t e r v e n t i o n of a

demon:

report

is t a k e n Past

Reformation', 50

and

Present,

67 (1975), 6 2 - 3 .

W h e n the to drag

fire

h a d b e e n l i g h t e d in t h e c i t y a n d t h e o f f i c i a l s w e r e to the punishment decreed, that mistress of vile

about error me of

F o r a n e x c e l l e n t c o l l e c t i o n o f s o u r c e s r e l a t i n g t o p o p u l a r a n d l e a r n e d m a g i c , see P. G. Maxwell-Stuart, London The Occult in Early Modern Europe: A Documentary History

them

e x c l a i m e d , 'Oh f o o l i s h and unjust judges, do you t h i n k in y o u r flames?' . . . With these w o r d s , she s u d d e n l y

now to burn pulled a ball

(Macmillan, 51 52 53 Rosen,

1999).

Witchcraft,

70-1.

t h r e a d f r o m h e r b o s o m a n d t h r e w it o u t o f a l a r g e w i n d o w , b u t

keeping

Strauss, 'Success and Failure', 6 3 . Barry 130. Reay, Popular Cultures in England, 1550-1750 (Longman, London 1998),

t h e e n d o f t h e t h r e a d in h e r h a n d s ; t h e n in a l o u d v o i c e , a u d i b l e t o a l l , she s a i d ' C a t c h ! ' A t the w o r d , she w a s lifted f r o m the e a r t h r i g h t e v e r y o n e ' s e y e s a n d f o l l o w e d t h e b a l l o u t C o f ] t h e w i n d o w in r a p i d before flight,

54

Sydney Damned

Anglo, Art

'Evident

Authority

and Authoritative Paul,

Evidence',

in A n g l o ,

e d . , The

s u s t a i n e d , w e b e l i e v e , by t h e m i n i s t r y o f t h e e v i l s p i r i t s w h o o n c e c a u g h t Simon Magus up into the a i r . W h a t became of t h a t w i c k e d w o m a n in n o w i s e discover. or

(Routledge and Kegan Witchcraft, 245.

London 1976), 1 - 3 1 .

55 56

Kors and Peters, A Department

w i t h e r she w a s t r a n s p o r t e d , t h e o n l o o k e r s c o u l d into allegations in B r i t a i n w a s c o n d u c t e d by involved in a This bizarre story underlined Ralph's conviction that of ' r i t u a l ' were satanism. Philip

of Health

investigation

Jean

L a Fontaine

in 1 9 9 2 . T h i s f o u n d t h a t e l e m e n t s

s m a l l n u m b e r of cases, but d i s m i s s e d t h e idea of o r g a n i s e d 57 R o b i n B r i g g s , Witches Stevens, and Neighbours

the

ultimate

source

of

all

(HarperCollins, London 1996), 4 1 0 - 1 1 ; in J . T . Richardson, New York J . Best

heresy was the

Devil. The

link between religious dissent and S a t a n was

reinforced doctrines

'The Demonology

of S a t a n i s m ' , Scare

a n d D. G .

in t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f h i s a c c o u n t . H e r e he o f f e r e d a b r i e f e x p o s i t i o n of t h e

B r o m l e y , e d s , The Satanism

(Lexington

Books,

1991), 3 5 - 6 .

h e l d by t h e t w o w o m e n , w h i c h c o n f o r m e d c l o s e l y t o t h e k n o w n b e l i e f s of t h e C a t h a r s , a heretical C h r i s t i a n sect that flourished in s o u t h e r n F r a n c e in t h e l a t e t w e l f t h Ralph added a dark and

e a r l y t h i r t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . A t t h e e n d of t h i s p a s s a g e ,

rumour

PART

SEVEN

W i t c h c r a f t and Gender

URIED the Malleus in

A W A Y

IN

THE

TURGID,

relentlessly

misogynistic

pages

of

Maleficarum men, Kramer

(1486) and

is a s t o r y so s u r r e a l a n d c o m i c t h a t it is cause the invite their readers to consider

i m p o s s i b l e t o f o r g e t . I n t e r r u p t i n g t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n of t h e w i t c h ' s p o w e r t o impotence following Sprenger information:

A n d w h a t , t h e n , is t o be t h o u g h t of t h o s e w i t c h e s w h o . . . s o m e t i m e s c o l l e c t m a l e o r g a n s in g r e a t n u m b e r s , as m a n y as t w e n t y o r t h i r t y m e m b e r s t o g e t h e r , a n d p u t t h e m in a b i r d ' s nest, o r s h u t t h e m up in a b o x , w h e r e they m o v e t h e m s e l v e s like living m e m b e r s , a n d eat oats a n d c o r n , as has been seen by m a n y a n d is a m a t t e r of c o m m o n r e p o r t ? . . . For a certain man tells that, when he h a d lost his m e m b e r , he

a p p r o a c h e d a k n o w n w i t c h t o a s k h e r t o r e s t o r e it t o h i m . S h e t o l d t h e a f f l i c t e d m a n t o c l i m b a c e r t a i n t r e e , a n d t h a t he m i g h t t a k e w h i c h e v e r m e m b e r he l i k e d o u t of a nest in w h i c h t h e r e w e r e s e v e r a l t h a t o n e , ' a d d i n g , ' b e c a u s e it b e l o n g e d t o a p a r i s h priest'. members. A n d w h e n he t r i e d t o t a k e a b i g one, t h e w i t c h s a i d , ' Y o u m u s t n o t t a k e

1

A t one l e v e l , t h i s s t r a n g e a n e c d o t e c a n be r e a d as a t e s t a m e n t t o m a l e a b o u t t h e s e x u a l p o w e r of w o m e n . culture than learned theories

2

anxieties popular of

A t a n o t h e r , it is n o t e w o r t h y b e c a u s e it r e s e m the nature of w i t c h c r a f t . The inclusion

b l e d t h e c o n t e n t of c o n t e m p o r a r y j e s t b o o k s , a n d p r o b a b l y o w e d m o r e t o about s u c h m a t e r i a l in t h e Malleus i n d i c a t e s t h e w i l l i n g n e s s of its a u t h o r s t o

incorporate central fact witch

t h e w i d e s t p o s s i b l e r a n g e of s o u r c e s , e a c h of w h i c h a d d e d w e i g h t t o t h e i r t h a t s u c h m a t e r i a l w a s a v a i l a b l e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s t e r e o t y p e of t h e f e m a l e

a r g u m e n t s a b o u t t h e e x i s t e n c e of w i t c h e s a n d t h e d a n g e r s t h e y p o s e d . T h e

w a s by no m e a n s c o n f i n e d t o t h e l e a r n e d e l i t e . On t h i s p o i n t t h e d e m o n o l o g i s t s w e r e

268

PART

SEVEN:

WITCHCRAFT

AND

GENDER

PART

SEVEN:

WITCHCRAFT

AND

GENDER

269

a t one w i t h o r d i n a r y women.

v i l l a g e r s : they assumed t h a t the m a j o r i t y

of w i t c h e s

were

w o m e n a n d m e n c o u l d e n g a g e in i d e n t i c a l t y p e s of b e h a v i o u r b u t w i t h v e r y d i f f e r e n t outcomes: women who asked their neighbours for food and were turned away could s u b s e q u e n t l y be a c c u s e d of maleficium, w h i l e t h i s w a s less l i k e l y t o h a p p e n t o m e n . F o r H e s t e r , t h e w i t c h t r i a l s of t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d w e r e p a r t of a w i d e r m o v e m e n t t o r e c o n s t i t u t e g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s d u r i n g a t i m e of s o c i a l c h a n g e . T h e y h a d t h e e f f e c t of m a r g i n a l i s i n g w o m e n i n v o l v e d in c e r t a i n t r a d e s - s u c h as b r e w i n g a l l o w i n g m e n t o a s s u m e m o r e a u t h o r i t y in e x p a n d i n g a r e a s of t h e e c o n o m y . One o b j e c t i o n t o Hester's work is t h a t it t r i e s t o e x p l a i n w i t c h t r i a l s as t h e it is o p e n t o t h e c h a r g e of overgenerand

T h i s a s s u m p t i o n is r e f l e c t e d in t h e s u r v i v i n g r e c o r d s of w i t c h t r i a l s . T h e b e s t recent estimates suggest that three-quarters of t h o s e e x e c u t e d f o r w i t c h c r a f t in E u r o p e were w o m e n , t h o u g h the figures varied c o n s i d e r a b l y f r o m place to place. M e n a n d w o m e n a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n e q u a l l y v u l n e r a b l e t o a c c u s a t i o n s in p a r t s of F r a n c e , w h i l e m e n o u t n u m b e r e d w o m e n as w i t c h c r a f t s u s p e c t s in s o m e on the periphery of t h e c o n t i n e n t like Iceland and Estonia.
3

countries were per

These figures

o u t w e i g h e d , h o w e v e r , by t h o s e f r o m

Germany and Scotland, where some 70

o u t c o m e of a s i n g l e c a u s e : t h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g of g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s d u r i n g a p e r i o d of change. Like all monocausal explanations, a l i s a t i o n : did the e c o n o m i c circumstances that allegedly encouraged gender conflict in E n g l a n d a p p l y t o o t h e r c o u n t r i e s t h a t e x p e r i e n c e d p e r s e c u t i o n s ? A s L a r n e r p o i n t s o u t in C h a p t e r 2 0 , a n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f w i t c h t r i a l s as ' w o m a n - h u n t i n g ' f o r c e s its proponents to e x p l a i n 'why w o m e n appeared p a r t i c u l a r l y threatening to p a t r i a r c h a l o r d e r a t t h i s t i m e , a n d w h y t h e y c e a s e d t o be so t h r e a t e n i n g a b o u t 1 7 0 0 ' . T h i s is a d i f f i c u l t t a s k , s i n c e p e r s e c u t i o n s t o o k p l a c e in so m a n y d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l c o n t e x t s . T h e s a m e o b j e c t i o n c o u l d , of c o u r s e , be l e v e l l e d a g a i n s t L a r n e r ' s o w n v i e w t h a t t h e p r o s e c u t i o n s a r o s e f r o m t h e ' p o l i t i c i s a t i o n of r e l i g i o n ' in t h e early m o d e r n p e r i o d (see C h a p t e r 1 5 ) . B o t h i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i n v o l v e a c o n s i d e r a b l e d e g r e e of g e n e r a l i s a t i o n ; a n d r e a d e r s w i l l h a v e t o d e c i d e w h i c h , if e i t h e r , of t h e s e g e n e r a l i s a t i o n s t h e y find m o s t c o n v i n c i n g . A n alternative, less a m b i t i o u s a p p r o a c h is t o e x a m i n e t h e r e c o r d s of s p e c i f i c 22, were

c e n t of t h e a c c u s e d w e r e w o m e n , a n d r e g i o n s l i k e H u n g a r y , D e n m a r k a n d E n g l a n d , w h e r e 9 0 per cent of w i t c h e s were f e m a l e . T h e potential influence of sexual stereotypes on prosecutions w a s illustrated in a list of ' p r e s u m p t i o n s against witches' d r a w n up f o r j u s t i c e s of t h e p e a c e ( J P s ) in Y o r k s h i r e in 1 5 9 2 : t h e f i r s t p r e s u m p tion was 'that they are most c o m o n l y weeke w o m e n ' .
4

S u c h records have obliged h i s t o r i a n s to evaluate the relationship between w i t c h h u n t i n g a n d g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d . B u t d e s p i t e t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e a t t e n t i o n p a i d t o t h i s issue, t h e r e is s t i l l no c o n s e n s u s a m o n g a c a d e m i c s in t h e f i e l d . One i m p o r t a n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , r e p r e s e n t e d in C h a p t e r 2 0 by C h r i s t i n a L a r n e r , h o l d s t h a t a c c u s a t i o n s w e r e a i m e d p r i m a r i l y a g a i n s t witches r a t h e r t h a n w o m e n as s u c h , t h o u g h t h e s o c i a l p o s i t i o n of w o m e n m a d e t h e m u n u s u a l l y v u l n e r a b l e t o p r o s e c u tions. A c c o r d i n g to L a r n e r ' s f a m o u s f o r m u l a t i o n , w i t c h c r a f t was ' s e x - r e l a t e d ' but n o t ' s e x - s p e c i f i c ' , s i n c e it w a s n e v e r d e n i e d t h a t m e n a s w e l l a s w o m e n c o u l d be g u i l t y of t h e c r i m e . S h e a r g u e s t h a t a t t e m p t s t o e x p l a i n w i t c h - h u n t s in t e r m s t h e s u p p r e s s i o n of w o m e n by m e n d i s t r a c t h i s t o r i a n s f r o m t h e w i d e r p o l i t i c a l r e l i g i o u s c o n t e x t of t h e p e r s e c u t i o n s : it is n e c e s s a r y f i r s t t o e x p l a i n w h y especially vulnerable to accusations. This a p p r o a c h c o m p l e m e n t s argument represented encouraged in C h a p t e r 15 of t h i s book that the Reformation of and

w i t c h t r i a l s f o r e v i d e n c e of g e n d e r c o n f l i c t in p a r t i c u l a r s o c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h i s is t h e m e t h o d e m p l o y e d in t h e r e m a i n i n g c h a p t e r s in t h i s s e c t i o n . In C h a p t e r ecution of other w o m e n as w i t c h e s . He s u g g e s t s t h a t w o m e n in England J i m S h a r p e e x p l o r e s a f a m i l i a r t h e m e in t h e d e b a t e : t h e r o l e of w o m e n in t h e p r o s unusually active in t h e p r o s e c u t i o n of w i t c h c r a f t in c o m p a r i s o n t o o t h e r crimes.

Europeans wider of the the

c a m e t o a c c e p t t h e r e a l i t y of s a t a n i c w i t c h c r a f t , t h e n t o c o n s i d e r w h y w o m e n w e r e Larner's politics

W o m e n f e a t u r e d o f t e n as a c c u s e r s a n d v i c t i m s of w i t c h e s ; s o m e a l s o p l a y e d t h e s p e c i a l i s t r o l e of ' s e a r c h e r s ' , p e r s o n s a p p o i n t e d by t h e c o u r t s t o e x a m i n e t h e b o d i e s of t h o s e a c c u s e d f o r h i d d e n t e a t s used t o s u c k l e f a m i l i a r s p i r i t s . L i c e n c e d m i d w i v e s , with their specialist witchcraft. knowledge of f e m a l e a n a t o m y , w e r e o f t e n e m p l o y e d in t h i s c a p a c i t y , t h u s r e v e r s i n g t h e p o p u l a r i d e a t h a t m i d w i v e s w e r e c o m m o n l y a c c u s e d of

5

ruling groups to investigate 'secret c r i m e s ' against

f a m i l y , i n c l u d i n g s e x u a l o f f e n c e s , i n f a n t i c i d e a n d w i t c h c r a f t . In e a c h of t h e s e a r e a s , w o m e n were more exposed to accusations than men. M a r i a n n e H e s t e r o f f e r s a s t i m u l a t i n g c r i t i c i s m of L a r n e r ' s w o r k in C h a p t e r 2 1 . S h e a r g u e s t h a t w i t h c r a f t i n v o l v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t w e r e s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d as ' f e m i n i n e ' , s u c h a s v e n g e a n c e , lust a n d p r i d e ; a n d t h i s m e a n t t h a t t h e c r i m e J a c k s o n , w h o p o i n t s o u t in C h a p t e r 2 6 t h a t a c c u s a t i o n s of w i t c h c r a f t was a a l w a y s c l o s e l y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h w o m e n . T h i s a r g u m e n t c o m p l e m e n t s t h e v i e w s of L o u i s e involved r e v e r s a l of a c c e p t e d f e m a l e r o l e s : w i t c h e s w e r e p o i s o n e r s i n s t e a d of p r o v i d e r s of f o o d , h a r m e r s i n s t e a d of h e a l e r s , a n d c h i l d k i l l e r s i n s t e a d of c h i l d p r o t e c t o r s . T h u s a t y p i c a l w i t c h w a s t h e m i r r o r - i m a g e of a ' g o o d w o m a n ' , w h i l e p o s s e s s i n g a n e x c e s s of a r c h e t y p a l l y f e m a l e v i c e s . A l l of t h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e i d e a of w i t c h c r a f t s t r o n g l y i m p l i e d f e m a l e c u l p a b i l i t y , e v e n t h o u g h it w a s p o s s i b l e f o r m e n t o be i n v o l v e d a s well. Hester suggests t h a t v i l l a g e r s a n d m a g i s t r a t e s m i g h t have been l o o k i n g for not w i t c h e s r a t h e r t h a n w o m e n , b u t t h e i r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e c r i m e i n c l i n e d t h e m t o l o o k f o r f e m a l e s u s p e c t s . M o r e o v e r , t h e s o c i a l c i r c u m s t a n c e s of w o m e n w e r e e n o u g h in t h e m s e l v e s t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e i r t a r g e t i n g a s w i t c h e s . In s o m e instances,

S h a r p e ' s a r g u m e n t challenges the view that E n g l i s h w i t c h t r i a l s reprein e a r l y m o d e r n v i l l a g e s . It

s e n t e d a n a t t e m p t by m e n t o c o n t r o l i n d e p e n d e n t w o m e n , a n d s e e k s t o r e l o c a t e t h e p r o s e c u t i o n s in t h e c o n t e x t of t h e f e m a l e c o m m u n i t y cium were most frequently expressed. T h e t h e m e s r a i s e d in S h a r p e ' s c h a p t e r a r e r e v i e w e d witchcraft, normally and were often prominent in v i l l a g e - l e v e l accusations in C h a p t e r 2 3 by Clive the w a s in t h i s w o r l d of f e m a l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , he s u g g e s t s , t h a t a n x i e t i e s a b o u t malefi-

Holmes, who acknowledges that ordinary women frequently voiced concerns about attempts to deal with to the courts. Like t h r e a t of h a r m f u l m a g i c . F o r stopped short Holmes, however, women's encounters with formal witches Robin in

of t a k i n g

B r i g g s in C h a p t e r 3 , he e m p h a s i s e s t h e i n f o r m a l e f f o r t s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s m a d e t o p l a c a t e a n d c o e x i s t w i t h t h o s e s u s p e c t e d of maleficium: the witches at Pendle Y o r k s h i r e , f o r e x a m p l e , w e r e a p p e a s e d by t h e i r n e i g h b o u r s f o r d e c a d e s b e f o r e t h e i r

270

PART

SEVEN:

WITCHCRAFT

AND

GENDER

PART

SEVEN:

WITCHCRAFT

AND

GENDER

271

a c t i v i t i e s r e a c h e d t h e a t t e n t i o n of l o c a l m a g i s t r a t e s . were generally

Holmes argues that

women and often the He crucial account,

Notes
1 Heinrich Summers 2 Kramer and James Dover Sprenger, Publications, Malleus Maleficarum, 1971), 121. wickedness later trans. Montague

less i n c l i n e d t o m o v e b e y o n d t h i s s t r a t e g y of a c c o m m o d a t i o n

seek l e g a l r e m e d i e s t h a n m e n . H e p o i n t s o u t t h a t f e m a l e w i t n e s s e s in t r i a l s suggesting t h a t these acts were not accused. M e n , on the other instrumental in t h e p r o c e e d i n g s recent a c t s of

t e s t i f i e d a b o u t m i s d e e d s t h a t h a d o c c u r r e d m a n y y e a r s b e f o r e t h e p r o s e c u t i o n itself, against hand, described more maleficia.

( 1 9 2 8 ; repr.

New York

It s h o u l d be n o t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e Malleus' was absent in m o s t later demonologies,

preoccupation with female

though there was a consensus a m o n g

c o n c l u d e s t h a t it w a s m e n r a t h e r t h a n w o m e n w h o t o o k t h e l e a d in w i t c h e s : they were the p r i m a r y a c t o r s d e c i s i o n s a b o u t w h o s h o u l d be t r i e d f o r t h e c r i m e . of w i t c h c r a f t ' . By t a k i n g this

prosecuting
3

w r i t e r s that w o m e n ' s weaknesses made t h e m m o r e susceptible to the Devil's t e m p t a tions. A l l e g a t i o n s of c a u s i n g i m p o t e n c e w e r e c o m p a r a t i v e l y r a r e in w i t c h trials. Briggs,

in t h e l e g a l d r a m a , a n d m a d e t h e into

F o r a s u r v e y o f d a t a o n t h e s e x - d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w i t c h c r a f t s u s p e c t s , see R o b i n Witches and Neighbours (HarperCollins, London 1996), Society, 260-2.

H o l m e s s e e k s t o r e t u r n o u r a t t e n t i o n t o w h a t he c a l l s ' t h e m i s o g y n o u s

dimension

4 5

A r c h i v e s of the Y o r k s h i r e A r c h a e o l o g i c a l

DD146/12/2/10. encour-

T h e i d e a t h a t m i d w i v e s w e r e c o m m o n l y a c c u s e d of w i t c h c r a f t w a s o r i g i n a l l y a g e d b y t h e e x c e s s i v e r e l i a n c e o f h i s t o r i a n s o n t h e Malleus that midwife witches abducted infants for ritual Maleficarum, Surviving

A l l t h e c h a p t e r s in t h i s p a r t c o n c e n t r a t e on t h e a c c u s a t i o n a n d t r i a l of a l l e g e d w i t c h e s by o t h e r m e m b e r s of t h e i r c o m m u n i t y . T h i s a p p r o a c h is e s s e n t i a l f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e s o c i a l d y n a m i c s o f p e r s e c u t i o n s ; b u t t h e r e is a d a n g e r t h a t it o b s c u r e s t h e e x p e r i e n c e of t h e w i t c h h e r s e l f , a n d d e p i c t s h e r a s t h e p a s s i v e v i c t i m of f o r c e s c o m p l e t e l y b e y o n d h e r c o n t r o l . A s t h e c h a p t e r by C l i v e H o l m e s s u g g e s t s , h o w e v e r , w o m e n s u s p e c t e d of maleficium c o u l d p l a y a n a c t i v e r o l e in t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e i r provided a cultural resource for

6

which claimed trial records David History Witchcraft, 201. Europe

sacrifices.

suggest, however, that m i d w i v e s were not p a r t i c u l a r l y prone to accusations. See H a r l e y , ' H i s t o r i a n s a s D e m o n o l o g i s t s : T h e M y t h o f t h e M i d w i f e - W i t c h ' , Social of Medicine and 3(1), (1990), 1-26; Lyndal Modern Magic Roper, Europe in Sixteenth Oedipus and the Devil:

Sexuality

Religion

in Early and 53.

(Routledge, and

London 1994),

o w n r e p u t a t i o n s . I n d e e d , t h e i d e a of w i t c h c r a f t

Geoffrey Scarre, (Macmillan,

Witchcraft 1987),

Seventeenth-Century

t h o s e w h o f e l l u n d e r s u s p i c i o n of t h e c r i m e as w e l l as t h e i r a c c u s e r s : t h e s u p p o s e d p o w e r s of t h e P e n d l e w i t c h e s p r o b a b l y a f f o r d e d t h e m m o r e i n f l u e n c e in t h e i r c o m m u nity t h a n they w o u l d Geoffrey otherwise have enjoyed. T h i s idea has been developed by S c a r r e , w h o argues t h a t the c o n s t r a i n t s i m p o s e d by p a t r i a r c h a l culture

London

meant that w o m e n were more likely to resort to m a g i c than m e n :

For

men, there were

usually

more direct methods for attaining

their that

e n d s o r r e v e n g i n g t h e m s e l v e s o n t h e i r e n e m i e s ; a n d it is p o s s i b l e h a v e b e e n l i s t e n e d t o , j u s t b e c a u s e he w a s a m a n , m o r e than those of a w o m a n . W i t c h c r a f t may have

t h e c o m p l a i n t s of a m a n a g a i n s t h a r s h o r u n c h a r i t a b l e t r e a t m e n t w o u l d sympathetically appeal for women held more

w o m e n t h a n f o r m e n n o t b e c a u s e , as c o n t e m p o r a r i e s t h o u g h t ,

w e r e m o r e w i c k e d a n d m o r e e a s i l y led t h a n m e n , b u t b e c a u s e t h e i r s o c i a l and e c o n o m i c position imposed greater c o n s t r a i n t s on their possibilities of a c t i o n .

6

Scarre's

interpretation

r e s t o r e s t h e a g e n c y of w o m e n w h o t h o u g h t t h e m s e l v e s b u t p l a c e s t h i s in t h e c o n t e x t of w i d e r s o c i a l

to

be c a p a b l e of maleficium,

restraints.

A s i m i l a r p i c t u r e h a s e m e r g e d f r o m t h e s t u d y of w i t c h c r a f t c o n f e s s i o n s in r e c e n t y e a r s : t h e s e t e x t s r e v e a l h o w s o m e w o m e n c a m e t o i n t e r n a l i s e t h e i d e a of w i t c h c r a f t a s a n a c t of s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n , b u t d i d so in a c u l t u r e t h a t a l l o w e d t h e m o n l y a l i m i t e d r a n g e of a l t e r n a t i v e m o d e l s by w h i c h t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r o w n f e e l i n g s a n d a c t i o n s . T h e s t u d y of t h i s m a t e r i a l p r o v i d e s a f u r t h e r i n s i g h t i n t o t h e b e t w e e n g e n d e r a n d w i t c h c r a f t ; a n d t h i s w i l l be p i c k e d up in P a r t 8 . relationship

C h a p t e r

20

Christina Larner

WAS WITCH-HUNTING HUNTING?

WOMAN-

m e m b e r o f t h e l o c a l L a b o u r P a r t y t o p r o t e s t t h a t this w a s s e x i s t . T h e y c h a n g e d i t t o ' D i t c h t h e B i t c h ' , a n d t h e s c h o o l g i r l g a v e u p . T h e s a m e w e e k t h e d e a t h o f an e l d e r l y w o m a n f r o m s t a r v a t i o n w a s r e p o r t e d in t h e p r e s s . It w a s n o t e d t h a t s h e h a d b e e n t h e bane o f the social w o r k d e p a r t m e n t for vears, refusing offers o f h e l p , asserting h e r p r i v a c y a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e , a n d a b u s i n g all t h o s e w h o c a m e n e a r h e r . T h e r e p o r t a l s o n o t e d that the local children called h e r 'the w i t c h ' . O n l y t h e children? A n d w h a t do M a r g a r e t T h a t c h e r a n d a p a u p e r i s e d e s c a p e e f r o m t h e w e l f a r e s t a t e h a v e in c o m m o n ? T h e s t e r e o t y p e w i t c h is an i n d e p e n d e n t a d u l t w o m a n w h o d o e s n o t c o n f o r m t o t h e m a l e i d e a o f p r o p e r f e m a l e b e h a v i o u r . S h e is a s s e r t i v e ; s h e d o e s n o t r e q u i r e o r give love ( t h o u g h she m a y e n c h a n t ) ; she does n o t n u r t u r e m e n o r c h i l d r e n , n o r c a r e f o r t h e w e a k . S h e has t h e p o w e r o f w o r d s t o d e f e n d h e r s e l f o r t o c u r s e . In addition, she m a y have o t h e r , m o r e mysterious p o w e r s which do n o t derive f r o m the established order. All w o m e n threaten m a l e h e g e m o n y with their exclusive therefore, p o w e r t o give life; and social o r d e r d e p e n d s o n w o m e n c o n f o r m i n g t o m a l e ideals o f f e m a l e b e h a v i o u r . T h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a n y w o m a n as a w i t c h w i l l , set against h e r n o t only m a l e s , b u t also c o n f o r m i n g f e m a l e s and their children. T o what e x t e n t , t h e n , was the European w i t c h - h u n t ( b e t w e e n the late Middle Ages and t h e beginning o f the eighteenth c e n t u r v ) a response t o a perceived threat t o t h e s o c i a l o r d e r t h r o u g h s o m e c h a n g e in t h e s t a t u s o r p o w e r o f w o m e n ? D u r i n g those years, several thousands o f people, mostlv peasant w o m e n , w e r e put through a c o m p l e x judicial process administered bv m e n , and e x e c u t e d for witchcraft. W a s this a t h i n l y d i s g u i s e d a t t a c k o n w o m e n as s u c h ? T h e c a s e t h a t t h e w i t c h - h u n t w as a w o m a n - h u n t is a s t r o n g o n e . In t h e
r

HEN

THE

ORGANISERS

o f an u n e m p l o y m e n t r a l l v s u g g e s t e d

'Ditch

t h e W i t c h ' [ M a r g e r e t T h a t c h e r ] as a b a n n e r s l o g a n , i t w a s l e f t t o a s c h o o l g i r l

first

p l a c e , t h e s t e r e o t y p e o f a w i t c h in C h r i s t i a n E u r o p e has a l w a y s b e e n t h a t o f a w o m a n . In t w e l f t h - c e n t u r v R u s s i a , t h e a u t h o r i t i e s in o n e d i s t r i c t b e c a m e anxious about the prevalence o f witchcraft and began to round up the entire female p o p u l a t i o n . In 1 4 9 2 , in L a n g e n d o r f in t h e R h i n e l a n d , t h e v a r r e s t e d all b u t t w o o f t h e

274

CHRISTINA

LARNER

WAS

WITCH-HUNTING

W 0 MA N-HUNTING?

275

adult w o m e n . O n the island o f C o l l , o f f the w e s t coast o f S c o t l a n d , a m a n c l a i m e d t o h a v e b e e n a t t a c k e d b v a w i t c h w h o h a d t u r n e d h e r s e l f i n t o an a n g r y s h e e p . H e said t h a t , i f all t h e w o m e n in C o l l w e r e p l a c e d t o g e t h e r in a p e n , his d o g w o u l d be able to sniff out w h i c h o f t h e m was the w i t c h . If you are looking for a w i t c h , v o u a r e l o o k i n g f o r a w o m a n , a n d it c o u l d b e any w o m a n . W h e t h e r anonvmous or publicly identified, a witch threatens the established o r d e r . It w a s n o t f o r n o t h i n g t h a t M a r g a r e t L i s t e r o f F i f e w a s d e s c r i b e d in h e r i n d i c t m e n t in 1 6 6 2 as 'a w i t c h , a c h a r m e r a n d a l i b b e r ' . T h e last t e r m s e e m s t o h a v e had m u c h t h e s a m e p e j o r a t i v e m e a n i n g it c a r r i e s t o d a y : a l i b e r a t e d woman who w h o insists o n m a k i n g an i s s u e o f i t . W i t c h e s a r e c o n s p i c u o u s . T h e w o m e n

w a s d e f e n d i n g h e r s e l f a g a i n s t t h e a c c u s a t i o n s o f J e a n S p r o t in D u m f r i e s in 1 6 7 1 , she a r g u e d t h a t J e a n s h o u l d n o t b e a c c e p t e d as a w i t n e s s s i n c e she w a s as g r e a t a w i t c h h e r s e l f . S h e c o u l d t e l l f o r t u n e s f r o m t h e way A more a person walked. floated suggests that, since male a b s u r d a r g u m e n t w h i c h has b e e n

s u s p e c t s a p p e a r t o h a v e b e e n t r e a t e d w i t h t h e s a m e h a r s h n e s s as f e m a l e s o n c e t h e y r e a c h e d t h e c o u r t s , n o bias a g a i n s t w o m e n c a n b e d e t e c t e d in t h e a u t h o r i t i e s . T h i s ignores the crucial p r o c e s s through w h i c h t h o s e w h o w e r e put on trial w e r e s e l e c t e d in t h e first p l a c e . It d o e s , h o w e v e r , d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o t h e m o r e s u b s t a n t i a l o b j e c tion that the c r i m e o f witchcraft, while s e x - r e l a t e d , was n o t sex-specific. A b o u t 2 0 per cent o f suspects w e r e male. T h e r e are o t h e r reasons for doubting w h e t h e r the w i t c h - h u n t was a straightf o r w a r d , thinly disguised w o m a n - h u n t . T h o s e w h o w e r e p r o s e c u t e d for witchcraft w e r e n o t , e x c e p t during certain mass panics, r a n d o m l y s e l e c t e d (anv m o r e m a l e s w h o w e r e p r o s e c u t e d f o r c r i m e s o f v i o l e n c e in this p e r i o d w e r e selected). T h e cursing and b e w i t c h i n g w o m e n w e r e the f e m a l e equivalent o f violent m a l e s . T h e y w e r e t h e d i s t u r b e r s o f s o c i a l o r d e r ; t h e y w e r e t h o s e w h o c o u l d n o t easilv c o o p e r a t e with o t h e r s ; they w e r e aggressive. W i t c h e s , like m a l e bullies, w e r e n o t ' n i c e p e o p l e ' . ' A n d w h e n I gave m y malison [the o p p o s i t e o f b e n i s o n j ' , o n e Scottish w i t c h said at h e r t r i a l , ' i t a l w a y s l i g h t e d ' . F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e p u r s u i t of w i t c h e s was n o m o r e a p e r s e c u t i o n o f w o m e n than the p r o s e c u t i o n o f killers and m a i m e r s w a s a p e r s e c u t i o n o f m e n . T h e p a r a l l e l is n o t e x a c t , b u t it is n o t a b s u r d . T h e p r i m e i n t e r e s t o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s at t h e t i m e w a s t h e p u r s u i t o f w i t c h e s as such. A witch to t h e m was a person w h o had r e n o u n c e d Christian baptism, given h i s / h e r s o u l t o t h e D e v i l , a n d w a s in c o n s p i r a c y w i t h o t h e r w i t c h e s t o o v e r t h r o w the social o r d e r . T h e p u r p o s e o f a w i t c h - h u n t was the prising out o f dangerous p e r s o n s w h o w e r e e n e m i e s o f G o d , the state and the p e o p l e . T h e fact that these ideological e n e m i e s t u r n e d out t o be 8 0 p e r cent f e m a l e could have added fuel t o the m i s o g y n y o f the age r a t h e r than b e a direct c o n s e q u e n c e o f it. D e s p i t e the longt e r m s t e r e o t y p e , sixteenth c e n t u r y d e m o n o l o g i s t s spent m u c h t i m e puzzling o v e r w h y w o m e n w e r e so m u c h m o r e w i c k e d than men. T h e o b j e c t i o n t o v i e w i n g w i t c h - h u n t i n g s i m p l y as w o m a n - h u n t i n g is t h a t it l e a d s us t o ask t o o n a r r o w a r a n g e o f q u e s t i o n s a b o u t i t . W e m u s t ask w h y w o m e n a p p e a r e d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h r e a t e n i n g t o p a t r i a r c h a l o r d e r a t this t i m e , a n d w h v t h e v c e a s e d t o b e s o t h r e a t e n i n g a b o u t 1 7 0 0 . W a s it b e c a u s e o f a r i s e in t h e i r s t a t u s a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e ? W a s t h e r e a s u p e r f l u o u s f e m a l e p o p u l a t i o n ? W a s it ( p a r a d o x i c a l l y ) because the Christianization o f the peasantry through the R e f o r m a t i o n and C o u n t e r Reformation i n c r e a s e d the individual responsibilitv o f w o m e n for their spiritual opens l i v e s ? W a s it b e c a u s e t h e r e l i g i o n so d i f f u s e d w a s r e l e n t l e s s l v p a t r i a r c h a l ? T h e thought that witch-hunting was actuallv witch-hunting, h o w e v e r , o u t a f u r t h e r r a n g e o f q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e f u n c t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n i t y as a p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y in this p e r i o d , t h e r o l e p l a v e d b v w i t c h - h u n t i n g in l a w and o r d e r c r i s e s , a n d t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f p a r a l l e l s w i t h o t h e r g r e a t , less s e x u a l l y - s p e c i f i c and purges o f past and p r e s e n t . persecutions than randomly

w e n t to the stake during the w i t c h - h u n t w e n t cursing, often for the c r i m e o f cursing. T h e ratio o f females to males put on trial for w i t c h c r a f t r e i n f o r c e s the t h e o r y that the w i t c h - h u n t was part o f the sex w a r . T h e actual n u m b e r o f those involved is p e r m a n e n t l y suggest that in inaccessible, areas at the but reliable centre figures for particular criminal in Germany, archives France, o f the witch-hunt,

Switzerland and Scotland, 8 0 per c e n t o f the accused w e r e f e m a l e . F o r areas on t h e p e r i p h e r v in E n g l a n d a n d R u s s i a , f o r e x a m p l e was n e a r e r 9 5 1 0 0 per cent. W h i l e I a m c o n s i d e r i n g d u b i o u s b u t n o t q u i t e p o i n t l e s s s t a t i s t i c s , it m i g h t b e w o r t h a d d i n g t h a t w i t c h c r a f t ( t h e u l t i m a t e in h u m a n e v i l ) w a s s e x - r e l a t e d t o f e m a l e s in j u s t t h e s a m e p r o p o r t i o n as s a n c t i t y ( t h e u l t i m a t e in h u m a n g o o d ) w a s s e x - r e l a t e d to males during the 'sanctity e p i d e m i c ' o f the later Middle Ages. W h e n t h e w i t c h - h u n t is p u t i n t o its c r i m i n a l c o n t e x t , t h e i d e a t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t i e s in t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s c o n s c i o u s l y s o u g h t t o t e r r o r i z e a n d i n t i m i d a t e w o m e n g a i n s f u r t h e r s t r e n g t h . U p t o this p e r i o d , w o m e n t e n d e d t o b e r e g a r d e d in l a w as t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e i r f a t h e r s o r t h e i r h u s b a n d s . In t h e sixteenth c e n t u r v , certain activities o f w o m e n w e r e m a d e into c r i m e s for the time. While were older women were for coming into the courts for The witchcraft offences women of or activity. against (including unofficial healing) and f o r k e e p i n g disorderly h o u s e s , y o u n g e r being prosecuted infanticide and p r o s t i t u t i o n . vounger w o m e n Women urban labouring, c a m e in t h e w a k e o f n e w p u n i t i v e a t t i t u d e s t o s e x u a l were also particularlv vulnerable to the new laws first the proportion of females

criminalization fighting

with children, lacking the male escape routes o f m e r c e n a r y

v a g a b o n d s . T h e r e is m u c h t o s u g g e s t t h a t in t h e l a w - a n d - o r d e r c r i s e s g e n e r a t e d b y the n e w regimes o f early m o d e r n E u r o p e , w o m e n w e r e a p r i m e symbol o f disorder. S o w h a t is t h e c a s e f o r a r g u i n g t h a t t h e w i t c h - h u n t w a s n o t d i r e c t e d p r i m a r i l y b y m e n a g a i n s t w o m e n ? O n e l i n e o f a r g u m e n t is t h a t , s i n c e w o m e n a c c u s e d o t h e r w o m e n a n d w e r e f r e q u e n t l y c h i e f w i t n e s s e s in t h e c o u r t s , t h e r e w a s n o t h i n g m i s o g vnous about witch-hunting. Male judges w e r e simply responding to pressures from b e l o w ; p r e s s u r e s w h i c h c a m e l a r g e l y f r o m w o m e n . T h i s l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g is b a s e d on a failure to recognize that a patriarchal social structure divides women. D e p e n d e n t for their livelihood on the goodwill o f m e n , m o s t w o m e n will n o t only c o n f o r m , b u t also attack w o m e n w h o by their n o n c o n f o r m i t y t h r e a t e n the s e c u ritv o f c o n f o r m i s t women. many accusations o f witchcraft w e r e between A t village l e v e l , n e v e r t h e l e s s ,

w o m e n . W h e r e m e n m i g h t use knives, w o m e n used w o r d s . W h e n J a n e t M a c M u r d o c h

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C h a p t e r

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e n v i r o n m e n t , a r g u i n g t h a t t h e a n s w e r t o w h o t h e w i t c h e s w e r e c a n b e f o u n d at the village level w h e r e allegations a r o s e . Essentially, T h o m a s argues that w i t c h c r a f t accusation was related t o failure t o carry o u t s o m e hitherto recognised social obliga t i o n ; a p o o r w o m a n w o u l d ask f o r c h a r i t y o r t o b o r r o w e s s e n t i a l s u p p l i e s ( o f t e n f r o m a n o t h e r , slightly b e t t e r off, w o m a n ) , b u t d e n i e d and eventually, i f m i s f o r t u n e h a p p e n e d t o t h e o n e w h o had d e n i e d h e r , w o u l d b e a c c u s e d o f using w i t c h c r a f t t o c a u s e t h e m i s f o r t u n e . T h i s c l a s s i c m o d e l o f w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n has s i n c e b e e n shown t o have a w i d e r application than m e r e l y for E n g l a n d / although o n e might q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r it actually explains w h y it w a s w o m e n w h o p r e d o m i n a t e d a m o n g s t t h e a c c u s e d . F o r T h o m a s , this s c e n a r i o o f s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s in a c o n t e x t o f c h a n g i n g , conflictual, m o r a l obligations does explain w h y t h e accused w e r e older, p o o r and often w i d o w e d w o m e n . H e points o u t that during t h e late T u d o r and earlv Stuart period, when formal witchcraft accusation w a s at its h e i g h t , village conflicts around neighbourliness g r e w especially acute. T h e erosion o f the manorial system w i t h l o s s o f c u s t o m a r y t e n a n c i e s a n d c o m m o n l a n d c r e a t e d p o v e r t y w h i l e at t h e same t i m e b r e a k i n g up old c o o p e r a t i v e village c o m m u n i t i e s . W i d o w s w e r e particularly adversely affected by these changes leaving t h e m vulnerable t o w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n . T h o m a s , l i k e M a c f a r l a n e , c l e a r l y shies a w a y f r o m s e e i n g this o u t c o m e

Marianne Hester

PATRIARCHAL AND

RECONSTRUCTION

WITCH-HUNTING

NE

OF T H E

MOST

CONSISTENT

yet least u n d e r s t o o d aspects o f the

f o r w o m e n as in a n y w a y r e l a t e d t o m a l e f e m a l e c o n f l i c t . H e a r g u e s t h a t b e c a u s e t h e m i s o g y n i s t i c o r ' b l a t a n t l y s e x u a l a s p e c t s ' o f w i t c h c r a f t c o m m o n in c o n t i n e n t a l l i t e r a t u r e s u c h as t h e Malleus Maleflcarum w e r e n o t a feature o f English trials, and especially because the accusations w e r e often from o n e w o m a n t o another rather than b e t w e e n w o m e n and m e n , ' t h e idea that w i t c h p r o s e c u t i o n s r e f l e c t e d a w a r between the sexes must be discounted'. about witchcraft and neighbourliness,
8

e a r l v m o d e r n w i t c h - h u n t s is h o w a c c u s a t i o n a n d p e r s e c u t i o n f o r w i t c h c r a f t In an a t t e m p t t o q u e s t i o n w h y t h e g r e a t e r p r o p o r t i o n o f t h o s e a c c u s e d this c h a p t e r seeks t o m o v e b e y o n d K e i t h of Magic Thomas's Focusing and the Decline ( 1 9 7 1 ) and also b e y o n d t h e d i c h o t o m y
2

c a m e t o b e largely d i r e c t e d against w o m e n , t h r o u g h o u t E u r o p e and the so-called New World.

1

o f wdtchcraft w e r e w o m e n , a n a l y s i s in Religion

T h o m a s t h u s p r e s e n t s a c o m p l e x analysis and social change which incorporates

o f 'sex-related versus sex-specific' set up by Christina Larner's w o r k . enon o f the witch-hunts w e have t o see male

o f p o s s i b l e l i n k s b e t w e e n e a r l y m o d e r n s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s at t h e v i l l a g e l e v e l , b e l i e f s w o m e n ' s p o s i t i o n as d e p e n d e n t p o o r a n d e s p e c i a l l y as p o o r w i d o w s . B u t , d e s p i t e his c l a i m s t o t h e c o n t r a r y , h e d o e s n o t a c t u a l l y m a n a g e t o e x p l a i n w h y i t s h o u l d b e w o m e n r a t h e r t h a n m e n w h o a r e in this p o s i t i o n o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y , o f d e p e n d e n c y a n d p o v e r t y . T h i s is b e c a u s e his s o m e w h a t p o s i t i v i s t i c a p p r o a c h t o t h e m a t e r i a l detailing the accused and victims o f witchcraft does n o t allow him t o e x a m i n e the p r o c e s s o f g e n d e r i n g o f t h e social relations h e o t h e r w i s e so e l o q u e n t l y d e s c r i b e s . S i n c e Religion and the Decline of Magic w a s first p u b l i s h e d in t h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s t h e

m a i n l y o n E n g l i s h m a t e r i a l , i t a r g u e s t h a t in o u r q u e s t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p h e n o m f e m a l e c o n f l i c t u a l r e l a t i o n s as a n integral part o f the process o f accusation and p e r s e c u t i o n . T h e accusation o f w o m e n w a s n o t m e r e l v a r e f l e c t i o n o f an a g e - o l d s t e r e o t y p e , n o r m e r e l y t h e b y - p r o d u c t o f a patriarchal society; the witch-hunts w e r e a part of, and o n e e x a m p l e of, the o n g o i n g m e c h a n i s m s for social c o n t r o l o f w o m e n within a general c o n t e x t o f social change and the r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a patriarchal s o c i e t y .
3

It is g e n e r a l l y

recognised Levack during and

t h a t E u r o p e in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d e x p e r i e n c e d a v a r i e t y o f m a j o r c h a n g e s in t e r m s o f d e m o g r a p h y , ideology, e c o n o m y , religions and political systems. ' c h a n g e ' a l o n e c a n n o t e x p l a i n t h e w i t c h - h u n t s at this t i m e . turing o f society which created many uncertainties, Nonetheless, has r i g h t l y p o i n t e d o u t t h a t c h a n g e is n o t a f e a t u r e u n i q u e t o t h i s p e r i o d , a n d t h a t
4

w o r k o f C h r i s t i n a L a r n e r has p r o b a b l y h a d t h e g r e a t e s t i m p a c t o n h i s t o r i a n s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f w h y it w a s l a r g e l y w o m e n w h o w e r e a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t d u r i n g t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d . L a r n e r a r g u e d t h a t t h e w i t c h - h u n t s in e a r l y m o d e r n E u r o p e ( a n d e s p e c i a l l y in S c o t l a n d , t h e a r e a o f h e r r e s e a r c h e s ) w e r e s e x - r e l a t e d w i t h r e g a r d t o w o m e n b u t n o t s e x - s p e c i f i c . L a r n e r did n o t give p r e c i s e definitions f o r these t e r m s , but indicated that the t e r m ' s e x - r e l a t e d ' m e a n t that witch-hunts w e r e ' o n e degree r e m o v e d f r o m an a t t a c k o n w o m e n as s u c h ' . ' S e x - s p e c i f i c ' w o u l d b e a p p l i e d o n l v i f all t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e w i t c h w e r e a t t r i b u t a b l e t o w o m e n , a n d in p r a c t i c e , she a r g u e d , this is n o t t h e c a s e b e c a u s e 'the t w o principal characteristics o f the w i t c h , t h a t is m a l i c e a n d a l l e g e d s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w e r , a r e h u m a n r a t h e r t h a n f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ' . S h e c o n c l u d e s t h a t w h i l e t h e vast m a j o r i t y o f t h o s e a c c u s e d a m i d those p r o s e c u t e d for witchcraft w e r e w o m e n , the witch-hunts w e r e n o t actually about w o m e n hunting, but w e r e m o r e to do with the imposition o f a Christian p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y . It w a s t h e a g e - o l d g e n d e r s t e r e o t v p e o f t h e w i t c h t h a t m a d e t h e m

the sixteenth and s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , E u r o p e e x p e r i e n c e d changes and a r e s t r u c ambiguities,

3

tensions

conflicts

n o t least with regard to m a l e

female relations.

W i t h i n this

context

w i t c h p e r s e c u t i o n s e r v e d in a d y n a m i c r a t h e r t h a n f u n c t i o n a l s e n s e as a m e a n s o f r e c r e a t i n g t h e m a l e s t a t u s q u o in t h e e m e r g i n g s o c i a l o r d e r . T h i s c h a p t e r e x a m ines s o m e o f the evidence for t h e relationship b e t w e e n witchcraft and patriarchal r e c o n s t r u c t i o n , in p a r t i c u l a r l i n k s b e t w e e n ' t h e f e m a l e ' a n d t h e w i t c h , t h e g e n d e r i n g o f expectations and meanings and m a l e - f e m a l e conflict with regard t o resources. Keith T h o m a s , talking o f course primarily about the English c o n t e x t , that ' t h e judicial r e c o r d s reveal t w o essential facts a b o u t a c c u s e d w i t c h e s : w e r e p o o r , and they w e r e usually w o m e n ' .
6

states they

H e p l a c e s w i t c h c r a f t w i t h i n its s o c i a l

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HESTER

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sex-related. T h e r e are, h o w e v e r , s o m e p r o b l e m s with L a r n e r ' s d i c h o t o m y ol sexrelated versus sex-specific. For a start, Larner's own work is actually more a m b i g u o u s t h a n t h e d i c h o t o m y t h a t has a r i s e n f r o m it s u g g e s t s . A s she says w h e n d i s c u s s i n g t h e l i n k b e t w e e n w i t c h c r a f t a n d t h e t y p e o f p e r s o n a c c u s e d , t h e r e is s o m e e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p is d i r e c t : ' W i t c h - h u n t i n g is w o m e n h u n t i n g o r at l e a s t i t is t h e h u n t i n g o f w o m e n who h o w w o m e n ought to conduct t h e m s e l v e s ' .
9

p o o r e r , older and often w i d o w e d w o m e n during the sixteenth and m o r e s e x - s p e c i f i c at t h i s t i m e .

seventeenth

centuries. Formal witch accusations change from being m e r e l y sex-related to being

1 4

W e n e e d t o m o v e b e y o n d the d i c h o t o m y set up by L a r n e r ' s w o r k so that w e m a y d e v e l o p a m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d analysis o l w h y t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h o s e a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s w e r e w o m e n , and t h i s r e q u i r e s a d e e p e r l o o k at m a l e f e m a l e r e l a t i o n s ( o r g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s ) d u r i n g t h i s period than most historians have so far a t t e m p t e d .
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d o n o t fulfill t h e m a l e v i e w o f

Secondly, defining 'sex-specific' by r e f e r e n c e to a set o f characteristics which c a n s e e m i n g l y a p p l y t o o n l y o n e s e x i g n o r e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c h a n g e in t h e p e r c e p t i o n and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f anv characteristics a t t r i b u t a b l e t o m e n o r w o m e n . N e i t h e r s e x has a m o n o p o l y o n a n y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r b e h a v i o u r e x c e p t as c o n s t r u c t e d a n d s p e c i f i e d at a n y p a r t i c u l a r t i m e . W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d t h e r e is s o m e e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e w i t c h were of
1 0

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w i t c h s t e r e o t y p e d e v e l o p e d , and how

and w h y w i t c h - h u n t i n g

directly linked to s e x / g e n d e r , w e must take into a c c o u n t that European

p r i o r t o , as w e l l as d u r i n g , t h e w i t c h - h u n t s w a s m a l e d o m i n a t e d o r p a t r i a r c h a l , with a resultant g e n d e r i n g o f social r e l a t i o n s , social s t r u c t u r e s and discourses manv different levels. W e n e e d in p a r t i c u l a r t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e dynamic

b e i n g p e r c e i v e d i n c r e a s i n g l y as f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i n c l u d i n g a p e r c e p t i o n

nature o f patriarchy, w h e r e continuity o f inequality b e t w e e n m e n and w o m e n relies on changing f o r m s o f oppression o v e r t i m e . As I have p o i n t e d o u t e l s e w h e r e , societies that are m a l e dominated rely on constructions o f 'the f e m a l e ' which present w o m e n as b o t h d i f f e r e n t a n d i n f e r i o r t o m e n ; a n d s e x u a l i s a t i o n , o r ing, and t h e r e b y m a i n t a i n i n g , this d i f f e r e n c e . eroticisation, o f ' t h e f e m a l e ' i n a v a r i e t y o f w a y s o v e r t i m e , is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t in c o n s t r u c t 1 6

m a l i c e a n d u s e o f s u p e r n a t u r a l p o w e r as m o r e l i k e l y t o b e f e m a l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

T h i s l e a d s us t o a n o t h e r r e l a t e d p r o b l e m , t h a t o f p l a c i n g as c e n t r a l t o w i t c h h u n t i n g t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f a C h r i s t i a n p o l i t i c a l i d e o l o g y and t h e a r g u m e n t t h a t t h e s e x - r e l a t e d n e s s o f a c c u s a t i o n s is s e p a r a t e f r o m this a n d m e r e l y t o d o w i t h t h e a g e old stereotype of the witch. This misses the point (otherwise implicit in the q u o t a t i o n f r o m L a r n e r ) t h a t g e n d e r r e l a t i o n s a r e an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f C h r i s t i a n p o l i t ical i d e o l o g y , c o n s t r u c t i n g a n d b e i n g c o n s t r u c t e d b y t h i s . It is n o t e n o u g h , t o u s e S c a r r e ' s w o r d s , ' t o sav t h a t m o r e w o m e n t h a n m e n w e r e t r i e d f o r w i t c h c r a f t b e c a u s e the stereotypical witch was a w o m a n ' .
1 1

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a r e c o n c e r n e d w e h a v e m u c h e v i d e n c e o f this s e x u a l i s i n g p r o c e s s , w h e r e it w as particularly female sexuality that was perceived to m a k e w o m e n different men. M a l e s e x u a l i t v w as n o t d i s c u s s e d in a s i m i l a r l y n e g a t i v e m a n n e r .

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w e r e c o n s i d e r e d s e x u a l l y i n s a t i a b l e a n d p r o n e t h e r e f o r e t o sinful a n d d e v i a n t b e h a v i o u r , b v c o n t r a s t t o t h e ' n o r m ' w h i c h w a s c o n s t r u e d as h e t e r o s e x u a l , sex under male control.

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s e x - r e l a t e d v e r s u s s e x - s p e c i f i c has u n f o r t u n a t e l y s e t u p a d u a l i s m w h i c h it is o f t e n difficult to l o o k b e v o n d w h e r e historians t e n d to c o n c u r emphatically with h e r a r g u m e n t o f s e x - r e l a t e d n e s s , w h i l e n o t t h i n k i n g b e y o n d this a n d m e r e l y r i d i c u l i n g and marginalising the a r g u m e n t that the w i t c h - h u n t s w e r e indeed sex-specific. I f w e are t o u s e t h e t e r m s ' s e x - r e l a t e d ' a n d ' s e x - s p e c i f i c ' at a l l , t h e n w e s h o u l d use the t e r m s to reflect a m o r e c o m p l e x situation. I w o u l d suggest that the witchh u n t s w e r e n o t m e r e l y s e x - r e l a t e d o r m e r e l v s e x - s p e c i f i c , b u t at d i f f e r e n t t i m e s a n d at d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s b o t h r e l a t e d t o a n d s p e c i f i c t o w o m e n . We may, for i n s t a n c e , c o n s i d e r b e l i e f s a m o n g s t t h e l e a r n e d e l i t e a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a legal f r a m e w o r k f o r d e a l i n g w i t h w i t c h c r a f t , e s p e c i a l l y p r i o r t o t h e w i t c h - h u n t s , as s e x r e l a t e d ; w h i l e at a l o c a l l e v e l , a m o n g s t t h e p e a s a n t r y , b e l i e f s a n d a c t i v i t i e s a g a i n s t w i t c h e s w e r e in m o s t E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s s e x - s p e c i f i c . I f w e f o c u s o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e w i t c h c r a f t c o n s t r u c t a m o n g s t t h e l e a r n e d e l i t e in t h e c e n t u r i e s l e a d i n g up t o the w i t c h - h u n t s , w e see that u n e q u a l malefemale social relations w e r e also r e f l e c t e d in a n d c o n s t r u c t e d b y t h e e m e r g i n g n o t i o n o f t h e w i t c h . O n e o f t h e r e s u l t s , a s e x u a l d o u b l e s t a n d a r d w i t h f e m a l e s e x u a l i t v p r e s e n t e d as i n f e r i o r t o t h a t o i m e n , is o b v i o u s in t e x t s s u c h as t h e Malleus Malefcarum.
11

procreative

In r e c e n t v e a r s t h e r e has b e e n a t r e m e n d o u s d e v e l o p m e n t in t h e t h e o r i s i n g o f t h e p r o c e s s i n v o l v e d in w h a t T h o m a s t e r m s t h e ' w a r b e t w e e n t h e s e x e s ' , t h a t is the oppressive relations, structures and discourses that characterise patriarchy for w o m e n . H o b b y , talking specifically about w o m e n ' s activities within the patriarchal c o n t e x t o f s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d , has o u t l i n e d t h e m a n y w a y s w o m e n ' s lives w e r e c u r t a i l e d by c o m p a r i s o n t o t h o s e o f m e n , b u t also h o w w o m e n a c t e d w i t h i n this c o n t e x t as s u b j e c t s m a k i n g c h o i c e s , a l b e i t l i m i t e d o n e s : ' W o m e n find w a y s o f c o p i n g w i t h their o p p r e s s i o n and ways o f resisting it, b u t this capitulation o r resist a n c e is n o t f r e e o r s e l f - d e t e r m i n e d : it c a n n o r m a l l y o n l y o c c u r w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s and on t h e t e r m s o f t h e f r a m e w o r k set by the d o m i n a n t g r o u p , men'.
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D u r i n g this p e r i o d o f t h e w i t c h - h u n t s , t h e p a t r i a r c h a l i d e a l f o r w o m e n w a s t h a t they should b e quiet ( n o t scolds) and subservient t o their husbands ( n o t c u c k o l d i n g t h e l a t t e r ) . M a r r i a g e , as t h e site o f a h e t e r o s e x u a l , p r o c r e a t i v e s e x u a l i t y u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f m e n , w a s as e x p r e s s e d in m a n y s e r m o n s , p a m p h l e t s and o t h e r l i t e r ature at the t i m e take p l a c e .
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d e e m e d the only a p p r o p r i a t e place f o r any sexual activity t o

B u t in this p r e - w i t c h - h u n t p e r i o d t h e f o c u s o f p e r s e c u t i o n w a s t h o s e p e r s o n s c o n s i d e r e d b y t h e C a t h o l i c c h u r c h as ' h e r e t i c s ' , i n c l u d i n g b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n ; a l t h o u g h at a l o c a l and i n f o r m a l l e v e l , p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h o s e d e e m e d t o b e w i t c h e s was probablv m o r e specific to w o m e n even then. C o h n , for e x a m p l e , documents
n

T h e s e ideas w e r e e x p r e s s e d m o s t obviously by the middle and u p p e r

c l a s s e s , b u t t h e y w e r e a l s o r e f l e c t e d in a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s a n d d e c i s i o n s a b o u t t h e b e h a v i o u r o f w o m e n f r o m t h e l o w e r c l a s s e s as e x e m p l i f i e d b y c h u r c h c o u r t c a s e s : m a n y w o m e n w e r e p u n i s h e d t h r o u g h t h e s e c o u r t s f o r b e a r i n g an i l l e g i t i m a t e c h i l d and for f o r n i c a t i o n , that is, h e t e r o s e x u a l i n t e r c o u r s e outside m a r r i a g e . n o m e a n s c o m p l y i n g w i t h the ideal o f the quiet c o m p l i a n t w i f e .

2 0

i n s t a n c e s o f l o c a l l y n c h i n g s , s u p p o s e d l y o f w i t c h e s , t h a t all a p p e a r t o b e o f w o m e n .

Witchcralt

In m o s t o f t h e c o u n t r i e s a f f e c t e d b v w i t c h - h u n t s w e s e e an o r i e n t a t i o n o f p e r s e c u t i o n a w a v f r o m m e n , a n d a l s o a w a y f r o m t h e e l i t e , t o w a r d s w o m e n and in p a r t i c u l a r

a c c u s a t i o n m u s t b e s e e n in this c o n t e x t o f w i d e s p r e a d f e a r s t h a t w o m e n w e r e b y

280

MARIANNE

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PATRIARCHAL

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281

T h e w o m e n a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t m a y b e s e e n as v i c t i m s o f t h e w i t c h - h u n t s , b u t t h e c o n s t r u c t o f t h e f e m a l e as an a c t i v e l v s e x u a l , h e n c e s i n f u l b e i n g , u p o n w h i c h a c c u s a t i o n o f w i t c h c r a f t r e l i e d , s h o w s us t h a t w o m e n w e r e b y n o m e a n s c o n s i d ered passive or compliant. Women were perceived to be morally weak by c o m p a r i s o n with m e n , b u t this c o u l d also m a k e t h e m appear u l t i m a t e l y stronger

o f ' t h e f e m a l e ' b e c a m e s y n o n y m o u s w i t h t h e w i t c h . T h e p r o c e s s o f g e n d e r i n g is o f central i m p o r t a n c e : that is, the process o f c o n s t r u c t i o n and positioning o f w o m e n ( b y t h e m s e l v e s , o t h e r w o m e n a n d m e n ) as i n f e r i o r a n d s u b o r d i n a t e t o m e n , a n d t h e m a n y s u b t l e o r n o t so s u b t l e p r e s s u r e s u n d e r l y i n g s u c h c o n s t r u c t i o n s a n d p o s i t i o n i n g . G e n e r a l b e l i e f s a b o u t w i t c h c r a f t in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d w e r e l i n k e d t o s e x / g e n d e r in s u c h a w a y t h a t it w a s e x p e c t e d t h a t w o m e n a n d n o t m e n w o u l d u s e w i t c h c r a f t f o r r e t r i b u t i o n and t o cause h a r m that is, t h e r e was a g e n d e r i n g o f e x p e c tations and m e a n i n g s . D e l p h y has p o i n t e d out, w i t h r e g a r d t o social relations in F r e n c h peasant s o c i e t y , t h a t it is t h e s e x o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t h a t d e t e r m i n e s h o w a t a s k is p e r c e i v e d rather than the nature o f the task i t s e l f .
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than m e n . W o m e n ' s supposedly insatiable and i m m o r a l sexuality was likely t o lead t h e m i n t o a l l e g i a n c e w i t h t h e D e v i l w h o c o u l d fulfill t h e i r s e x u a l d e s i r e s e v e n b e t t e r , so it w a s f e a r e d , t h a n m e r e m o r t a l m e n . In t h e E n g l i s h t r i a l m a t e r i a l this a l l e g i a n c e w a s e x p l i c i t w i t h s o m e o f t h e l a t e r t r i a l s s u c h as t h e 1 6 4 5 t r i a l s i n E s s e x i n v o l v i n g M a t t h e w H o p k i n s , b u t a l s o i m p l i c i t in t h e s y m b o l i s m o f t h e f a m i l i a r a n d t h e w i t c h e s ' m a r k s in o t h e r t r i a l s .
2 1

C l i v e H o l m e s n o t e s t h a t T h o m a s C o o p e r , in a t e x t o f 1 6 1 7 ,

W e c a n s e e t h i s p r o c e s s c l e a r l v in t r i a l might

' m a d e an e x p l i c i t a t t e m p t t o c o n f l a t e t h e f a m i l i a r ' s s u c k i n g b l o o d f r o m t h e w i t c h with the continental discussion o f the coven and the w i t c h ' s relationship with Satan'. B e r n a r d ' s Guide to Grand-Jury Men, a d e c a d e l a t e r , p r o v i d e d a fullv a r g u e d t h e o r y by lawyer o f this link. A n d sexualisation o f t h e w i t c h e s ' m a r k was m a d e especially a p p a r e n t a f t e r 1 6 3 0 , w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e f o u r t h e d i t i o n o f The Country Justice a n d J P , M i c h a e l D a l t o n . In t h i s , D a l t o n c i t e s B e r n a r d ' w i t h e n t h u s i a s t i c a p p r o v a l ' , b u t also changes B e r n a r d ' s insistence that w i t c h e s ' m a r k s m a y b e found a n y w h e r e a l t h o u g h in ' v e r y h i d d e n p l a c e s ' Thereafter, to a more explicit focus on the genitals. witch's magistrates r e c o m m e n d e d that the pre-trial body search for
2 2

material f r o m England, E u r o p e and N e w England, w h e r e m e n and w o m e n

carry out similar activities b u t only w o m e n end up accused o f witchcraft, or w h e r e it is w o m e n w h o e n d u p a c c u s e d o f m e n ' s m i s d e m e a n o u r s . O n e p a t t e r n w e a r e all familiar w i t h f r o m the trial material involves the suspect asking s o m e o n e a n o t h e r h o u s e h o l d , usually a w o m a n , from for f o o d , o t h e r household items and even

m o n e y . W h e n refused this, the refuser o r her/his family subsequently suffers death o r i l l n e s s . T h e w o m a n m a k i n g t h e d e m a n d is t h e n a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t . B u t i f a m a n m a k e s d e m a n d s o f a w o m a n t h e n it still t h e w o m a n w h o is a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t as in t h e c a s e o f J o h n C h a u n d e l e r a n d E l l e i n e S m i t h e a t t h e 1 5 7 9 t r i a l in C h e l m s f o r d . T h e p a m p h l e t f o r t h e t r i a l t e l l s us t h a t E l l e i n e S m i t h e i n h e r i t e d s o m e m o n e y from Alice, her mother, which Alice's widowed husband, John Chaundeler, t h e n d e m a n d e d f o r h i m s e l f . It t r a n s p i r e s t h a t J o h n a n d E l l e i n e h a v e f a l l e n o u t o v e r his d e m a n d f o r t h e m o n e y . S u b s e q u e n t l y J o h n C h a u n d e l e r d i e s , a n d b e f o r e his d e a t h states that Elleine b e w i t c h e d h i m so that he was unable t o eat or digest m e a t . r e s u l t is t h a t s h e e n d s u p as t h e a c c u s e d . In a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e , f r o m t h e s a m e t r i a l , i t is T h o m a s P r a t w h o t a k e s M o t h e r S t a u n t o n ' s g r a i n b u t it is M o t h e r S t a u n t o n w h o e n d s u p a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t . T h e p a m p h l e t for the trial describes M o t h e r S t a u n t o n walking past T h o m a s P r a t ' s h o u s e w i t h s o m e g r a i n . H e w a n t s s o m e f o r his c h i c k e n s a n d t a k e s i t f r o m h e r . H e has p r e v i o u s l y e q u i v o c a t e d a b o u t w h e t h e r o r n o t s h e is a w i t c h , s t a t i n g at o n e t h a t she is n o t b u t h a v i n g o n a n o t h e r o c c a s i o n ' r a c e d h e r f a c e w i t h a N e d l e ' subsequently believed himself bewitched.
2 3

marks be 'focused upon the genital a r e a ' .

In t h e c i r c u l a r , s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g , g e n d e r d i s c o u r s e o f t h e w i t c h - h u n t p e r i o d w o m e n w e r e p e r c e i v e d as m o r e l i k e l y t o b e s e x u a l l y d e v i a n t t h a n m e n b e c a u s e in a G o d - f e a r i n g a n d d e e p l y s u p e r s t i t i o u s s o c i e t y , Daemonologie: T h e r e a s o n is e a s i e : f o r as t h a t s e x e is f r a i l e r t h a n m e n i s , so it is e a s i e r t o b e i n t r a p p e d in t h e s e g r o s s e s n a r e s o f t h e D e v i l l , as w a s w e l l p r o v e d t o b e t r u e , b y t h e S e r p e n t s d e c e i v i n g o f E v e at t h e b e g i n n i n g , makes him the h o m e l i e r with that sex ever s i n c e . Here we have a direct example o f the link b e t w e e n
2 3

women

w e r e b v d e f i n i t i o n ( l i k e E v e in t h e g a r d e n o f E d e n ) , s e x u a l l v d e v i a n t . A n d d e v i a n c e , w a s c o n s t r u e d as witchcraft. J a m e s V I o f S c o t l a n d ( l a t e r a l s o J a m e s I o f E n g l a n d ) w r o t e , f o r e x a m p l e , in his

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Staunton's grain t h r e e o r four dozen o f t h e m die, supposedly providing t h a t she has b e w i t c h e d t h e m . I h a v e a l r e a d v i n d i c a t e d t h a t T h o m a s in Religion and the Decline of Magic,

f e m a l e ' as d i f f e r e n t a n d i n f e r i o r t o m e n a n d ' t h e w i t c h ' . It w a s m e n w h o s t o o d t o g a i n b y t h e l i n k i n g o f w i t c h c r a f t a n d ' t h e f e m a l e ' b e c a u s e it p r o v i d e d t h e m w i t h a g r e a t e r m o r a l and social status than w o m e n , tially l u c r a t i v e c r a f t s a n d t r a d e s t h a n w o m e n . serving the material interests of men a n d a l s o , as I shall d i s c u s s further b e l o w , b e c a u s e it p r o b a b l y a l l o w e d t h e m g r e a t e r a c c e s s t o r e s o u r c e s a n d p o t e n T h e b e l i e f in w i t c h c r a f t , as f o u n d patriarchal relations, and not d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s , m u s t b e s e e n as a g e n d e r e d i d e o l o g y within m e r e l v , as T h o m a s s u g g e s t s , as a m e a n s o f d e a l i n g w i t h g u i l t a f t e r behaviour. T h e a g e - o l d f e m a l e s t e r e o t y p e o f t h e w i t c h d o e s n o t , as b o t h T h o m a s a n d L a r n e r i n d i c a t e , in i t s e l f e x p l a i n w h y w o m e n p r e d o m i n a t e d a m o n g s t t h e a c c u s e d d u r i n g the early m o d e r n period. W e have to look to the general c o n t e x t o f malefemale r e l a t i o n s , conflict and discourse to gain a b e t t e r understanding o f h o w the c o n s t r u c t 'unneighbourly'

others, does n o t agree that the witch-hunts m a y be linked directly t o malefemale c o n f l i c t o r s e x s t r u g g l e . S i n c e w e find f r o m t h e t r i a l m a t e r i a l , b o t h E n g l i s h a n d other E u r o p e a n , that w o m e n w h o w e r e accused o f witchcraft largely used witchcraft against o t h e r w o m e n , and that accusations w e r e often directed by women women attrib'incaa g a i n s t w o m e n , T h o m a s a r g u e s t h a t this s h o w s t h e r e w a s a c o n f l i c t between rather than a struggle b e t w e e n the sexes. O t h e r s have m o r e convincingly s o c i e t y , w h e r e a p p a r e n t u s e o f w i t c h c r a f t b e c a m e an a l t e r n a t i v e f o r w o m e n physical v i o l e n c e . . .

u t e d this s i t u a t i o n t o w o m e n ' s p o s i t i o n a n d g e n e r a l l a c k o f p o w e r in a p a t r i a r c h a l p a b l e o f u s i n g t h e m o r e n o r m a l o r s o c i a l l v a p p r o v e d m e a n s o f r e v e n g e s u c h as o r r e c o u r s e t o law c o u r t s ' , that is, u n a b l e t o use the m e a n s

2 6

usually e m p l o y e d by m e n .

282

MARIANNE

HESTER

PATRIARCHAL

RECONSTRUCTION

AND

WITCH-HUNTING

283

Larner,

e c h o e d bv Sharpe,

has a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t w h i l e m e n

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Elizabeth Frauncis,

a p p e a r s t o b e l i e v e t h a t she c o u l d a n d did u s e w i t c h c r a f t

to

v i o l e n c e , w o m e n a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o u s e v e r b a l v i o l e n c e as r e p r e s e n t e d b y c u r s i n g . T h o m a s g i v e s n u m e r o u s e x a m p l e s o f c u r s i n g l e a d i n g t o an a c c u s a t i o n o f w i t c h c r a f t , b u t , a l t h o u g h his e x a m p l e s a r e a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y o f w o m e n , h e m a k e s n o m e n t i o n o f this fact. H e q u o t e s T h o m a s C o o p e r ' s ' s t o c k p a t t e r n ' o f t h e link b e t w e e n cursing and witchcraft accusation: ' W h e n a b a d - t o n g u e d w o m a n shall c u r s e a p a r t y , a n d
2 7

p r o c u r e , a m o n g s t o t h e r t h i n g s , s h e e p a n d a w e a l t h y h u s b a n d via t h e

cat-familiar

S a t a n . B y c o n t r a s t , in a 1 5 8 2 t r i a l at S t O s y t h , E l i z a b e t h B e n n e t ( w h o is said t o d e n y t h a t s h e h e r s e l f u s e d w i t c h c r a f t ) is s h o w n t o a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n h o w s h e t h i n k s an a c c u s a t i o n a g a i n s t a n o t h e r w o m a n , A l e s N e w m a n , c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d in m o r e ' r a t i o n a l ' t e r m s w i t h o u t r e c o u r s e t o w i t c h c r a f t . S h e is r e c o r d e d as s a v i n g t h a t A l e s w a s m e r e l y a n g r y at J o h n s o n , t h e c o l l e c t o r f o r t h e p o o r , b e c a u s e h e did n o t g i v e h e r t h e h a n d o u t s h e r e q u i r e d , a l t h o u g h w h a t she says e n d s u p b e i n g t i e d i n t o t h e evidence against Ales, because the words she uses t o signify a n g e r ' h a r d e d misdemeanour, not
3 1

d e a t h shall s h o r t l y f o l l o w , this is a s h r e w d t o k e n t h a t s h e is a w i t c h ' .

Yet while

C o o p e r c l e a r l y t a k e s a g e n d e r e d v i e w o f t h e c u r s e r , T h o m a s d o e s n o t t a k e this u p , i n s t e a d c o n c l u d i n g in g e n d e r - n e u t r a l t e r m s t h a t c u r s i n g ' w a s a m e a n s b y w h i c h t h e w e a k and defenceless tried t o avenge themselves u p o n their e n e m i e s ' .

2 8

s p e e c h e s ' a r e at t h e s a m e t i m e c o n s t r u c t e d as a sign o f w o m e n ' s as c u r s i n g , a n d h e n c e w i t c h c r a f t . W e only o f language and m e a n i n g s , b u t o f e x p e c t a t i o n s a b o u t w o m e n ' s At a local level w e thus see w o m e n

S e e i n g w i t c h c r a f t as a f o r m o f n e g a t i v e p o w e r a v a i l a b l e t o w o m e n in a p a r t i c u l a r i n e g a l i t a r i a n c o n t e x t is an o v e r a l l p i c t u r e o f t h e w i t c h - h u n t s , b u t w e m u s t a l s o b e c a r e ful n o t t o l o s e sight o f t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f m a l e f e m a l e r e l a t i o n s t h a t s u c h u s e o f w i t c h c r a f t b v w o m e n e n t a i l s . It is t o o e a s y t o e n d u p b y f o c u s i n g o n w o m e n ' s a c c u s a t i o n s a g a i n s t o n e a n o t h e r as a p r o b l e m r e l a t e d l a r g e l y t o w o m e n a n d w o m e n ' s c o m m u n i t i e s , t h a t is as w o m e n ' s p r o b l e m , r a t h e r t h a t as an o u t c o m e o f a w i d e r p a t r i a r c h a l c o n t e x t . H o l m e s provides s o m e interesting evidence o f m e n ' s and w o m e n ' s relative social positioning and the p r o c e s s o f formal w i t c h c r a f t accusation suggesting that w o m e n ' s accusations against each o t h e r w e r e indeed s e c o n d a r y to m e n bringing the c a s e s t o c o u r t . U s i n g d a t a f r o m t h e E n g l i s h h o m e c i r c u i t , h e a r g u e s t h a t i t was role. primarily m e n w h o b r o u g h t charges o f witchcraft, while w o m e n played a m o r e ancillary
2 9

s e e h e r e an e x a m p l e o f t h e g e n d e r i n g

behaviour.

using the m e a n s available t o t h e m

to to

i m p r o v e their c o n d i t i o n , b u t w e also see h o w the c o n s t r u c t s w h i c h led t h e m

u s e w i t c h - l i k e b e h a v i o u r at t h e s a m e t i m e c o n s t r u c t e d t h e m as w i t c h e s w h e t h e r t h e y w a n t e d this o r n o t . A t a l o c a l l e v e l , u s e o f w i t c h c r a f t c a n b e s e e n as a p a r t o f t h e day t o d a y a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e ' w o m e n ' s c o m m u n i t y ' b u t c r u c i a l l y r e l y i n g o n w i d e r patriarchal g e n d e r e d n o t i o n s o f t h e w i t c h , and elite ideas a b o u t t h e unruliness o f w o m e n and the n e e d t o c o n t r o l t h e m . W i t c h c r a f t accusations m a y t h e r e f o r e , t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , b e s i t u a t e d (as T h o m a s s i t u a t e s t h e m ) w i t h i n t h e w o m e n ' s c o m m u nity, b u t they w e r e integrally linked t o and served t o r e i n f o r c e o r r e c o n s t r u c t the m a l e status q u o . F i n a l l y I w a n t t o l o o k at t h e m a l e female conflict around r e s o u r c e s that f o r m e d

W e n e e d t o c o n s i d e r that w o m e n ' s social position m a d e t h e m vulnerable t o

b e c o m i n g w i t c h e s , b u t also v u l n e r a b l e t o ' p o s s e s s i o n ' and t o b e c o m i n g b e w i t c h e d . F u r t h e r m o r e , w o m e n w e r e o f t e n t h e o n e s in c h a r g e o f t h e d o m e s t i c g o o d s t h e w i t c h r e q u e s t e d , a n d it w a s b e t w e e n w o m e n t h a t t h e r e l a t e d t r a n s a c t i o n s o f l e n d i n g a n d b o r r o w i n g w e r e likely t o take p l a c e . M a t e r i a l f r o m o t h e r societies and p e r i o d s also g i v e s us s o m e i m p o r t a n t c l u e s a b o u t t h e r o l e w o m e n m a y h a v e in r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r w o m e n . W e find t h a t w i t h i n p a t r i a r c h a l s o c i e t i e s , w o m e n a r e o f t e n p l a c e d in t h e p o s i tion o f m o r a l g a t e k e e p e r s w h o socially c o n t r o l o t h e r w o m e n , and that t h e r e are vari o u s i d e o l o g i c a l , m a t e r i a l a n d p s v c h o l o g i c a l p r e s s u r e s o n t h e m t o d o s o . B y a c t i n g as m o r a l g a t e k e e p e r s t h e y m a v f e e l v a l u e d o r at l e a s t h a v e s o m e p o w e r , e v e n i f t h e i r a c t i o n s at t h e s a m e t i m e p l a c e b o t h t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r w o m e n m o r e firmly within p a t r i a r c h v . T h e r o l e w o m e n h a v e in c o n t e m p o r a r y a n d h i s t o r i c a l M i d d l e E a s t e r n a n d N o r t h African societies, for instance, of carrying out clitorectomies on other w o m e n is a c a s e in p o i n t . N a w a l El S a d a w i e x p l a i n s h o w o l d e r f e m a l e r e l a t i v e s ( m o t h e r s , g r a n d m o t h e r s ) are the ones w h o have the 'privilege' to carry out these operations, which r e i n f o r c e w o m e n ' s inferiority and sexual servitude to m e n .
3 0

a p a r t o f t h e c o n t e x t u a l b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e e a r l y m o d e r n w i t c h - h u n t s , as a l r e a d y h i n t e d at b y t h e c a s e o f E l l e i n e S m i t h e ' s i n h e r i t a n c e a n d J o h n C h a u n d e l e r ' s c l a i m s on it. T h e r e appears to b e a link b e t w e e n m a l e individuals female relations, e c o n o m i c change o f malefemale conflict and witchcraft accusation even if w e c a n n o t always establish a direct link b e t w e e n accused o f witchcraft and specific instances a r o u n d r e s o u r c e s and l i v e l i h o o d s . In t a k i n g e a r l y m o d e r n E n g l a n d as o u r e x a m p l e , w e h a v e t o t h i n k o f a s o c i e t y w i t h a r a p i d i n c r e a s e in p o p u l a t i o n , and r e s u l t a n t p r e s s u r e on r e s o u r c e s ; with w o m e n outnumbering m e n , yet with decreasing means o f livelihood for women.

C o n v e n t s had b e e n c l o s e d during the R e f o r m a t i o n , and w o m e n w e r e b e i n g e x c l u d e d f r o m c r a f t s a n d t r a d e s s u c h as w e a v i n g a n d b r e w i n g as w e l l as f r o m t h e g u i l d s ; e n c l o s u r e o f c o m m o n l a n d ( a l r e a d y h a p p e n i n g in E s s e x at this t i m e ) ing the space for grazing for w o m e n ' s l i v e s t o c k . exacerbated earlier, the difficulties o f a g r o w i n g mass o f landless peasants, a m o n g s t o t h e r effects r e m o v 3 2

T h o m a s , as i n d i c a t e d

W i t h i n the particular patriarchal c o n t e x t o f early m o d e r n E u r o p e , then, p o w e r . T h e r e a r e e x a m p l e s in t h e t r i a l p a m p h l e t s a n d r e c o r d s o f w o m e n w i t c h c r a f t t o b e t t e r t h e i r s i t u a t i o n in m a n y d i f f e r e n t w a y s . W h e n w e l o o k

use

does link s o m e o f these e c o n o m i c changes t o the i m p o v e r i s h m e n t and d e p e n d e n c e o f c e r t a i n l o w e r - c l a s s w o m e n , and especially w i d o w s . T h i s m a y also b e u n d e r s t o o d by the m o r e widely a c k n o w l e d g e d c o n c e p t o f the feminisation o f ' p o v e r t y ' a c o n c e p t that also applies within the p r e s e n t global e c o n o m i c context.
5 3

o f witchcraft was a m e a n s (albeit negative) bv which w o m e n could increase their using more

c l o s e l y at w i t c h t r i a l m a t e r i a l , it is a l s o a p p a r e n t , h o w e v e r , t h a t w i t c h c r a f t b e l i e i s w e r e bv no means h e g e m o n i c among the w o m e n accused of witchcraft, or those p r o v i d i n g e v i d e n c e . In t h e t r i a l p a m p h l e t s f r o m E s s e x w e find t h a t , wdiile s o m e o f t h e w o m e n p r o b a b l y did b e l i e v e t h a t t h e y h a d o r c o u l d h a v e u s e d w i t c h c r a f t , o t h e r s a r e d e s c r i b e d as n o t s h a r i n g t h i s b e l i e f a n d a p p e a r e d t o b e m u c h m o r e sceptical a b o u t w i t c h c r a f t . F o r e x a m p l e , at t h e 1 5 6 6 t r i a l at C h e l m s f o r d o n e o f t h e a c c u s e d ,

A n u m b e r o f historians have d o c u m e n t e d h o w t h e p e r i o d o f pre-capitalism and early capitalism, that is, the early m o d e r n p e r i o d , saw a deterioration o f w o m e n ' s r o l e in p r o d u c t i o n .
3 4

Moreover,

Chris Middleton

i n d i c a t e s t h a t it w a s

specificin

ally m e n w h o b e c a m e p r e d o m i n a n t in t h e o c c u p a t i o n s w h i c h w e r e f o r e m o s t in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e earlier feudal p r o d u c t i o n ) . H e argues that

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e e m e r g e n t c a p i t a l i s t p r o d u c t i o n (as h a d a l s o b e e n t h e c a s e capitalist

284

MARIAN NE

HESTER

PATRIARCHAL

RECONSTRUCTION

AND

WITCH-HUNTING

285

p r o d u c t i o n d e v e l o p e d 'at t h e e x p e n s e o f sexual e q u a l i t y ' , that is, at t h e of women. economic

3 5

expense around
3 6

(p. 1 6 9 ) was linked t o her d e m i s e . For instance the earlv sixteenth-century The Tunning of Elynor Rummying and ridiculous old w o m e n ,

poem,

Sylvia W a l b y s u g g e s t s in a d d i t i o n t h a t w h e n t h e r e a r e c h a n g e s in t h e such as changes in production methods, conflict We

d e p i c t s t h e a l e w i f e E l y n o r R u m m y n g as a g r o t e s q u e

sphere,

w h o is o f d u b i o u s r e l i g i o u s a n d s e x u a l v i r t u e , a n d a

m a l e f e m a l e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s t a k e s p l a c e in o r d e r t o e n s u r e m a l e d o m i n a n c e . c a n i n d e e d find s o m e e v i d e n c e o f a r e a l i g n m e n t o f m a l e

h i g h l y u n s c r u p u l o u s t r a d e s w o m a n ( p . 1 7 0 ) . S h e is a l m o s t a s t o c k figure in m i s o g y n i s t i c l i t e r a t u r e : 'a g r o t e s q u e o l d w i t c h - l i k e w o m a n ' , b u t a l s o a c o r r u p t t r a d e s w o m a n w h o sells h e r c u s t o m e r s a d u l t e r a t e d d r i n k a t h a r d d r i v e n p r i c e s in a d i s g u s t i n g a t m o s p h e r e (p. 1 7 1 ) . B e n n e t t argues that such popular representations u n d e r m i n e d t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e a l e w i f e b y q u e s t i o n i n g h e r g e n e r a l t r u s t w o r t h i n e s s , w h i l e at t h e s a m e t i m e a l l o w i n g m e n t o b e s e e n in a m u c h m o r e p o s i t i v e l i g h t . T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e a l e w i f e as d i f f e r e n t a n d i n f e r i o r t o t h e m a l e b r e w e r o f t e n r e l i e d , l i k e the construction o f the witch, on her sexualisation or eroticisation, and, we in t h e e x a m p l e o f E l y n o r R u m m y n g , allusions t o h e r also b e i n g associated find, with

f e m a l e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s in

t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s d u e t o t h e m a j o r c h a n g e s t a k i n g p l a c e in t h e e c o n o m y a t t h a t t i m e . E v i d e n c e o f w o m e n ' s w o r k , in a r e a s s u c h as b r e w i n g and weaving, suggests that t h e r e was a struggle b e t w e e n the sexes around making a living, w h i c h also had the effect o f ensuring that m e n r a t h e r than w o m e n o b t a i n e d the b e t t e r positions in, and thus c o n t r o l of, the e m e r g i n g capitalist e c o n o m i c structure. Overall, patriarchy was maintained within the developing economy, and w o m e n ' s relative dependence on m e n ensured. T h e c a s e o f b r e w i n g p r o v i d e s an i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e . B r e w i n g is a c k n o w l e d g e d as an i m p o r t a n t i n d u s t r y in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d , b e c a u s e b e e r , a n d in p a r t i c u l a r ale ( b r e w e d w i t h o u t h o p s ) , w a s t h e s t a p l e d r i n k o f m e n , w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n a t m o s t m e a l s . W o m e n d i d t h e b r e w i n g o f ale n e e d e d f o r i m m e d i a t e consumption by the h o u s e h o l d , and p r i o r t o the s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s w o m e n also b r e w e d ale f o r s a l e . J u d i t h B e n n e t t has d o c u m e n t e d h o w t h e e x c l u s i o n o f w o m e n f r o m b r e w i n g t o o k p l a c e o v e r a c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r i o d , b u t it w a s d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h centuries that b r e w i n g brewing finallv changed from a female to a male of the a policy pursued bv occupation. Excluding w o m e n f r o m b r e w i n g o c c u r r e d alongside the separation ( b y m e n ) f r o m t h e sale ( b y w o m e n ) o f b e e r , g o v e r n m e n t with the aim o f imposing stricter regulation and supposedly Bennett concludes:

w i t c h c r a f t : s h e e n t e r t a i n e d a c u s t o m e r w h o ' s e e m e d t o b e a w i t c h ' , she d r e s s e d u p ' a f t e r t h e S a r a c e n ' s g u i s e ' a n d l i k e an E g y p t i a n ' , a n d ' t h e D e v i l a n d s h e b e s i b ' [like b r o t h e r a n d s i s t e r ] ( p . 1 7 0 ) . It is d i f f i c u l t t o t e l l w h e t h e r ale w i v e s o r w o m e n who brewed beer were accused of witchcrait directly.
4 1

Y e t the construction of the

alewife and the w i t c h relied on similar t e r m s , and b o t h served t o justify the social c o n t r o l o f w o m e n and the m a i n t e n a n c e o r r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the patriarchal status quo s e c u r i n g m e n ' s d o m i n a n t position within t h e social o r d e r , and also o p e n i n g up n e w areas for m a l e c o n t r o l . F o r w o m e n during the early m o d e r n period m o r e likely to b e financially financial independence was genermarried

ally l i n k e d t o t h e i r m a r i t a l s t a t u s . W o m e n o n t h e i r o w n , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i d o w s , w e r e independent than married w o m e n because financially. w o m e n w e r e d e e m e d s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e i r h u s b a n d s (as r e f l e c t e d in t h e l a w ) a n d under their husbands' control W i d o w s might inherit their husbands' occasionally activities.
4 2

simpli-

f y i n g t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f t a x e s , as w e l l as i m p r o v i n g t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e b e e r b r e w e d .

land, p r o p e r t y a n d / o r craft o r trade, and u n m a r r i e d w o m e n might All oi these changes w e r e v e r y s l o w and u n e v e n , p r o c e e d i n g o v e r the course o f several centuries and affecting different regions o f the c o u n t r v at d i f f e r e n t t i m e s a n d in d i f f e r e n t w a y s . B u t t h e i r o v e r a l l e f f e c t clear; by 1 7 0 0 , b r e w i n g , w h i c h had b e e n a h o m e - b a s e d t r a d e was domii n h e r i t t h e i r f a t h e r s ' l a n d a n d p r o p e r t y o r e n g a g e in o t h e r p r o d u c t i v e

Thus during the period o f the witch-hunts w o m e n ' s w o r k was largely defined by the institution o f marriage. For e x a m p l e , a w o m a n could only practise a craft alongside h e r h u s b a n d , t a k i n g o n his c r a f t , o r in h e r o w n r i g h t as a w i d o w o r as a s i n g l e woman living in h e r father's household.
4 3

nated by w o m e n four centuries earlier, was b e c o m i n g a factory-based industry c o n t r o l l e d by a steadily shrinking g r o u p o f wealthy m a l e s .
3 7

Where

the

example

of brewing

is

c o n c e r n e d , B e n n e t t suggests that the masculinisation o f t h e b r e w i n g trade had the effect o f changing the e c o n o m i c balance b e t w e e n husbands and w i v e s , the wife very likely b e c o m i n g m o r e d e p e n d e n t on h e r husband. Unmarried women w e r e also

Alongside the other e c o n o m i c changes m e n t i o n e d by T h o m a s , the changes to the b r e w i n g i n d u s t r y m u s t s e r i o u s l y h a v e r e d u c e d t h e e a r n i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s o f village women.

3 8

b a d l y a f f e c t e d : ' T h e y b e c a m e less a n d less a b l e t o c o m p e t e w i t h m e n o r m a r r i e d c o u p l e s for c u s t o m e r s , licenses and e c o n o m i c l e g i t i m a t i o n ' .

4 4

It w a s o n l y w i d o w s w h o r e t a i n e d a c c e s s t o b r e w i n g t h r o u g h i n h e r i t a n c e o f ale b e c a m e an
3 9

The women,

f r o m t h e i r h u s b a n d s . M i c h a e l R o b e r t s d o c u m e n t s h o w t h e selling

t o b e w i d o w s , w h o w e r e still a b l e t o b e b r e w e r s m i g h t t h e r e f o r e p o s e a t h r e a t t o the increasingly male m o n o p o l y o f the trade. T h e y w e r e vulnerable to misogynistic a t t a c k o r p o s s i b l y w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n as a r e s u l t . B y l o o k i n g a t m a t e r i a l c o n c e r n i n g s o c i o - e c o n o m i c c h a n g e s in t h e s i x t e e n t h a n d s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s w e find t h a t t h e p i c t u r e r e g a r d i n g w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n a n d women becomes more complex. O n the other hand, w o m e n accused o f witchwho were among the most c r a f t t e n d e d t o b e t h o s e , as i d e n t i f i e d b y T h o m a s ,

o c c u p a t i o n i n f o r m a l l y r e s e r v e d f o r p o o r w i d o w s d u r i n g this p e r i o d .

Sue

Wright

s i m i l a r l y p o i n t s o u t t h a t in t h e u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t o f T u d o r a n d S t u a r t S a l i s b u r y t h e r e w e r e n u m e r o u s w o m e n , e s p e c i a l l y w i d o w s , w h o w e r e l i c e n s e d as a l e h o u s e k e e p e r s ( t h e p o o r e n d o f t h e m a r k e t ) b u t few as i n n k e e p e r s ( t h e r i c h e r p a r t o f t h e m a r k e t ) .
r 4 0

W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e d i s c u s s i o n in t h i s c h a p t e r t h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f i m p o r t a n t issues w h i c h a r i s e f r o m t h e e x a m p l e o f t h e b r e w i n g i n d u s t r y . T h e s e i n c l u d e : t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f w o m e n as i n c a p a b l e o f b r e w i n g ; t h e link o f this c o n s t r u c t i o n t o t h e w i t c h ; a n d t h e p o s i t i o n o f w i d o w s as b o t h b r e w e r s a n d a l e - s e l l e r s . B e n n e t t s h o w s c o n v i n c i n g l y h o w t h e p o p u l a r and a l s o n e g a t i v e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e a l e w i f e , in p r o s e , p o e t r y , b a l l a d s , d r a m a , c a r v i n g s , s c u l p t u r e , a n d d r a w i n g s

v u l n e r a b l e in t h e e c o n o m y , t h a t i s , l a b o u r i n g w o m e n , w i d o w e d a n d p o s s i b l y o l d e r , a n d p o o r . B u t t h e y m i g h t a l s o b e a m o n g s t t h o s e in c o m p e t i t i o n w i t h m e n f o r w o r k in l u c r a t i v e a r e a s s u c h as b r e w i n g , t h a t i s , w o m e n c a r r y i n g o u t a c r a f t o r t r a d e , a n d m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , w i d o w s , w h o w e r e m o r e a b l e t o d o s o . D e p e n d e n t o r in

286

MARIANNE

HESTER

PATRIARCHAL

RECONSTRUCTION

AND

WITCH-HUNTING

287

c o m p e t i t i o n , either way they might b e seen to pose a threat. W o m e n w ere g e n e r r

r e l a t i o n s i n t o a c c o u n t at t h e h e a r t o f t h e discussion see C . K a r l s o n , The Devil the Shape 16 17 of a Woman (New York 1988). and Wicked Witches (London 1992). Society; M . H e s t e r , Lewd Women

in

ally in

a less

advantageous

situation

than

men

within

the

changing

economy,

especially within t h e peasantry and a m o n g s t artisans and traders amongst w h o m witchcraft accusations predominated.

the areas that

w e r e particularly r e l e v a n t t o t h e e m e r g i n g capitalist e c o n o m y and also the g r o u p T o c o n c l u d e , by e x a m i n i n g the p r o c e s s e s involving g e n d e r i n g o f social relat i o n s , e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d d i s c l o s u r e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e w i t c h in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d w e m a y s u r m i s e t h a t w i t c h - h u n t i n g b e c a m e s e x - s p e c i f i c at t h i s t i m e , s e r v i n g as o n e m e a n s o f maintaining and r e c o n s t r u c t i n g male d o m i n a n c e and m a l e p o w e r women. vis-a-vis was P a t r i a r c h y , p o t e n t i a l l y u n d e r t h r e a t in t h e r a p i d l y c h a n g i n g s o c i e t y ,

S e e A m u s e n , An Ordered Women's Studies International

M . Hester, 'The dynamics of male domination 13 ( 1 9 9 0 ) ; H e s t e r , Lewd Women. Revenge (London 1935). D701640 and

using t h e w i t c h c r a z e in s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y E n g l a n d as case s t u d y ' , Forum, 18 19 E . H o b b y , Virtue of Necessity S e e A m u s e n , An Ordered B . W r i g h t , Middle 20 the church (London 1 9 8 8 ) , 8. S. S h e p h e r d , The Women's Renaissance England Marriage in Elizabethan Sex Hair and Sharp ( U r b a n a , 111. 1 9 8 6 ) ; L .

Society;

1 9 8 5 ) ; L. W o o d b r i d g e , Women and the English Class Culture Church and P.

(Chapel Hill, N C in England 1

m e r e l y r e c o n s t r u c t e d t o m a i n t a i n t h e s t a t u s q u o . O u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g is e n h a n c e d b y c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e c o n f l i c t u a l a n d d y n a m i c m a l e - f e m a l e r e l a t i o n s at t h e t i m e , a n d b y t a k i n g a d e e p e r l o o k at t h e c o n t e x t o f m a l e female relations than historians h a v e o f t e n t e n d e d t o p u r s u e w i t h r e g a r d t o this p e r i o d a n d t o p i c .

M a r t i n I n g r a m p r o v i d e s e x t e n s i v e e x a m p l e s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f such cases f r o m courts: 1987); Courts, E. H. (Cambridge lists m a n y 1972). 56. original indictments

o u t c o m e s : Before 21 22 23 24 25

the Bawdy

Court ( L o n d o n

S e e S h a r p e , Instruments C i t e d in L a r n e r , Enemies C . D e l p h y , The Main 1977). Hester, Lewd Women,

of Darkness, of God,

c h . 5 ; K l a i t s , Servants, 93. Analysis

S e e C h a p t e r 2 3 in this b o o k b y G i v e H o l m e s . Enemy: A Materialist of Women's Oppression (London women's

Notes
1 2 3 In C h a p t e r 5 o f this c o l l e c t i o n , f o r i n s t a n c e , E . W i l l i a m M o n t e r suggests that sex remains the m o s t important feature o f m o s t witchcraft accusations. S e e C h a p t e r 2 0 f o r L a r n e r ' s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n ' s e x - s p e c i f i c ' and ' s e x - r e l a t e d ' witchcraft. M o n t e r suggests that acts such as i n f a n t i c i d e w e r e also a f o c u s f o r p r o s e c u t i o n o f w o m e n in t h e e a r l y m o d e r n p e r i o d t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t than had b e e n t h e case p r e v i o u s l y . It thus appears t h a t d u r i n g t h e s i x t e e n t h and s e v e n t e e n t h centuries t h e r e w e r e a v a r i e t y o f a t t e m p t s t o c o n t r o l s e x u a l b e h a v i o u r in p a r t i c u l a r and w o m e n specifically, t h r o u g h b o t h f o r m a l w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n and b y legal r e t r i b u t i o n against o t h e r s e x u a l d e v i a n c e . 4 5 6 7 B . L e v a c k , The Witch-hunt Satan in Early Modern Europe (London 1 9 8 7 ) , 139-42. of S e e S. D . A m u s s e n , An Ordered K e i t h T h o m a s , Religion J . P . D e m o s , Entertaining F r a n c e ' , Sixteenth 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 T h o m a s , Religion, C . L a r n e r , Enemies K l a i t s , Servants, 1987), 51. H . K r a m e r and J . S p r e n g e r , Malleus M e r c h a n t , The Death of Nature N o r m a n C o h n , Europe's Inner Demons Maleficarum 1980). 1975). sex-specific, (London ( N u r e m b e r g 1 4 9 6 ) . S e e also C . (London G . S c a r r e , Witchcraft Society ( O x f o r d 1 9 8 8 ) , and J . K l a i t s , Servants of Magic (Harmondsworth 1973), 520.

173-40.

Laura G o w i n g ,

in h e r discussion o f

s l a n d e r litigation in early m o d e r n L o n d o n , d e s c r i b e s h o w s c r a t c h i n g t h e face and e s p e c i a l l y t h e n o s e o f a w o m a n was a p u n i s h m e n t i n d i c a t i n g that she w a s a w h o r e . S e e ' L a n g u a g e , p o w e r and t h e l a w ' , in J . K e r m i d e and G . W a l k e r , e d s , Crime and the Courts (London 1994). W e can s p e c u l a t e that t o ' r a c e Women, [Mother

S t a u n t o n ' s ] face w i t h a n e d l e ' similarly s y m b o l i s e d that she was b e i n g p r e s e n t e d in s e x u a l i s e d t e r m s ; w o m e n a c c u s e d as w i t c h e s w e r e o f t e n p r e s e n t e d as s e x u a l l y deviant. 26 27 See M o n t e r , Chapter 5. T h o m a s , Religion, 5 1 2 . S e e M . I n g r a m , ' S c o l d i n g w o m e n c u c k e d o r w a s h e d ' , in Women, The Crime and the Courts, p . 4 8 , f o r a discussion convicted specifically of of K e r m o d e and W a l k e r , 28 Thomas, Religion, 512.

c u r s i n g and in p a r t i c u l a r s c o l d i n g as a specifically f e m a l e o f f e n c e . punishment of women s c o l d i n g appears t o parallel w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n in t h a t it b e c a m e m o r e s e v e r e in t h e s a m e p e r i o d as w i t c h c r a f t b e c a m e a m a j o r f e m a l e c r i m e , that is, f r o m t h e mid-sixteenth to the mid-seventeenth century. See Ibid., 5 7 ; U n d e r d o w n , Early 29 Modern England ( C a m b r i d g e 1 9 8 5 ) , 1 1636. Satan; of a 183^. (London 1984). England (London Life Woman. 1981). 'The in t a m i n g o f t h e s c o l d ' , in A . F l e t c h e r and J . S t e v e n s o n , e d s , Order and Disorder H o l m e s p r e s e n t s this a r g u m e n t in C h a p t e r 2 3 . S e e also D e m o s , Entertaining K a r l s o n , The Devil in the Shape 166-7, N . El S a d a w i , The Hidden H e s t e r , Lewd Women, S e e A m u s s e n , An Ordered H . S c o t t , The Feminisation Face of Eve ( L o n d o n Society. of Poverty

( B l o o m i n g t o n , Ind. 1 9 8 5 ) . and the Decline Satan ( O x f o r d 1 9 8 2 ) ; A . M . W a l k e r and E . H . D i c k e r m a n , 22 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 5 3 4 5 4 .

' A w o m a n u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e : a case o f alleged possession in s i x t e e n t h - c e n t u r v Century Journal, 562, 58-9. and Magic in Sixteenth and Seventeenth Century Europe (London 30 31 32 33 34 563.

of God ( L o n d o n 1 9 8 1 ) , 9 2 .

S e e I. C h a r l e s and I. D u f f i n , e d s , Women and Work in Pre-Industrial 1 9 8 5 ) ; J . K e l l y , Women History of Women in the Seventeenth and Theory Century (London [1919] 1982).

Klaits also appears t o d o c u m e n t this c h a n g e f r o m s e x - r e l a t e d t o

( C h i c a g o 1 9 8 6 ) ; A . C l a r k , Working

a l t h o u g h w i t h o u t using t h e s e t e r m s . H e a t t r i b u t e s t h e i n c r e a s e d f o c u s o n w o m e n as t h e a c c u s e d d u r i n g t h e early m o d e r n p e r i o d t o 'a d r a m a t i c rise in f e a r and hatred o f w o m e n during the era o f the R e f o r m a t i o n ' (p. 5 2 ) . 15 F o r a g o o d e x a m p l e o f an a p p r o a c h t o t h e w i t c h - h u n t s that t a k e s m a l e and f e m a l e 35

C . M i d d l e t o n , ' T h e s e x u a l division o f l a b o u r in feudal E n g l a n d ' , New Left trial c a p i t a l i s m ' , in C h a r l e s and D u f f i n , e d s , Women and Work, 181206.

Review,

1 1 3 - 1 4 ( 1 9 7 9 ) , 1 4 7 - 6 8 ; and ' W o m e n ' s l a b o u r and t h e t r a n s i t i o n t o p r e - i n d u s -

288

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HESTER C h a p t e r Workshop 22

36 37 38 39

S. W a l b y , Patriarchy Journal, 31 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , Life,

at Work ( C a m b r i d g e 169. 228.

1986).

M . B e n n e t t , ' M i s o g y n y , p o p u l a r c u l t u r e , and w o m e n ' s w o r k ' , History C l a r k , Working

M . R o b e r t s , ' " W o r d s t h e y are w o m e n , and d e e d s t h e y are m e n " : I m a g e s o f w o r k and g e n d e r in early m o d e r n E n g l a n d ' , in C h a r l e s and D u f h n , e d s , Women Work, 122-80. and

Jim Sharpe
WOMEN, WITCHCRAFT AND THE LEGAL PROCESS

40 41 42 43 44

S. W r i g h t , " ' C h u r m a i d s , h u s w y f e s and h u c k s t e r s " : T h e e m p l o y m e n t o f w o m e n in T u d o r and S t u a r t S a l i s b u r y ' , in I b i d . , 1 0 0 2 1 . M a c f a r l a n e gives t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f o n e husband o f an a c c u s e d w i t c h ( o u t o f f o r t y n i n e k n o w n f o r E s s e x ) as a b e e r b r e w e r . S e e H e s t e r , Lewd S. L . W a t k i n s , ' S p i n s t e r s \ Journal Women and Work. Society, ch. 3. 182. S e e A m u s s e n , An Ordered Bennett, 'Misogyny', of Family History, Women, 162. 9 ( 1 9 8 4 ) ; C h a r l e s and D u f f i n ,

HE

PROBLEM

OF

GENDER

is o n e t h a t has o n l y r e c e n t l y b e g u n t o a t t r a c t demonstrated participation

the attention o f historians o f c r i m e , o f the l a w , and o f the o p e r a t i o n o f legal

svstems. T h e r e have, o f course, b e e n a n u m b e r o f w o r k s that have

the potential fruitfulness o f various lines o f approach: the different

r a t e s o f t h e t w o s e x e s in v a r i o u s t y p e s o f o f f e n c e ; m a l e a n d f e m a l e i n v o l v e m e n t i n l i t i g a t i o n , p e r h a p s m o s t n o t a b l y in c h u r c h c o u r t s l a n d e r c a s e s ; a n d o n s u c h g e n d e r related (or indeed gender specific) matters as i n f a n t i c i d e and scolding.

1

Yet

it

r e m a i n s c l e a r t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l e w o r k n e e d s t o b e d o n e b o t h in c h a r t i n g t h e s t a t i s t i c a l c o n t o u r s o f s u c h m a t t e r s as p r o s e c u t i o n s b r o u g h t a g a i n s t m e n a n d women, a n d t h e p u n i s h m e n t s i n f l i c t e d u p o n t h e m , as w e l l as in u s i n g c o u r t r e c o r d s t o h e l p t o u n d e r s t a n d g e n d e r as a s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t , as a b u n d l e o f a s s u m p t i o n s o r a t t i t u d e s about h o w m e n and w o m e n should b e h a v e .

2

T h e d i f f i c u l t i e s in f o l l o w i n g s u c h a

course are, unfortunately, m o r e severe w h e n w o m e n are u n d e r consideration. T h e E n g l i s h l e g a l s y s t e m w a s r u n b y m e n , t h e s t a t u t e s it e n f o r c e d w e r e d r a w n u p a n d p r o m u l g a t e d by m e n , and the English c o m m o n law s e e m e d designed t o constrain t h e r i g h t s o f w o m e n as m u c h as p o s s i b l e .
3

A t first s i g h t t h e n , it w o u l d s e e m t h a t

h i s t o r i a n s s t u d y i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n w o m e n a n d t h e l e g a l p r o c e s s in t h e past have had their task r e s t r i c t e d t o doing little m o r e than cataloguing t h e ways in w h i c h w o m e n w e r e d i s a d v a n t a g e d . Nowhere w o u l d this p r e m i s e , again at first sight, s e e m m o r e conspicuously t r u e t h a n w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e p r o s e c u t i o n o f w i t c h c r a f t in T u d o r a n d S t u a r t c o u r t s . As is w e l l k n o w n , a r o u n d 9 0 p e r c e n t o f p e r s o n s i n d i c t e d f o r w i t c h c r a f t at t h e H o m e C i r c u i t assizes b e t w e e n t h e p a s s i n g o f t h e E l i z a b e t h a n s t a t u t e in 1 5 6 3 t h e a b o l i t i o n o f l a w s a g a i n s t w i t c h c r a f t in 1 7 3 6 w e r e w o m e n . w i t c h c r a f t in E n g l a n d . we discover that the Y e t even the first
4

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compathis made 1630s

r a b l e s o u r c e s s u g g e s t s t h a t this r a t e w a s f a i r l y u s u a l f o r t h e i n d i c t m e n t o f m a l e f i c
3

step that might be taken b e y o n d figures

simple counting exercise exposes complications. R e w o r k i n g the 236 presentments

for Essex,

for witchcraft or related matters

b e f o r e the A r c h d e a c o n s o f Essex and C o l c h e s t e r b e t w e e n the 1 5 6 0 s and the

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SHARPE

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reveal a male participation rate o f 2 9 per c e n t .

F u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t i o n s arise w h e n

that half a d o z e n h o n e s t m a t r o n s should b e a p p o i n t e d t o strip w i d o w W a l k e r and t o d e t e r m i n e i f s h e h a d ' e n y b l u d i e m a r k e o n h i r b o d i e w h i c h is a c o m o n t o k e n t o k n o w all w i t c h e s b y ' .

1 0

w e e x a m i n e c u n n i n g m e n a n d w o m e n , t h o s e ' g o o d ' w i t c h e s w h o a t t r a c t e d so m u c h hostility f r o m the writers o f English demonological tracts, but whose services w e r e s o e a g e r l y s o u g h t b y t h e p o p u l a t i o n at l a r g e . W h e r e a s o v e r 9 0 p e r c e n t o f t h o s e a c c u s e d at t h e E s s e x assizes f o r w i t c h c r a f t w e r e f e m a l e , t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e c u n n i n g f o l k w h o m M a c f a r l a n e w a s a b l e t o i d e n t i f y in his E s s e x s t u d y w e r e m e n . figures suggest that w e will have t o refine our standard notions o f the b e t w e e n w o m e n and w i t c h c r a f t at s o m e f u t u r e p o i n t . F o r t h e p r e s e n t , accused of malefic witchcraft w e r e w o m e n , t h e l e g a l p r o c e s s in e a r l y m o d e r n We must, however, England. consider what we mean by the t e r m 'legal
7

T h a t t h e p r a c t i c e w a s w i d e l y k n o w n at t h i s t i m e is c o n f i r m e d
1 1

b y a t r a c t d e s c r i b i n g t h e p r o s e c u t i o n o f s e v e r a l w o m e n in E s s e x in 1 5 8 2 . including the alleged victims of witchcraft,

1 2

This being

incident involved the searching o f a n u m b e r o f suspected witches by local w o m e n , one such group o f searchers d e s c r i b e d as ' w o m e n o f c r e d i t e ' .

These

connection however, cases

T h e actual m e c h a n i c s by which w o m e n w e r e appointed t o search w i t c h e s varied e n o r m o u s l y . E d w a r d F a i r f a x , a Y o r k s h i r e g e n t l e m a n w h o t h o u g h t t w o o f his d a u g h t e r s w e r e b e i n g b e w i t c h e d , r e c o r d e d h o w in 1 6 2 1 t h e s u s p e c t e d w o m e n w e r e t h e i r b o d i e s ' , w h i c h s u g g e s t s a d e g r e e o f official s a n c t i o n i n g o f t h e p r o c e s s . 'by a p p o i n t m e n t , at t h e h o u s e o f w i d o w P u l l e n s , at F u y s t o n e , s e a r c h e d f o r m a r k s u p o n Some v e a r s l a t e r , in a n o t h e r Y o r k s h i r e c a s e , D o r o t h y R o d e s , a n o t h e r p a r e n t w h o t h o u g h t h e r child t o b e b e w i t c h e d , n o t e d h o w the suspected w i t c h , M a r y Sikes, was ' s e a r c h e d by w e o m e n appointed bv a justice o f p e a c e ' . A male witness r e c o r d e d h o w he w e n t with o n e o f R o d e s ' sons t o H e n r y T e m p e s t , a Riding justice w h o s e e m s t o have b e e n m u c h i n v o l v e d in w i t c h c a s e s , ' t o p r o c u r e a w a r r a n t f o r s e a r c h i n g t h e said M a r y S i k e s a n d Susan B e a u m o n t ' . S i x w o m e n , t h r e e m a r r i e d a n d t h r e e w i d o w s , w e r e a p p o i n t e d . A n o t h e r Y o r k s h i r e w i t n e s s , A l i c e P u r s t o n , t o l d in 1 6 5 5 h o w she a n d o t h e r w o m e n w e r e appointed t o search K a t h e r i n e Earle on the direction o f the constable o f their township w h o was h i m s e l f acting under direction f r o m a justice. Four years earlier, in a n o t h e r Y o r k s h i r e c a s e , t h e d i r e c t i o n s e e m s t o h a v e c o m e s i m p l y f r o m t h e l o c a l constable.
1 3

it s e e m s safe t o t a k e as o u r s t a r t i n g p o i n t t h a t t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y o f p e r s o n s and that a study o f w i t c h c r a f t c o u l d o f f e r a p o t e n t i a l l y f r u i t f u l a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y o f w o m e n ' s i n v o l v e m e n t in

pause t o

p r o c e s s ' . T o u n d e r s t a n d t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e l a w in its full c o n t e x t , it is n e c e s s a r y t o g o b e v o n d t h e c o u r t r o o m a n d t h e s t r i c t r u l e s o f legal p r o c e d u r e , a n d e v e n t o s p e c u l a t e a b o u t w h a t w a s g o i n g o n o u t s i d e a r e a s c o v e r e d b y t h e legal r e c o r d . T h e E n g l i s h c r i m i n a l l e g a l s y s t e m w a s an a c c u s a t o r y o n e , a n d , in l a r g e m e a s u r e , the p r o s e c u t i o n o f w i t c h e s , along with o t h e r felons, was d e p e n d e n t on the initiative o f the p e r s o n o f f e n d e d against the v i c t i m . As I have argued e l s e w h e r e , on the strength o f N o r t h e r n C i r c u i t assize d e p o s i t i o n s , w o m e n s h o w e d n o r e l u c t a n c e in a c c u s i n g other women of being witches, o r o f giving e v i d e n c e against alleged witches.
8

I n d e e d , in b o t h t h e s e a r e a s f e m a l e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e l e g a l s y s t e m s e e m e d t o b e at l e a s t e q u a l t o t h a t o f m e n . In this c h a p t e r I s h o u l d l i k e t o t a k e t h i n g s f u r t h e r , and seek o t h e r points at w h i c h w e can delineate a distinctive f e m a l e contribution t o t h e p r o s e c u t i o n o f w i t c h e s : t h e r o l e o f w o m e n in s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e w i t c h ' s m a r k ; w i d e r e v i d e n c e a b o u t f e m a l e i n v o l v e m e n t as w i n e s s e s in w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s ; t h e b e h a v i o u r o f b o t h w i t c h e s a n d t h e i r a c c u s e r s in c o u r t ; a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t b e h a v i o u r o f c o n d e m n e d w i t c h e s o n t h e g a l l o w s . A c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e s e t o p i c s , b a s e d as it m u s t b e o n i m p e r f e c t a n d at t i m e s c o n t r a d i c t o r y m a t e r i a l s , c a n o n l y l e a d t o v e r y tentative conclusions. legal s y s t e m . O n e a r e a w h e r e w o m e n w e r e o f u n i q u e i m p o r t a n c e in t h e j u d i c i a l t r i a l w i t c h c r a f t w a s in t h e i r b e i n g u s e d t o s e a r c h f o r t h e w i t c h ' s m a r k . T h e m a r k w a s s e e n as a m e t h o d o f establishing g u i l t in some fifteenth-century Continental trials, a l t h o u g h t h e t h e n c u r r e n t c u s t o m o f s h a v i n g b o d y h a i r f r o m t h e s u s p e c t s t o facilit a t e t h e s e a r c h d o e s n o t s e e m t o h a v e b e e n f o l l o w e d in E n g l a n d . T h e first p a m p h l e t
9

T h e d e c i s i o n t o s e a r c h s e e m s , t h e r e f o r e , t o h a v e i n v o l v e d an i n t e r p l a y
T

b e t w e e n official a t t i t u d e s and t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e l o c a l c o m m u n i t y , w hose m e m b e r s w e r e aware o f the n e e d t o search for the m a r k . This suggests that the legitimation f o r s e a r c h i n g o p e r a t e d at b o t h an official a n d a p o p u l a r l e v e l . Perhaps the m o s t r e m a r k a b l e evidence w e have o f the dynamics o f the search f o r t h e m a r k c o m e s f r o m t h e c a s e o f E l i z a b e t h S a w y e r , e x e c u t e d a f t e r t r i a l at t h e M i d d l e s e x S e s s i o n s in 1 6 2 1 . S a w y e r ' s t r i a l w a s r a t h e r h a n g i n g fire, w i t h n e i t h e r t h e j u d g e n o r the j u r y apparently having m u c h idea o f w h a t to m a k e o f the evidence b e f o r e t h e m . A t t h a t p o i n t a j u s t i c e w h o h a d t a k e n c o n s i d e r a b l e i n t e r e s t in t h e c a s e , Arthur R o b i n s o n , intervened. H e told the court that 'information was given unto h i m b y s o m e o f h e r n e i g h b o u r s , t h a t this E l i z a b e t h S a w y e r h a d a p r i v a t e a n d s t r a n g e m a r k e o n her b o d y , by w h i c h suspition was c o n f i r m e d against h e r ' . ' T h e Bench', w e a r e t o l d , ' c o m m a n d e d o f f i c e r s a p p o i n t e d f o r t h o s e p u r p o s e s , t o f e t c h in t h r e e w o m e n to search the body of Elizabeth S a w y e r ' . O n e o f these was Margaret W e a v e r , 'that keepes the Session House for the City o f L o n d o n , a w i d d o w o f honest reputat i o n ' . S h e w a s j o i n e d b y ' t w o g r a v e m a t r o n s , b r o u g h t in b y t h e o f f i c e r o u t o f t h e s t r e e t e , passing t h e r e b y c h a n c e ' . S a w y e r resisted the s e a r c h e r s , behaving ' m o s t sluttish a n d l o a t h s o m e l y t o w a r d s t h e m , i n t e n d i n g t h e r e b y t o p r e v e n t t h e i r s e a r c h o f h e r ' , b u t t h e w o m e n c o n t i n u e d in t h e i r e f f o r t s , e a c h o f t h e m d e p o s i n g s e p a r a t e l y t o c o u r t about the results o f the e x e r c i s e . T h e y found a teat 'the bignesse o f the little and the length o f halfe a finger', This e v i d e n c e p r o v e d decisive and swung the j u r y against S a w y e r . finger, w h i c h l o o k e d as t h o u g h it had r e c e n t l y b e e n s u c k e d .
1 4

W h a t it d o e s d e m o n s t r a t e is t h a t w i t c h c r a f t

prosecutions dominated

c a n n o t b e i n t e r p r e t e d p u r e l y as t h e o p p r e s s i o n o f w o m e n b y a m a l e

a c c o u n t o f a w i t c h c r a f t trial in E n g l a n d , p u b l i s h e d in 1 5 6 6 , s t r e s s e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e m a r k as a m e a n s o f e s t a b l i s h i n g p r o o f , a n d as E n g l i s h t r i a l s p r o g r e s s e d its i m p o r t a n c e r e m a i n e d c e n t r a l . It a l s o s e e m s t h a t i t g r a d u a l l y b e c a m e a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e m a r k , w i t h w o m e n , m o s t c o m m o n l v t o o k t h e f o r m o f a t e a t - l i k e g r o w t h in t h e p u d e n d a , f r o m w h i c h it w a s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e w i t c h ' s f a m i l i a r s u c k e d b l o o d . C o n t e m p o r a r y u s a g e d i c t a t e d t h a t i f t h e d i s c o v e r y o f s u c h a m a r k w a s t h o u g h t vital f o r p r o v i n g w i t c h c r a f t , t h e s e a r c h f o r it s h o u l d b e m a d e b y w o m e n . T h e earliest k n o w n r e f e r e n c e to appointing w o m e n for this task c o m e s , perhaps a little u n e x p e c t e d l y , f r o m t h e c o u r t l e e t o f S o u t h a m p t o n in 1 5 7 9 . T h e w o r d i n g o f t h e r e l e v a n t o r d e r suggests that the practice was already a familiar o n e . T h e leet jury d i r e c t e d

As this c a s e s u g g e s t s , t h e c r e d e n t i a l s n e e d e d b y w o m e n s e a r c h e r s w e r e

those

resulting I r o m g o o d character rather than technical e x p e r t i s e . S o m e o t h e r cases, h o w e v e r , suggested that w o m e n with some type o f knowledge might be favoured.

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M i d w i v e s w e r e , o f c o u r s e , uniquely qualified t o c o m m e n t on irregularities in the female genitals. T h e exceptionally rich documentation provided by the Matthew named and H o p k i n s t r i a l s o f 1 6 4 5 7 s h o w s a n u m b e r o f t h e m in a c t i o n . A m i d w i f e

T h e f r e q u e n c y o f r e f e r e n c e s in s u r v i v i n g d e p o s i t i o n s t o w o m e n s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e m a r k s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e , e x i s t i n g as it did o n t h e p e r i p h e r i e s o f t h e legal process, was widespread and culturally familiar. T h i s p o i n t is r e i n f o r c e d by a r e m a r k a b l e c a s e f r o m O x f o r d s h i r e in 1 6 8 7 . J o a n W a l k e r o f B i c e s t e r , t h e g o o d reputation and g o o d c o n d u c t , severall w i c k e d & mallicious persons enveing the g o o d n a m e , credit & reputacon fame, any widow her

Bridget Reynolds searched one o f the Essex witches, Elizabeth Harvey. Five w o m e n g a v e e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t J o a n S a l t e r , o n e o f t h o s e a c c u s e d o n t h e Isle o f E l y , d e p o s e d h o w t h e y f o u n d t h r e e t e a t s in h e r p r i v y p a r t s ' w h i c h t h e m i d w i f e a n d t h e rest o f these i n f o r m a n t s have n o t seen the like o n the b o d y o f any o t h e r w o m a n ' .
1 5

o f a g e n t l e m a n , p e t i t i o n e d t h e b e n c h in t h a t y e a r , t o t h e e f f e c t t h a t d e s p i t e

L a t e r in t h e c e n t u r y , again in E s s e x , w e find a m i d w i f e b e i n g a p p o i n t e d t o s e a r c h the b o d y o f a s u s p e c t e d w i t c h 'in the p r e s e n c e o f s o m e s o b e r w o m e n ' . T h i s she did, and i n f o r m e d the author o f the narration o f the case t h a t s h e n e v e r s a w t h e l i k e in h e r l i f e : t h a t h e r f u n d a m e n t w a s open

o f your p e t i t i o n e r ] have uniustly & without

g r o u n d o r c o l l o [ u ] r o f r e a s o n given o u t in s p e e c h e s that y o u r p e t i t i o n e r ] is a w i t c h w h i c h o d i o u s n a m e y o [ u ] r p e t i t i o n e r ] u t t e r l y a b h o r s & d e t e s t s & all t h e w o r k s o f t h e d e v i l l . T o clear herself, w i d o w W a l k e r r e q u e s t e d that t h e b e n c h should o r d e r that she 'may be searched by foure & t w e n t y honest sober iudicious matrons & m a k e r e p o r t o f t h e i r o p i n i o n s at n e x t s e s s i o n s ' , a n d t h a t t h e p e r s o n s a b u s i n g h e r s h o u l d b e b o u n d o v e r t o a p p e a r t h e r e . B y this t i m e , a n d at this s o c i a l l e v e l , t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e j u r y of women searchers w a s clearly r e c o g n i z e d , while W a l k e r ' s suggestion that she s h o u l d b e s e a r c h e d b y ' f o u r e & t w e n t y ' w o m e n is i n s t r u c t i v e . A c r i m i n a l a c c u s a t i o n at t h e s e s s i o n s o r assizes t y p i c a l l y w o u l d b e s c r e e n e d b y a g r a n d j u r y o f t w e l v e o r so m e n , and t h e n tried by a trial j u r y o f a n o t h e r t w e l v e . W a l k e r obviously desired that the search that was intended to clear her n a m e should m i r r o r p r o p e r l e g a l p r o c e s s as f a r as p o s s i b l e . T h i s last c a s e r e m i n d s us t h a t t h e f e m a l e s e a r c h e r s o f f i c i a l l y s a n c t i o n e d t o s e a r c h w o m e n w e r e but one o f a n u m b e r of types o f juries, or near juries, o f female e x p e r t s w h o w e r e c a l l e d in t o a d j u d i c a t e in a n u m b e r o f l e g a l m a t t e r s , b o t h c r i m inal and civil. The English mediaeval ecclesiastical courts had sought female assistance in cases o f a n n u l m e n t o f m a r r i a g e o n the g r o u n d s o f the h u s b a n d ' s i m p o t e n c e , w h e n the accuracy o f the plea was tested by 'honest w o m e n ' w h o , by baring t h e i r breasts and kissing o r fondling the m a n , a t t e m p t e d t o arouse h i m s e x u a l l y . explanations
1 9

l i k e a m o u s e h o l e , a n d t h a t in i t w e r e t w o l o n g b i g g s , o u t o f w h i c h being pressed issued b l o o d : that they w e r e n e i t h e r piles n o r e m r o d s (for she k n e w b o t h ) b u t e x c r e s s e n c e s like t o biggs with nipples w h i c h s e e m e d as i f t h e y h a d b e e n f r e q u e n t l y s u c k e d .
1 6

S o m e m i d w i v e s clearly felt t h e m s e l v e s able t o give e x p e r t e v i d e n c e in w i t c h c r a f t

17

cases. O t h e r s m i g h t c l a i m a m o r e g e n e r a l e x p e r t i s e . H e n c e , again d u r i n g t h e H o p k i n s t r i a l s , A n n e t h e w i f e o f T h o m a s S a v o r y o f U p w e l l in N o r f o l k w a s e x a m i n e d w h o 'sayd that s o m e o f the divles i m p e s had sucked h e r ' . by ' s o m e t h a t w e r e t h e r e w h o p [ r e ] t e n d e d t o h a v e skill in t h e d i s c o v e r y o f w i t c h e s '
1 8

T h e Hopkins episode

a l s o s a w t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a w o m a n w h o c l e a r l y a t t a i n e d a r e g i o n a l r e p u t a t i o n as a s e a r c h e r f o r t h e w i t c h ' s m a r k , M a r y P h i l i p s . P h i l i p s w a s i n v o l v e d as a w i t n e s s in s o m e o f t h e e a r l y E s s e x t r i a l s in t h e s p r i n g o f 1 6 4 5 a n d , f o r r e a s o n s w h i c h r e m a i n e l u s i v e , s e e m s t o h a v e a c q u i r e d a w i d e r r e p u t e as a
r

finder

o f the witch's

mark.

C e r t a i n l y , s h e w as b r o u g h t in b y t h e a u t h o r i t i e s o f A l d e b u r g h in S u f f o l k t o s u p e r vise o t h e r w o m e n searching s u s p e c t e d w i t c h e s t h e r e , and was paid f o r such duties and also r e c e i v e d e x p e n s e s . N o t all o f t h e w o m e n s e a r c h e d , as t h e c a s e o f E l i z a b e t h S a w y e r s u g g e s t s , s u b m i t t e d willingly, while several o f t h e m offered those searching t h e m f o r t h o s e p h y s i c a l p e c u l i a r i t i e s w h i c h r i s k e d b e i n g i d e n t i f i e d as t h e w a t c h ' s m a r k . J o a n S a l t e r e x p l a i n e d t o an i n v e s t i g a t i n g j u s t i c e t h a t ' t h e m a r k e s t h a t s h e h a t h a b o u t h e r a r e n o t t h e m a r k e s o f a w i t c h b u t c a u s e d as i t p l e a s e t h G o d s h e b e l e a v e t h b y c h i l d b e a r i n g ' . M a r y A r m i t a g e , a Y o r k s h i r e w i t c h , w a s s e a r c h e d b y f o u r w o m e n in 1 6 5 8 , a n d a s u s p i c i o u s h o l e a q u a r t e r o f an i n c h d e e p w a s f o u n d o n h e r r i g h t s h o u l d e r . T h e s u s p e c t e d w i t c h a t t r i b u t e d this t o an i n j u r y s u s t a i n e d w h i l e c a r r y i n g a b u n d l e o f thorns, one o f which penetrated her shoulder. She explained that the thorn ' c o n t i n e w e d t h e r e about a yeare b e f o r e itt could b e g o t t out and caused a great swelling and since that t y m e t h e r e hath b e e n e a little hole upon h e r s h o u l d e r ' . S o m e t h i n g o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e s e a r c h f o r t h e w i t c h ' s m a r k is c o n v e y e d in t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f another Yorkshire witch, Katherine Earle. Earle asked w h y s h e did n o t t e l l t h e w o e m e n t h a t s e a r c h e d . . . o f a m a r k e b e t w e e n e h e r e t h i g h s as w e l l as t h a t o f b e h i n d h e r e a r e s h e at first a n s w e r e d t h a t s h e did n o t k n o w o f i t , w h e r e a t t h e w o m e n l a u g h i n g she p [ r e ] s e n t l v a f t e r said i t c a m e b y a b u r n e a n d s h e h a d it 3 6 y e a r e s .

This practice seems to have b e e n discontinued by the sixteenth c e n t u r y , b u t the o p e r a t i o n o f t h e c h u r c h c o u r t s still m a d e o c c a s i o n a l u s e o f w o m e n as e x p e r t s in s e x u a l c a s e s . T h u s w h e n , in 1 5 9 5 , a m a n f r o m B a r k i n g in E s s e x w a s p r e s e n t e d f o r i n c e s t w i t h his d a u g h t e r , it w a s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e s u s p i c i o n w a s n o t f o u n d e d m e r e l y on ' c o m m o n r e p o r t ' , b u t also ' u p o n the assertion o f h o n e s t w o m e n , w h o have had the examinacion of the young w e n c h ' .
2 0

Although the point needs further investi-

g a t i o n , it s e e m s c e r t a i n t h a t s i m i l a r s e a r c h e s , s o m e t i m e s w i t h o f f i c i a l s a n c t i o n , w o u l d b e m a d e b v w o m e n in i n f a n t i c i d e a n d r a p e c a s e s . M o s t f a m i l i a r , p e r h a p s , w a s t h e u s e m a d e b y f e m a l e j u r i e s in e x a m i n i n g w o m e n w h o c l a i m e d t o b e p r e g n a n t a f t e r conviction for felony, and w h o h e n c e h o p e d to delay o r evade being T o g e t h e r , t h i s u s e o f f e m a l e j u r i e s o r less f o r m a l g r o u p s o f f e m a l e executed.

2 1

investigators

constitutes a part o f the legal p r o c e s s that m u s t m o d i f y the general assertion that w o m e n w e r e e x c l u d e d f r o m official p a r t i c i p a t i o n in i t . T h e y did n o t s e r v e as m a g i s trates or jurors b u t the authority derived f r o m the crucial evidence o f their 'special k n o w l e d g e ' w a s a d r a m a t i c r e v e r s a l o f t h e i r g e n e r a l l y p o w e r l e s s r o l e s as p e t i t i o n e r s , witnesses or parties t o litigation. W o m e n w e r e a l s o f r e q u e n t l y i n v o l v e d as w i t n e s s e s a g a i n s t w i t c h e s . T h e H o m e

294

JIM

SHARPE

WOMEN,

WITCHCRAFT

AND

THE

LEGAL

PROCESS

295

C i r c u i t assize r e c o r d s r e v e a l t h a t t h e r e w e r e 1 2 0 7 calls f o r w i t n e s s e s a t w i t c h t r i a l s between 1 6 0 0 and 1 7 0 2 . O f t h e s e , 6 3 1 ( o r 52 per c e n t ) involved m e n and 576 ( o r 4 8 p e r c e n t ) w o m e n , a n e a r l y e v e n s p l i t . In i s o l a t e d c a s e s , t h e r e m i g h t b e a h e a v y p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f w o m e n w i t n e s s e s : 1 4 w o m e n t o 3 m e n in K e n t in 1 0 w o m e n t o 5 m e n in S u r r e y in 1 6 6 4 , 8 w o m e n a l o n e in E s s e x in 1 6 5 0 . of Northern 1657, Such

in 1 6 8 5 w a s n o t o n e in w h i c h w i t n e s s e s m i g h t u s u a l l y e x p e c t i n d u l g e n t a t t i t u d e s from judges, witchcraft and w i t n e s s e s , m a l e and f e m a l e alike, w e r e the accused being a Hertfordshire often browbeaten woman named or r i d i c u l e d b y t h e j u d i c i a r y . In 1 7 1 2 t h e r e o c c u r r e d t h e last k n o w n assize t r i a l f o r in E n g l a n d , Jane W e n h a m . O n e o f t h o s e giving e v i d e n c e against h e r was Elizabeth F i e l d . She told h o w W e n h a m had b e w i t c h e d a child o f hers a b o u t nine years previously. T h e j u d g e asked w h y she had n o t p r o s e c u t e d W e n h a m i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r this i n c i d e n t , to w h i c h she a n s w e r e d 'she was a p o o r w o m e n , and the child had n o friends able t o b e a r the charges o f such a p r o s e c u t i o n ' . T h e j u d g e , w h o was sceptical, and w h o was subsequently to reprieve W e n h a m after c o n v i c t i o n , asked sarcastically if Field had n o w g r o w n r i c h .
2 7

cases w o u l d s e e m t o support the conclusion advanced e l s e w h e r e , on the strength C i r c u i t assize d e p o s i t i o n s , t h a t w o m e n f e l t n o q u a l m s a b o u t g i v i n g

2 2

e v i d e n c e against f e m a l e w i t c h e s .

T h e H o m e C i r c u i t r e c o r d s also suggest that the 46

proportion of w o m e n witnesses increased over the seventeenth centurv, from

w o m e n t o 8 0 m e n in 1 6 0 0 0 9 , t o a p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f w o m e n w i t n e s s e s in t h e 1 6 6 0 s a n d 1 6 7 0 s . T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e figures is e m p h a s i z e d w h e n w e c o m p a r e t h e m t o t h e g e n d e r r a t i o o f all w i t n e s s e s c a l l e d t o g i v e e v i d e n c e in f e l o n y c a s e s in Hertfordshire between 1 6 1 0 a n d 1 6 1 9 . In t h a t d e c a d e 5 7 2 m e n a n d 3 6 women w e r e c a l l e d t o g i v e e v i d e n c e in f e l o n y c a s e s at t h e H e r t f o r d s h i r e a s s i z e s , a r a t i o o f over twelve male witnesses to each f e m a l e . witchcraft cases. O n these figures,
2 3

C o n v e r s e l y , t h e r e w e r e signs o f w o m e n w i t n e s s e s

being

t r e a t e d w i t h p o l i t e n e s s . In 1 7 0 2 R i c h a r d H a t h a w a y w a s t r i e d as a c h e a t f o r a c c u s i n g Sarah M o r d u c k o f w i t c h c r a f t . Elizabeth W i l l o u g h b y was o n e o f those giving e v i d e n c e on Hathaway's behalf before the sceptical Chief Justice H o l t . Holt asked her what skill s h e h a d in m a t t e r s o f w i t c h c r a f t , a n d s h e r e p l i e d t h a t s h e h a d b e e n b e w i t c h e d as a c h i l d , a n d t h a t t h i s e x p e r i e n c e h a d g i v e n h e r i n s i g h t i n t o s u c h m a t t e r s . a b o u t this c l a i m . An o b v i o u s l y u n c o n v i n c e d j u d g e H o l t w a s v e r y r e s t r a i n e d in his s u b s e q u e n t q u e s t i o n i n g
2 8

In t h e s a m e d e c a d e , t a k i n g t h e H o m e

C i r c u i t as a w h o l e , t h e r e 9 2 m e n a n d 8 2 w o m e n w e r e c a l l e d t o g i v e e v i d e n c e in w o m e n w e r e o v e r 11 t i m e s m o r e l i k e l y t o a c t as w i t n e s s e s in w i t c h c r a f t t r i a l s at t h e assizes t h a n t h e y w e r e in all f e l o n y c a s e s . W e r e t u r n t o t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n w o m e n a n d w i t c h c r a f t lav

j

I f t h e t r e a t m e n t o f w o m e n w i t n e s s e s v a r i e d , so did t h a t o f t h e w o m e n a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t . L o w c o n v i c t i o n r a t e s at t h e assizes s u g g e s t t h a t t h r o u g h o u t t h e p e r i o d o f the operation o f the English witch statutes, judges w e r e , broadly speaking, scept i c a l a b o u t , i f n o t t h e a b s t r a c t p o s s i b i l i t y o f w i t c h c r a f t , at l e a s t o f t h e g u i l t o f t h e individual old w o m e n b r o u g h t b e f o r e t h e m .
2 9

n o t o n l y in t h e g e n d e r o f t h e a c c u s e d , b u t a l s o in a m u c h w i d e r , p o w e r , a n d f e m a l e i n t e r a c t i o n in e a r l y m o d e r n England.

much

more female

c o m p l e x , a n d as y e t b a r e l y i n v e s t i g a t e d w e b o f a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t g e n d e r ,

It is p o s s i b l e t o p u s h b e y o n d s t a t i s t i c s o c c a s i o n a l l y , a n d t o r e c o n s t r u c t s o m e t h i n g o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f w o m e n in t h e c o u r t r o o m . Such instances t h r o w light o n w h a t is still o n e o f t h e p r o b l e m a r e a s o f E n g l i s h legal h i s t o r y : t h e v e r y b a s i c i s s u e o f h o w t r i a l s w e r e a c t u a l l y c o n d u c t e d , o f w h a t h a p p e n e d in t h e p u s h a n d s h o v e o f a c o u r t in s e s s i o n . T h e official d o c u m e n t a t i o n e n g e n d e r e d b y an E n g l i s h c r i m i n a l trial in this p e r i o d r a r e l y s h e d s m u c h l i g h t o n t h e s e m a t t e r s . T h e i n d i c t m e n t is a n o t o r i o u s l y a r i d d o c u m e n t , while depositions, although invaluable for illustrating other m a t t e r s , w e r e essentiallv pre-trial d o c u m e n t s that by their very n a t u r e u s u a l l y t e l l us n o t h i n g o f w h a t h a p p e n e d in c o u r t . O t h e r sources can be and court m o r e r e v e a l i n g a n d , as w e shall s e e , s o m e t h i n g c a n b e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m p a m p h l e t a c c o u n t s o f t r i a l s , a n d f r o m i s o l a t e d r e f e r e n c e s in l e t t e r s , d i a r i e s , m e m o i r s , d e r l y , m o r e r a m s h a c k l e , a n d less s e e m l y t h a n t h o s e o b t a i n i n g in a m o d e r n s u c h l i k e . T h e g e n e r a l p o i n t t o b e m a d e is t h a t c o u r t p r o c e e d i n g s w e r e m o r e d i s o r o f law. S o m e n o t i o n o f typical conditions can b e gained f r o m the case o f M a r y S p e n c e r w h o , at h e r t r i a l f o r w i t c h c r a f t , c o m p l a i n e d t h a t ' t h e w i n d w a s so l o u d , a n d t h e t h r o n g s o g r e a t , t h a t she c o u l d n o t h e a r t h e e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t h e r ' .
2 4

By the later seventeenth century, w h e n

c o n v i c t i o n s w e r e v e r y r a r e , j u d g e s m u s t h a v e p l a y e d a m a j o r p a r t in h e l p i n g a c c u s e d w i t c h e s e v a d e e x e c u t i o n . Y e t in o t h e r i n s t a n c e s w o m e n a c c u s e d o f w i t c h c r a f t in t h e c o n f u s i n g a n d h o s t i l e e n v i r o n m e n t o f t h e c o u r t m i g h t find t h e m s e l v e s u n d e r h e a v y p r e s s u r e . In m a n y c a s e s t h e a c c u s e d w e r e e l d e r l y w o m e n w h o h a d b e e n c o w e d b y the experiences o f c o m m u n i t y hostility, examination by justices and m o b pressure on the way to the place o f trial. Such w o m e n w e r e unlikely t o m o u n t m u c h by way o f a c o h e r e n t d e f e n c e against the charges levelled against t h e m . N e v e r t h e l e s s , scatt e r e d e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t a f e w w o m e n w e r e a b l e t o d e f e n d t h e m s e l v e s in c o u r t . T h u s in 1 5 8 6 J o a n C a s o n , a w i d o w o f F a v e r s h a m in K e n t , w a s t r i e d at t h e b o r o u g h s e s s i o n s f o r i n v o k i n g evil s p i r i t s a n d b e w i t c h i n g a c h i l d t o d e a t h . S e v e n w o m e n a n d o n e m a n , p o o r p e o p l e b u t h e r n e a r n e i g h b o u r s , gave e v i d e n c e against h e r . Cason, while admitting c o n t a c t with what may have b e e n familiars, denied bewitching the child t o death, claiming that h e r adversaries w e r e maliciously accusing h e r and that t h e r e w e r e e x i s t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n t h e m in w h i c h h e r a c c u s e r s h a d a l r e a d y d o n e her w r o n g . H e r arguing convinced the R e c o r d e r o f Faversharn o f her i n n o c e n c e , although a bungle o v e r legal technicalities led t o h e r e x e c u t i o n .
3 0

John

A u b r e y n o t e d t h a t at t h e t r i a l o f a w i t c h in 1 6 5 3 ' t h e s p e c t a t o r s m a d e s u c h a n o i s e that the judge could not hear the prisoner nor the prisoner the judge, but the words w e r e handed f r o m o n e to the o t h e r by M r R. C h a n d l e r , and s o m e t i m e s n o t truly reported'.
2 5

O t h e r cases o f w h a t a m o u n t e d a l m o s t t o defiance w e r e r e c o r d e d . A n n a T r a p n e l , t h e I n t e r r e g n u m r e l i g i o u s v i s i o n a r y , r e c o r d e d h o w d u r i n g h e r t r a v e l s in C o r n w a l l s h e w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d as a w i t c h , a n d t h a t a c l e r g y m e n h e l p e d t o f r a m e an i n d i c t m e n t against h e r , ' b u t though he and the w i t c h - t r y i n g w o m a n l o o k e d in m v f a c e , i t did n o w a y d i s m a y m e ' . one point made whole b e n c h ' .
3 2 3 1

S o m e t i m e s t h e t h r o n g in t h e c o u r t d u r i n g a w i t c h c r a f t t r i a l m i g h t b e

so o p p r e s s i v e , a n d d e m o n s t r a t e its h o s t i l i t y t o t h e a c c u s e d so f o r c e f u l l y , t h a t , as R o g e r N o r t h r e c o r d e d o f o n e p o s t - R e s t o r a t i o n c a s e in t h e s o u t h - w e s t , t h e j u d g e m i g h t b e p r e s s u r e d i n t o c o n v i c t i n g a g a i n s t his i n c l i n a t i o n s .
2 6

steadfastly

Margaret Landish, o n e o f the Essex witches

a c c u s e d in 1 6 4 5 , a l l e g e d m a l i c e a n d an o l d g r u d g e a g a i n s t h e r at h e r t r i a l , a n d at ' a s t r a n g e h o w l i n g in t h e c o u r t t o t h e g r e a t d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e Temperance L l o y d , o n e o f t h r e e w i t c h e s e x e c u t e d at E x e t e r in

A l l this w a s b a d e n o u g h f o r t h e a c c u s e d , b u t e v e n g i v i n g e v i d e n c e c o u l d b e a stressful e x p e r i e n c e . T h e c e n t u r v which witnessed the judicial style o f judge Jeffreys

296

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SHARPE

WOMEN,

WITCHCRAFT

AND

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297

1 6 8 2 , a l t h o u g h c o n f e s s i n g h e r w i t c h c r a f t at h e r t r i a l , w a s ' p e r f e c t l y r e s o l u t e , w e l l as a f t e r h e r t r y a l , so a u d a c i o u s ' .

not

g l i m p s e d in t h e a c c o u n t o f t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f y e t a n o t h e r d a u g h t e r o f t h e

gentry

m i n d i n g w h a t s h o u l d b e c o m e o f h e r i m m o r t a l s o u l , b u t r a t h e r i m p u d e n t l y a t , as
3 3

M a r g a r e t M u s c h a m p . T h e girl and h e r m o t h e r w e r e a t t e m p t i n g t o persuade a sceptical j u d g e t o p r o s e c u t e t h e p e r s o n s s u s p e c t e d o f w i t c h c r a f t , and t h e girl fell i n t o fits b e f o r e t h e j u d g e , at o n e s t a g e , as w a s t y p i c a l in s u c h c a s e s , v o m i t i n g

r

Another distraction to the court was offered with swelled

b y A n n e A s h b y , t r i e d at M a i d s t o n e in 1 6 5 2 . A s h b y c o n f e s s e d t o c o p u l a t i o n t h e D e v i l , a n d in o p e n c o u r t ' f e l l i n t o an e x t a s i e b e f o r e t h e b e n c h , a n d on her r e c o v e r y claimed that h e r familiar had e n t e r e d h e r b o d y .

foreign

b o d i e s . B u t w h e n s h e c a m e o u t o f h e r fits, s h e ' d i d n o t k n o w w h a t w a s p a s t , as all t h e b e h o l d e r s did s e e o n e l y an i n n o c e n t , b a s h f u l l g i r l e , w i t h o u t a n y c o n f i d e n c e at all w h e n s h e w a s o u t o f h e r fits'.

39

i n t o a m o n s t r o u s and vast b i g n e s s , s c h r e e c h i n g and crying o u t very d o l e f u l l y ' , and

3 4

W h e n e x a m i n i n g g e n d e r as an a s p e c t o f w i t c h gave

M o r e c o m m o n l y , the p r o g r e s s o f w i t c h trials was d i s t u r b e d b y sufferings

of

c r a f t , it is c l e a r t h a t b e i n g p o s s e s s e d a n d l a u n c h i n g a w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n and t o e x e r c i s e p o w e r o v e r adults.

this last t y p e o n t h e p a r t o f t h e a l l e g e d v i c t i m s o f w i t c h c r a f t . O n e o f t h e r e c u r r i n g t h e m e s o f English w i t c h c r a f t was the possession o f v o u n g p e o p l e by spirits sent by a w i t c h , or by curious diseases inflicted on t h e m by witchcraft. T h e accounts of t h e s u f f e r i n g s o f s u c h p o s s e s s e d p e r s o n s , f r e q u e n t l y i n v o l v i n g fits a n d c o n v u l s i o n s , a r e s o m e t i m e s v e r y l o n g a n d v e r y h a r r o w i n g . W h a t is s t r i k i n g , h o w e v e r , is t h e n u m b e r o f o c c a s i o n s w h e n s u c h b e h a v i o u r o c c u r r e d in t h e c o u r t r o o m , b e i n g r e g a r d e d ( a t l e a s t b y t h e a c c u s e r s ) as e v i d e n c e o f b e w i t c h m e n t . sometimes Although

m a n y an ' i n n o c e n t , b a s h f u l l g i r l e ' t h e c h a n c e t o b e c o m e t h e c e n t r e o f a t t e n t i o n A f t e r trial and c o n d e m n a t i o n the w i t c h , like any o t h e r f e l o n , w o u l d b e p r e p a r e d f o r d e a t h . A p p r o p r i a t e l y e n o u g h , this p r o c e s s w o u l d b e e n t r u s t e d t o a c l e r g y m a n . H e n c e Henry G o o d c o l e w o r k e d on (to use the c o n t e m p o r a r y phrase) Elizabeth S a w y e r in 1 6 2 1 t o a c c e p t h e r s i n f u l n e s s a n d t h e d e a t h b y h a n g i n g t h a t it h a d d r a w n u p o n h e r , a n d t o m a k e a full c o n f e s s i o n . It w a s d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e c o n d e m n e d w i t c h , like o t h e r c o n v i c t e d f e l o n s , should ' m a k e a g o o d e n d ' , and die p e n i t e n t l y and w i t h d i g n i t y . In S a w y e r ' s c a s e , G o o d c o l e o f f i c i a t e d a t t h e e x e c u t i o n , a n d at t h e g a l l o w s r e a d t o h e r t h e c o n f e s s i o n t h a t she h a d m a d e e a r l i e r , w h i c h s h e d e c l a r e d t o b e t r u e 'in the hearing o f m a n y h u n d r e d s ' . be excessive. Joan Peterson,
4 0

p e o p l e o f e i t h e r s e x m i g h t b e p o s s e s s e d , it s e e m s t h a t m o s t o f t h e c a s e s o f fits a n d c o n v u l s i o n s o c c u r r i n g in c o u r t o f w h i c h d e t a i l s h a v e c o m e d o w n t o us i n v o l v e d young w o m e n . Frequently these t o o k the form o f dramatic interventions on the first part o f the alleged sufferer w h e n the supposed witch entered the c o u r t or was noticed by the supposedly possessed girl. T h u s in o n e w e l l d o c u m e n t e d c a s e w e find M a r y G l o v e r , d a u g h t e r o f a L o n d o n s h o p k e e p e r , w h o w a s t h o u g h t t o b e b e w i t c h e d in 1 6 0 2 , f a l l i n g i n t o a fit w h e n s h e w a s c a l l e d t o g i v e e v i d e n c e in c o u r t . T h e t h r e e s t r o n g m e n w h o c a r r i e d t h e g i r l out o f c o u r t declared that they had ' n e v e r carried a heavier b u r d e n ' . T h e R e c o r d e r o f L o n d o n a n d o t h e r officials t e s t e d t h e g e n u i n e n e s s o f h e r fit b y b u r n i n g h e r h a n d until it b l i s t e r e d : the girl r e m a i n e d i n s e n s i b l e . s h i r e assizes at a l m o s t the same time,
3 b

S o m e t i m e s this s o r t o f c l e r i c a l p r e s s u r e c o u l d 1 6 5 2 , w a s , at t h e p l a c e of

e x e c u t e d at T y b u r n in

execution, exhorted nine or m o r e times to confess by the Ordinary o f N e w g a t e . A t this p o i n t t h e e x e c u t i o n e r c o m m e n t e d t h a t ' t h e O r d i n a r y m i g h t b e a s h a m e d t o t r o u b l e a d y i n g w o m a n so m u c h ' , t o w h i c h t h e c l e r g y m a n r e s p o n d e d t h a t ' h e w a s c o m m a n d e d t o d o s o , a n d d u r s t d o n o o t h e r w i s e ' . T h i s s t o r y d o e s at l e a s t d e m o n strate that c o n v i c t e d w i t c h e s c o u l d b e o b d u r a t e at t h e g a l l o w s .
4 1

Ideally, h o w e v e r , Joan had

In a n o t h e r c a s e , t r i e d at t h e B e r k Gunter, a gentleman's daughter,

as w i t h E l i z a b e t h S a w y e r , an e x e c u t i o n w o u l d i n v o l v e t h e c o n v i c t e d w i t c h m a k i n g a ' g o o d e n d ' a n d b e h a v i n g in an a p p r o p r i a t e l y e d i f y i n g f a s h i o n . T h u s w h e n w a s t h e r e s u l t o f d i v i n e j u s t i c e , a n d m a d e s o g o d l y an e n d t h a t m a n y w h o previously b e e n her enemies lamented her d e a t h .

4 2

Anne

s i m i l a r l y w e n t i n t o fits at t h e t r i a l o f t w o o f t h e w o m e n w h o h a d a l l e g e d l y b e w i t c h e d h e r , o n e witness referring to the 'gogling o f hir heade & eyes, the turning o f h e r a r m e s a n d h a n d s , t h e d u b l i n g & s w e l l i n g o f h i r b o d y ' in c o u r t . T w o d e c a d e s l a t e r t w o o t h e r daughters o f the g e n t r y , H e l e n and Elizabeth Fairfax, likewise 'fell i n t o a t r a n c e b e f o r e the j u d g e , and w e r e carried o u t ' . Justices p r e s e n t f o l l o w e d the girls o u t , and ' m a d e e x p e r i m e n t s to p r o v e if they c o u n t e r f e i t e d o r n o t ' . T h e girls' father n o t e d t h a t ' r e p o r t said t h a t it w a s n o t s o c i v i l as I e x p e c t e d f r o m s u c h m e n , t h e i r c u r i o s i t y f o u n d n o t h i n g b u t s i n c e r i t y in m y children'.
3 6

C a s o n d i e d at F a v e r s h a m in 1 5 8 6 s h e m a d e a g a l l o w s s p e e c h a c c e p t i n g t h a t h e r f a t e

B u t n o t all d i e d so e d i f y i n g l y . A n n B o d e n h a m , e x e c u t e d at S a l i s b u r y , w a s w o r k e d on by a minister n a m e d Foster, ' w h o c o m f o r t e d her to bear death Christianly, boldly, a n d c h e a r f u l l y ' . H e m a n a g e d t o b r i n g h e r ' t o t h a t p i t c h as t o p r o m i s e h i m she w o u l d g o e a t r u e p e n i t e n t t o h e r p l a c e o f e x e c u t i o n , a n d t o d i e as a l a m b ' . S h e r e f u s e d , h o w e v e r , t o confess t h e m a t t e r s f o r w h i c h she had b e e n c o n v i c t e d , adding 'that she
r

yet

T h e t h e m e o f t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f a d o l e s c e n t s is a m a j o r o n e in t h e h i s t o r y E n g l i s h w i t c h c r a f t in this p e r i o d , a n d is t o o c o m p l e x t o g o i n t o h e r e . W h a t

of is

w r o n g f u l l y s u f f e r e d d e a t h , a n d did l a m e n t e x t r e m e l y , a n d d e s i r e d t o d i e q u i e t l y ' . H e r e x e c u t i o n w a s , i n f a c t , less t h a n e d i f y i n g . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e p a m p h l e t a c c o u n t , she w a s ' v e r y d e s i r o u s f o r d r i n k , a n d h a d n o t M r U n d e r s h e r i f f s p r u d e n c e b e e n s u c h as t o r e s t r a i n h e r f r o m it s h e w o u l d h a v e d i e d d r u n k ' . As s h e w a l k e d t o t h e g a l l o w s , ' b y e v e r y h o u s e s h e w e n t b y , s h e w e n t w i t h a s m a l l p i e c e o f s i l v e r in h e r h a n d , c a l l i n g f o r b e e r , a n d w a s v e r y p a s s i o n a t e w h e n d e n y e d ' , w h i l e she w a s a l s o , f o r u n c l e a r r e a s o n s , v e r y a n n o y e d w h e n t h e s h e r i f f t o l d h e r s h e c o u l d n o t b e b u r i e d at t h e g a l l o w s . In f a c t , at t h e g a l l o w s s h e r e f u s e d t o c o n f e s s , a n d b e i n g a s k e d w h e t h e r she d e s i r e d t h e p r a y e r s o f a n y o f t h e p e o p l e , s h e a n s w e r e d , she h a d as m a n v p r a y e r s a l r e a d y as she i n t e n d e d , a n d d e s i r e d

o b v i o u s is t h a t b e i n g p o s s e s s e d , w h e t h e r in t h e c o u r t r o o m o r n o t , g a v e a d o l e s c e n t s a unique o p p o r t u n i t y t o cast off their characteristically submissive and repressed r o l e , a n d i n d u l g e in b a d b e h a v i o u r t h a t w a s n o t o n l v l i c e n s e d , b u t a l s o m a d e t h e m the centre of attention.
3 7

G i v e n the probability that girls w e r e m o r e likelv than possessed mav

3 8

boys to be deeply socialized into submissiveness, their behaviour w h e n

attracted considerable c o m m e n t f r o m c o n t e m p o r a r y o b s e r v e r s , and indeed

h a v e b e e n r e g a r d e d as a d e e p e r a f f r o n t t o s o c i a l n o r m s t h a n t h a t o f y o u n g m a l e s .

S o m e t h i n g o f t h e d i v e r g e n c e in t h e n o r m a l e x p e c t a t i o n s o f a y o u n g w o m a n ' s b e h a v i o u r a n d t h a t o f t h e p o s s e s s e d a d o l e s c e n t g i r l in t h e p r e s e n c e o f a j u d g e c a n b e

298

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SHARPE

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WITCHCRAFT

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299

to have, but cursed those that detained her f r o m h e r death, and was i m p o r t u n a t e to g o e up the ladder. She then tried to turn herself off on the gallows, but was restrained by the e x e c u t i o n e r , w h o a s k e d h e r f o r g i v e n e s s , as w a s t h e c u s t o m . 'She replyed forgive thee? that who A p o x o n t h e e , t u r n m e o f f , w h i c h w e r e t h e last w o r d s she s p o k e ' . ' T h u s ' , c o n c l u d e d the account o f her trial, 'you have her wicked life, her wofull death. T h o s e f o r s a k e G o d in t h e i r l i v e s , shall b e f o r s a k e n o f h i m in t h e i r d e a t h s ' . T h o s e l e a s t t a k e c o n s o l a t i o n in B o d e n h a m ' s c a s e as o n e o f h e g e m o n y ' s failures.

h a v e t w o r a t h e r c o n t e n t i o u s w o m e n , w h o h a d , in f a c t , a l r e a d y b e e n l o c k e d i n t o a d i s p u t e o v e r a h o u s e in w h i c h W r i g h t h a d d w e l t , ' w h i c h t h e said M a r y h a d a g r e a t m i n d o f . T h i s d i s p u t e h a d a l r e a d y p r o v o k e d a suit w h i c h h a d b e e n a r b i t r a t e d b y a j u s t i c e o f t h e p e a c e . T h i s c a s e , w h i c h e n d e d in W r i g h t p e r f o r m i n g p u b l i c p e n a n c e in h e r p a r i s h c h u r c h , d e m o n s t r a t e s h o w t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l l a w h e l p e d w o m e n to b e c o m e a g e n t s in l e g a l m a t t e r s . W r i g h t a n d B r i s c o e w e r e c l e a r l y n o t v i c t i m s o f a patriarchal legal s y s t e m , b u t r a t h e r t w o w o m e n w h o w e r e willing to use t h e law to pursue their own ends. T h i s a s s e r t i o n r e m i n d s us o f t h e p r o b l e m s o f d e t e r m i n i n g a s p e c i f i c a l l y f e m a l e e x p e r i e n c e b e f o r e t h e c o u r t s a n d legal p r o c e s s . W e are examining witchcraft, a c r i m e w h i c h , c o r r e c t l y , has b e e n r e g a r d e d as h a v i n g a p e c u l i a r c o n n e c t i o n with

h a v e a r g u e d t h a t w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n s w e r e a m e a n s o f c o n t r o l l i n g w o m e n c a n at
4 3

T h i s c h a p t e r has c o n c e n t r a t e d o n w i t c h c r a f t a n d t h e s e c u l a r c r i m i n a l l a w c o u r t s . B u t b e f o r e m o v i n g t o a n y c o n c l u s i o n s o n t h e e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d b y this c o n n e c tion, w e should r e m i n d ourselves that there w e r e other tribunals involved with witchcraft cases, notably the ecclesiastical c o u r t s . Less serious f o r m s o f witchcraft, s o r c e r y and charming might b e p r e s e n t e d b e f o r e these c o u r t s , w h i l e , m o r e i m p o r tantly for our immediate purposes, defamation suits involving allegations of witchcraft might be pursued t h e r e . Ecclesiastical law gave w o m e n greater o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r l i t i g a t i n g t h a n did t h e c o m m o n l a w , a n d s o m e o f t h e b e t t e r d o c u m e n t e d cases reveal clearly h o w witchcraft accusations m i g h t f o r m part o f a w i d e r b o d v o f tensions and conflicts b e t w e e n women. aged O n e s u c h c a s e w a s t r i e d b e f o r e t h e C h e s t e r C o n s i s t o r v C o u r t in 1 6 6 2 . It a r o s e f r o m p r o b l e m s b e t w e e n M a r y Briscoe and A n n W r i g h t . W r i g h t ' s daughter, by fitts', a b o u t t w e l v e , h a d f a l l e n i l l , a n d ' w a s v e r y sadly a f f l i c t e d a n d i n a s t r a n g e m a n n e r d u r i n g w h i c h t i m e ' s h e w o u l d m a n y t i m e s say t h a t M a r y B r i s c o e p r i c k e d h e r t o t h e h e a r t w i t h p i n s a n d w o u l d h a v e h e r h e a r t a n d t h e l i k e , a n d s h e did s w e l l m u c h in t h e b o d y a n d s o e d y e d ' . In c o n s e q u e n c e , as a w i t n e s s n a m e d C i c e l y W i n n e d e p o s e d , ' t h e said M a r y B r i s c o e w as s u s p e c t e d b y m a n y n e i g h b o u r s t o b e t h e c a u s e
r

w o m e n . B u t m u c h o f w h a t s e e m s t o h a v e h a p p e n e d t o w o m e n i n v o l v e d in w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s , w h e t h e r as a c c u s e d , a c c u s e r s o r w i t n e s s e s , s e e m s v e r y s i m i l a r t o w h a t happened to their m a l e c o u n t e r p a r t s : m e n accused o f felony, and m a l e men convicted of felony, like women convicted of witchcraft, were witnesses 'worked g i v i n g e v i d e n c e in c o u r t , m i g h t b e h e c t o r e d o r p r e s s u r e d b y a g g r e s s i v e j u d g e s , a n d o n ' b y c l e r g y m e n b e f o r e t h e i r e x e c u t i o n in h o p e s t h a t t h e y m i g h t p r o d u c e a m o d e l speech f r o m the gallows. H o w e v e r , w e m u s t k e e p o u r minds open t o the possibility that although women might have shared with men the experience of going t h r o u g h various stages o f the judicial p r o c e s s , the quality o f that e x p e r i e n c e a n d t h e r e a c t i o n s a n d e m o t i o n s it m i g h t p r o v o k e c o u l d h a v e b e e n v e r y for them. T h e r e w e r e , h o w e v e r , aspects o f the prosecution o f felony which w e r e either s p e c i f i c t o o r m o r e m a r k e d in t r i a l s o f w i t c h c r a f t . T h e m o s t o b v i o u s o f t h e s e , as I have stressed, was the use o f groups o f w o m e n to search suspected witches for the m a r k . A n o t h e r r e c u r r i n g t h e m e in a c c o u n t s o f w i t c h c r a i t c a s e s w a s t h e frequent o c c u r r e n c e o f s o m e t h i n g a m o u n t i n g t o m o b a c t i o n , o r at l e a s t p o p u l a r p r e s s u r e . O f course, the p h e n o m e n o n o f c r o w d action or popular attitudes towards criminals o r at e x e c u t i o n s w a s n o t l i m i t e d t o w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s ; b u t t h e f r e q u e n c y the legal p r o c e s s . S u s p e c t e d w i t c h e s m i g h t b e s u b j e c t e d to s w i m m i n g , of r e f e r e n c e s t o h o s t i l e m o b s is s t r i k i n g , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e y w e r e o n t h e f r i n g e s o f scratching o r o t h e r f o r m s o f popularly licensed v i o l e n c e . F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n t o this issue m i g h t lead to s o m e useful insights into attitudes t o g e n d e r , given that m o s t o f the p e o p l e t o w a r d s w h o m such v i o l e n c e was d i r e c t e d w e r e women. diflerent

b o t h o f h e r a f f l i c t i n g e a n d l i k e w i s e o f a b r o t h e r o f h e r s w h o w a s sadly a f f l i c t e d b e f o r e t h a t & d y e d in a s t r a n g e m a n n e r ' . T h u s w e h a v e a c a s e w h i c h r e s e m b l e s so m a n y o t h e r s : t h e s t r a n g e d e a t h o f a child, the allegation o f w i t c h c r a f t , t h e n e i g h b o u r l y evaluation, the focusing o f suspicion, the defamation suit in d e f e n c e of good name. Unusually, however, the s u r v i v i n g d o c u m e n t a t i o n a l l o w s us t o p i e c e t o g e t h e r s o m e t h i n g o f t h e b a c k g r o u n d . N e i t h e r w o m a n h a d an u n b l e m i s h e d r e p u t a t i o n . B r i s c o e w a s d e s c r i b e d as a ' v e r y t r o u b l e s o m e a n d w r a n g l i n g w o m a n a m o n g h e r n e i g h b o u r s ' , o r as a ' v e r y wilfull high spirited w o m a n a m o n g s t h e r n e i g h b o u r s ' . I n d e e d , h e r husband, w o r r i e d about t h e s u s p i c i o n o f w i t c h c r a i t a g a i n s t his w i f e , h a d d i s c u s s e d t h e p r o b l e m w i t h C i c e l y W i n n e , a n d t o l d h e r ' h e w a s m u c h t r o u b l e d at it b u t h e c o u l d n o t r u l e h e r , a n d h e w a s v e r y m u c h a f r a i d t h a t s h e w o u l d c o m e t o t h e s a m e e n d as h e r did'. But Wright h e r s e l f h a d g i v e n b i r t h t o an i l l e g i t i m a t e Moth[er] the child just after

T h e w i l l i n g n e s s o f o t h e r w o m e n t o a c t a g a i n s t a l l e g e d w i t c h e s is a l s o a c o n s t a n t t h e m e . As I h a v e s u g g e s t e d e l s e w h e r e , m a t e r i a l s f r o m Y o r k s h i r e d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t witchcraft accusations w e r e not simply foisted onto w o m e n by m e n , but rather w e r e f r e q u e n t l y g e n e r a t e d f r o m t e n s i o n s b e t w e e n w o m e n , o f t e n arising f r o m such t r a d i t i o n a l f e m a l e c o n c e r n s as c h i l d r e a r i n g , a n d w e r e o f t e n f o r m u l a t e d a n d r e f i n e d in t h e w o r l d o f f e m a l e s o c i a b i l i t y , g o s s i p a m o n g w o m e n , a n d f e m a l e c o n c e r n o v e r reputation.
4 4

R e s t o r a t i o n , h a d r e i u s e d t o i d e n t i f y its f a t h e r t o t h e m i d w i f e a n d h a d r e f u s e d t o do p e n a n c e for it. O n e witness, interestingly, deposed that W r i g h t claimed Briscoe h a d b e w i t c h e d h e r at t h e t i m e o f t h e c h i l d ' s c o n c e p t i o n . speaking t r e a s o n against the k i n g ' . A n o t h e r w o m e n , S h e a l s o c o m p l a i n e d at claimed a b o u t the s a m e t i m e o f being c o m p e l l e d 'to be a w i t n e s s against h e r husband for Margery Whishall, that W r i g h t had slandered h e r f o r adultery. W i t h W r i g h t and B r i s c o e w e obviously

This creates problems for those investigating constraints on

female

b e h a v i o u r in e a r l v m o d e r n E n g l a n d . M a n y w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n s , I w o u l d a r g u e , reveal a social arena w h e r e channels o f f e m a l e f o r c e , f e m a l e p o w e r , and f e m a l e a c t i o n c o u l d r u n . T h e h i g h l e v e l o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f w o m e n w i t n e s s e s in w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s , a n d t h e r e a d y p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f w o m e n in s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e w i t c h ' s mark, w e r e a r e a s in w h i c h w o m e n c o u l d e n t e r t h e m a l e d o m i n a t e d m i l i e u o f l e g a l p r o c e s s ,

300

JIM

SHARPE 9 10 11 12

WOMEN,

WITCHCRAFT

AND

THE

LEGAL

PROCESS

301

a n d in w h i c h w o m e n , p e r h a p s w i t h i n p a r a m e t e r s d i c t a t e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d b y m e n , c o u l d c a r v e o u t s o m e r o l e f o r t h e m s e l v e s in t h e p u b l i c s p h e r e . T h i s w o u l d t o b e a line o f investigation w e l l w o r t h pursuing. T h i s l e a d s us t o a final p o i n t . It is a c o m m o n p l a c e t h a t e a r l y m o d e r n in h i e r a r c h i c a l t e r m s , a n d in w h i c h w o m e n , England the w a s a p a t r i a r c h a l s o c i e t y in w h i c h i s s u e s o f g e n d e r , l i k e e v e r y t h i n g e l s e , w e r e v i e w e d n o t l e a s t in t h e i r s t a t u s b e f o r e c o m m o n l a w , w e r e d i s a d v a n t a g e d . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y r e l e v a n t w h e n w e w i t c h c r a f t , an o f f e n c e w h i c h , e v e n i f w e e s c h e w s o m e o f t h e w o m e n ' s consider seem

E w e n , Witchcraft The examination before the queens Court leet records,

and Demonianism, and confession maiesties judges,

63. wytches at Chensford anno 1566 in the countie (London of Essex the xxvi day of July 1566). 187. witches treated

of certain

v o l . 1, part 2 , A D 1 5 7 8 1 6 0 2 , eds F . J . C . H e a r n s h a w and D . of the information, of Essex, examination whereof some and confession were executed of all the and others

iM. H e a r n s h a w , S o u t h a m p t o n R e c o r d S o c i e t y , I ( S o u t h a m p t o n 1 9 0 6 ) , A true and just recorde taken 13 14 15 16 17 18 according H. at S. Oses in the countie to the determination The wonderfull

movement

of the law ( L o n d o n 1 5 8 2 ) , sig D 4 . a discourse discoverie on witchcraft (Harrogate 1 8 8 2 ) , 7 8 . Sawyer (London 1621), sig of Elizabeth

w r i t i n g s o n t h e s u b j e c t f r o m t h e 1 9 7 0 s , is s o m e h o w c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e m a l e d o m i n a t i o n o f w o m e n . Y e t in t h e p r e c e d i n g p a g e s w e h a v e s e e n w o m e n a c t i n g s t r o n g l y : d e f y i n g j u d g e s a n d e x e c u t i o n e r s ; a c c u s i n g o t h e r w o m e n as w i t c h e s ; g i v i n g e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t s u s p e c t e d w o m e n w i t c h e s ; a n d suing e a c h o t h e r f o r d e f a m a t i o n a r i s i n g f r o m allegations o f witchcraft. Even though c o n t e m p o r a r y attitudes to gender probably m a d e those experiences different for the w o m e n involved, they nonetheless establish w o m e n as a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e l e g a l s y s t e m . L i k e all o f u s , t h e s e women f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s in a r e a l w o r l d t h a t i m p o s e d c o n s t r a i n t s u p o n t h e m . Y e t w i t h i n t h o s e c o n s t r a i n t s a n d l i m i t a t i o n s , in t h e l e g a l p r o c e s s a n d b e f o r e t h e c o u r t s as e l s e w h e r e , they w e r e historical actors.

W . G r a n g e , e d . , Daemonologia: Goodcole, B3v. B2v. late

A true and exact relation witches arraigned

of the severall

informations,

examinations

and confessions 1699

of the

and executed

in the county

of Essex ( L o n d o n 1 6 4 5 ) , 2 6 . (London 1 9 0 9 ) ,

J . B o v s , The case of witchcraft 21-2"

at Coggeshall,

Essex, in the year

F o r t h e a b s e n c e o f m i d w i v e s a m o n g w i t c h c r a f t s u s p e c t s , see C h a p t e r s 3 and 6 in this b o o k . F o r a slightly d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e , see C h a p t e r 1 4 bv G a r v K . W a i t e . F o r full citations o f t h e archival s o u r c e s u s e d in this c h a p t e r , see t h e original v e r s i o n in J e n n y K e r m o d e and G a r t h i n e W a l k e r , e d s , Women, in Early Modern England ( U C L Press, London 1 9 9 4 ) , ch. 5. Litigation in Medieval England Crime and the Courts

Notes
1 F o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n r a t e s , see C . Z . W e i n e r , ' S e x r o l e s and c r i m e in late E l i z a b e t h a n H e r t f o r d s h i r e ' , Journal of Social History, 8 ( 1 9 7 5 ) , 1837, and J . M . B e a t t i e , ' T h e and Sexual Slander in Early Modern and New England: c r i m i n a l i t y o f w o m e n in e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d ' , I b i d . , 8 0 1 1 6 ; f o r d e f a m a t i o n l i t i g a t i o n , J . A . S h a r p e , Defamation the church 1558-1803 courts C . H o f f e r and N . E . H u l l , Murdering t h e s c o l d ' , in Order and Disorder 2 at York, B o r t h w i c k P a p e r s , 5 8 ( Y o r k 1 9 8 0 ) ; f o r i n f a n t i c i d e , P. Mothers: infanticide in England England

19 20 21

F o r a case o f this t y p e see R . H . H e l m h o l z , Marriage (Cambridge 1 9 7 4 ) , 89. P. H a i r , Before the Bawdy Court ( L o n d o n 1 9 7 2 ) , of Assize Justice 189. T h i s p r a c t i c e is discussed in A Calendar a h i s t o r y o f t h e j u r y o f m a t r o n s ' , Criminal

Records: History,

introduction,

ed. J .

S.

C o c k b u r n ( L o n d o n 1 9 8 5 ) , 1 2 1 3 . S e e also J . C . O l d h a m , ' O n pleading t h e b e l l y : 6 ( 1 9 8 5 ) , 164. Circuit of assize 22 T h e s e figures are based o n an analysis o f abstracts o f assize cases given in E w e n , Witch 23 Hunting and Witch Trials, 1 8 7 2 6 4 . F o r analysis o f t h e N o r t h e r n D e p o s i t i o n s , see S h a r p e , ' W i t c h c r a f t and w o m e n ' . T h e s e figures are d e r i v e d f r o m abstracts o f i n d i c t m e n t s given in A calendar records: 70-223. 24 25 26 Calendar of State Papers, Domestic 1634 J , 125. North, Baron Guildford; the hon Sir Dudley 1301 North, 3 vols ( L o n d o n 1 8 9 0 ) , v o l . 3 , 79. E w e n , Witchcraft North; and Demonianism, Hertfordshire indictments James I, ed. J . S. Cockburn (London 1975),

( N e w Y o r k 1 9 8 1 ) ; for scolding, D . E. U n d e r d o w n , ' T h e taming of in Early Modern England, eds A . F l e t c h e r and J .

Stevenson ( C a m b r i d g e 1 9 8 5 ) , 1 1636. G e n d e r as a social c o n s t r u c t has so far r e c e i v e d little a t t e n t i o n f r o m historians o f early Amussen, modern England. For an i m p o r t a n t preliminary discussion, see S. ' G e n d e r , family and t h e social o r d e r , Society (Oxford 1988). lawes Witch Home 28 Witchcraft 29 27 1 5 6 0 1 7 2 5 ' , in F l e t c h e r and

S t e v e n s o n ( 1 9 8 5 ) 1 9 6 2 1 8 . T h e t h e m e s raised h e r e are discussed f u r t h e r in S. A m u s s e n ' s An Ordered 3 4 resolution Trials: Circuit 5 6 7 8 F o r a c o n t e m p o r a r y i n t r o d u c t i o n t o w o m e n and t h e c o m m o n l a w , see The of womens rights for (London 1 6 5 2 ) . and the witchcraft from (London 1 9 2 9 ) , the records of 1373 assizes held for F o r a list o f t h e s e i n d i c t m e n t s see C . L ' E s t r a n g e E w e n , Witch Hunting the indictments AD 1559-1736 117-265.

R . N o r t h , The lives of the right hon Francis and the hon and rev Dr John

d e s c r i b e s this c a s e , w h e r e t h e j u d g e w a s 'a m i l d , passive m a n , w h o had n e i t h e r d e x t e r i t y n o r spirit t o o p p o s e a p o p u l a r r a g e ' . A fall

a n

d impartial

account Hathaway and

of the discovery

of sorcery

and witchcraft

practisd

by

Jane

Wenhant

(London 1 7 1 2 ) , 28. (London 1 7 0 2 ) , 20. Trials, 9 9 , s h o w s that o f 5 1 3 p e r s o n s a c c u s e d o f executed. (London Witch

The tryal of Richard E w e n , Witch Hunting

C f . m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e W e s t e r n C i r c u i t p r i n t e d in C . L ' E s t r a n g e E w e n , and Demonianism Ibid., 117-18. ( L o n d o n 1 9 3 3 ) , a p p e n d i x L, 4 3 9 4 6 . in Tudor and Stuart England A . M a c f a r l a n e , Witchcraft J . A. S h a r p e ,

w i t c h c r a f t at t h e H o m e C i r c u i t assizes, 1 1 2 ( o r 2 2 p e r c e n t ) w e r e M a n v o t h e r s , o f c o u r s e , suffered lesser p e n a l t i e s . 30 T h e c o n t e m p o r a r y a c c o u n t o f this case is p r i n t e d in B . R o s e n , Witchcraft 1969), 31 32 33 163-7. Trapnel's report and plea (London 1 6 5 4 ) , 24. witches (London 1 6 8 2 ) , 4 . and Demonianism, and execution T r a p n e l , Anna E w e n , Witchcraft The trval,

(London 1 9 7 0 ) , 2 7 8 - 9 3 . some Give

' W i t c h c r a f t and w o m e n in s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y E n g l a n d : and Change,

n o r t h e r n e v i d e n c e ' , Continuity Holmes.

6 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 1 7 9 9 9 . F o r a s o m e w h a t dif-

f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e o n t h e s e issues, see C h a p t e r 2 3 in this c o l l e c t i o n bv

2 5 6 . Landish was s e n t e n c e d t o d e a t h . of three

condemnation

302

JIM

SHARPE

34 35

A prodigious at Maidstone,

and tragical!

history

of the try all, confession

and condemnation

of six

witches

C h a p t e r

23

in Kent ( L o n d o n 1 6 5 2 ) , 4 . and Demonianism, 1 9 7 . M a t e r i a l s r e l a t i n g t o this case are b r o u g h t and Hysteria 1990). in Elizabethan London: Edward

E w e n , Witchcraft Jordan

t o g e t h e r in M . M a c D o n a l d , Witchcraft and the Mary Glover case ( L o n d o n 36 37 F a i r f a x , Daemonologia, 1234.

Clive Holmes
a modern enquiry

T h i s p h e n o m e n o n is p e r h a p s m o s t familiar in t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e trials at S a l e m , M a s s a c h u s e t t s , in 1 6 9 2 . F o r a w o r k w h i c h , although n o w s o m e w h a t d a t e d , d o e s f o c u s o n this issue, s e e M . L. S t a r k e y , The Devil in Massachusetts: into the Salem witch trials (New York 1950).

WOMEN: WITCHES AND WITNESSES

38 39 40 41 42 43 44

F o r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n possession and g e n d e r , s e e C h a p t e r 1 9 in this c o l l e c tion by M o s h e Sluhovsky. M . M o o r e , Wonderfull G o o d c o l e , Wonderfull Ewen, Witch Hunting R o s e n , Witchcraft news from discoverie and Witch the North of Elizabeth Trials, (London 1 6 5 0 ) , Sawyer, sig D 2 v . 15-16.

276. condemn'd (London 1 6 5 3 ) , passim.

,1667. or witchcraft 1925.

E . B o w e r , Dr Lamb revived

S h a r p e , ' W i t c h c r a f t and w o m e n ' ,

HE

ROLE

PLAYED

BY

WOMEN

in t h e l e g a l p r o c e s s a g a i n s t w i t c h e s , ' W a s witch-hunting women-

as a c c u s e r s o r w i t n e s s e s , has b e e n f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d in t h e c o u r s e o f s k i r m i s h e s as p o s e d b y C h r i s t i n a L a r n e r ,

about the question,

h u n t i n g ? ' K e i t h T h o m a s has a r g u e d t h a t ' T h e i d e a t h a t w i t c h - p r o s e c u t i o n s r e f l e c t e d a w a r b e t w e e n the sexes m u s t b e d i s c o u n t e d , n o t least b e c a u s e t h e victims and witnesses were themselves as l i k e l y t o b e w o m e n as m e n ' . T h i s argument is m i r r o r e d b y t h a t o f A l a n M a c f a r l a n e , a n d has b e e n f o l l o w e d , in r e l a t i o n t o t h e N e w England trials, by J o h n D e m o s . most recently, Marianne
1

Feminist scholars, like L a r n e r , Carol Karlsen a n d , have found such reasoning 'simplistic'.
2

Hester,

Yet

K a r l s e n ' s a c k n o w l e d g e m e n t t h a t t h e r o l e o f w o m e n as a c c u s e r s r e m a i n s o n e of t h e m o s t baffling q u e s t i o n s a b o u t w i t c h c r a f t d o e s suggest t h e n e e d for further discussion, a n d an essay b y J . A . Sharpe, examining the involvement of women
3

in

Y o r k s h i r e p r o s e c u t i o n s , displays s o m e o f t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e s u b j e c t . cultural complexity

An exami-

n a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s o f w i t n e s s i n g a p r o c e s s , as I shall a r g u e , o f c o n s i d e r a b l e w i l l i l l u m i n a t e a n u m b e r o f issues r a i s e d b y t h e w i t c h c r a f t oi p r o s e c u t i o n s : t h e s h a p i n g r o l e o f t h e legal s y s t e m , t h e d y n a m i c i n t e r w e a v i n g dimension of witchcraft. W e m a y d i s t i n g u i s h t h r e e w a y s in w h i c h w o m e n m i g h t p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e t r i a l p r o c e d u r e s against w i t c h e s . T w o o f these are very distinctive. First, w o m e n m i g h t t e s t i f y as ' p o s s e s s e d ' v i c t i m s o f t h e w i t c h ' s m a l i c e ; c o n t r o l o f t h e i r m i n d s a n d b o d i e s h a d b e e n s e i z e d b y t h e D e v i l at t h e i n s t i g a t i o n o f t h e w i t c h . Secondly, women might r e p o r t the results o f physical searches that they had b e e n instructed t o c o n d u c t upon the w i t c h ' s b o d y , designed to discover the incriminating physical characteristics t h a t i n d i c a t e d h e r c o m p l i c i t y w i t h S a t a n a n d his m i n i o n s . In b o t h instances the sensual t h e f e m a l e d e p o n e n t s a p p e a r t o a c q u i e s c e in a n d r e i n f o r c e t h e o r i e s o f w i t c h c r a f t , developed by theologians and lawyers, which emphasize female weakness greater susceptibility of women to satanic temptation; their greater

elite theology and the c o n c e r n s o f the populace and, n o t least, the misogvnous

d e p r a v i t y . B e f o r e d i s c u s s i n g t h e s e i n s t a n c e s , it w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o e x a m i n e a t h i r d

304

CLIVE

HOLMES

WOMEN:

WITCHES

AND

WITNESSES

305

g r o u p o f w o m e n i n v o l v e d in c r i m i n a l p r o s e c u t i o n : t h o s e w h o t e s t i f i e d s i m p l v t o t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e w i t c h ' s maleficium to children lamed or killed, to stock or crops blighted, to the interruption o f agricultural or domestic procedures. This k i n d o f t e s t i m o n y is m o r e i n c h o a t e t h a n t h e o t h e r t w o c a t e g o r i e s ; i t l a c k s t h e i r c o n c e p t u a l c l a r i t y a n d s o p h i s t i c a t i o n . Y e t , b e c a u s e it is t h e b a s i c f o r m o f f e m a l e e n g a g e m e n t in t h e c o u r t s , b o t h i n v o l v i n g t h e g r e a t e s t n u m b e r o f d e p o n e n t s , r o o t e d in p o p u l a r r a t h e r t h a n e l i t e b e l i e f s , it m u s t b e e x a m i n e d first. and

f r e q u e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e r e d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o b e a n y g e n d e r bias in t h e d e t e r m i nation o f n a m e s for e n d o r s e m e n t on the earlier i n d i c t m e n t s . T h e rising p r o p o r t i o n o f f e m a l e d e p o n e n t s i n w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y is n o t an o p t i c a l i l l u s i o n i n d u c e d b y c h a n g i n g c l e r i c a l p r a c t i c e . W h y did t h i s s i g n i f i c a n t shift in t h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f m a l e a n d f e m a l e d e p o n e n t s o c c u r in t h e c e n t u r y a f t e r 1 5 9 0 ? T h e p h e n o m e n o n is p a r a l l e l e d b y an i n c r e a s e in t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f f e m a l e d e p o n e n t s in all c a s e s b e f o r e t h e a s s i z e s . W o m e n f o r m e d o n l y 1 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e w i t n e s s e s in n o n - w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s in a s a m p l e o f s e s s i o n s o f t h e E s s e x assizes b e t w e e n 1 5 9 6 a n d 1 6 2 5 ; a f t e r t h e R e s t o r a t i o n t h e p r o p o r t i o n had m o r e than doubled ( 2 2 p e r c e n t ) .
6

I
T h e sources available for the study o f witnessing can b e divided into t w o cate-

B u t this shift r e f l e c t s , n o t a n y c h a n g e in t h e

c o u r t s ' r e a d i n e s s t o a c c e p t f e m a l e t e s t i m o n y , b u t s i m p l y t h e fall in t h e n u m b e r o f p r o p e r t y o f f e n c e s c o m i n g t o the a t t e n t i o n o f the assizes. P r o p e r t y c r i m e s l a r c e n y , burglary, housebreaking had d o m i n a t e d p r o c e e d i n g s f r o m the 1 5 9 0 s until the end o f t h e r e i g n o f J a m e s I; t h e y d e c l i n e d m a r k e d l y a f t e r 1 6 6 0 .
7

gories. First, transcriptions o f the testimony proffered to the examining magistrates o r in c o u r t . S u c h e v i d e n c e s u r v i v e s in a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f f o r m s : in t h e p r i v a t e p a p e r s o f J P s a n d m i n i s t e r s ; in t h e o f f i c i a l files o f t h e c l e r k s o f assize a n d o f t h e p e a c e , a n d o f t h e f u n c t i o n a r i e s o f t h e e c c l e s i a s t i c a l c o u r t s ; in p u b l i s h e d w o r k s a c a d e m i c t r e a t i s e s a n d p o p u l a r b r o a d s i d e s ; e v e n plays a n d b a l l a d s . R i c h in d e t a i l , s u c h t e s t i m o n i e s c e r t a i n l y d i s p l a y t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f w o m e n in t h e p r o c e s s o f a c c u s a t i o n . And they indicate the c o n c e r n s that exercised female witnesses, though these are, o f c o u r s e , refracted through the pens and the assumptions o f their elite, m a l e interl o c u t o r s . B u t t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e s e v a r i o u s s o u r c e s is s o r a n d o m t h a t a n y a t t e m p t to undertake a quantitative study, to calculate, for instance, the proportion o f male a n d f e m a l e d e p o n e n t s in w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s , w o u l d b e m i s l e a d i n g . A n y s t a t i s t i c a l e x e r c i s e , an e s s e n t i a l g r o u n d b a s e t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f w i t c h c r a f t t e s t i m o n y , has t o u n d e r t a k e n f r o m t h e s e c o n d o f t h e a v a i l a b l e s o u r c e s : t h e assize i n d i c t m e n t s . be The

A n d in these p r o s e c u so

tions the bulk o f the t e s t i m o n y was p r o v i d e d by m e n . As the n u m b e r s o f p r o p e r t y o f f e n c e s b r o u g h t b e f o r e t h e assize c o u r t s w a n e d in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e c e n t u r y , t o o did t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f m a l e w i t n e s s e s a t t e n d i n g at C h e l m s f o r d . T h e r i s i n g p e r c e n t a g e o f w o m e n w i t n e s s e s in w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s is a l s o r e l a t e d , t h o u g h tangentially, t o o f f e n c e s against p r o p e r t y . In t h e r e i g n s o f E l i z a b e t h and per J a m e s 3 6 . 8 p e r c e n t o f all w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s c o m i n g t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e assizes i n v o l v e d an i n d i c t m e n t a l l e g i n g t h a t t h e a c c u s e d h a d d a m a g e d s t o c k ; in 1 4 . 3 cent of incidents, stock-damage formed
r

the sole charge.

Indictments

of

stock-

d a m a g e , e i t h e r a l o n e o r in c o n j u n c t i o n w ith o t h e r a c t s o f maleficium,

dropped to

1 5 . 8 p e r c e n t in C h a r l e s I ' s r e i g n , r o s e s l i g h t l y t o 2 5 p e r c e n t in t h e I n t e r r e g n u m , t h e n p l u m m e t e d t o a m e r e 2 . 9 p e r c e n t a f t e r t h e R e s t o r a t i o n . A n d in i n d i c t m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g m a l e f i c d a m a g e t o s t o c k , as in all p r o p e r t y c r i m e s , t h e t e s t i m o n y of m e n p r e d o m i n a t e d : m e n f o r m e d 8 0 . 8 p e r c e n t o f witnesses t o these charges. As t h e c r i m e o f w i t c h c r a f t w a s i n c r e a s i n g l y p e r c e i v e d as i n v o l v i n g m y s t e r i o u s h u m a n a i l m e n t s a n d d e a t h ; as i n d i c t m e n t s , l i k e t h a t a g a i n s t M a r g e r y S t a n t o n o f W i m b i s h in 1 5 7 9 , a l l e g i n g t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f 'unum spandonem ( g e l d i n g ) colons white', disapmental

l a t t e r , t h o u g h h i g h l y f o r m u l a i c a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y o p a q u e in t e r m s o f a n y s u b s t a n tive detail c o n c e r n i n g the cases that they r e c o r d , d o have the virtue o f surviving in a s u f f i c i e n t c h r o n o l o g i c a l s e r i e s , at l e a s t f o r t h e H o m e C i r c u i t , t o p e r m i t a p r e l i m inary analysis. In t h e 1 5 9 0 s t h e c l e r k o f assize f o r t h e H o m e C i r c u i t b e g a n t o e n d o r s e o f the indictments upon which the accused w e r e tried with the names w i t n e s s e s in t h e c a s e , a n d this w a s u n i f o r m l y p r a c t i s e d a f t e r 1 6 0 0 . In t h e o f the f o l l o w i n g c e n t u r y s o m e nine h u n d r e d and seventy witnesses w e r e endorsements also suggest that women were becoming some of the course The

p e a r f r o m t h e r e c o r d , so t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f f e m a l e w i t n e s s e s i n c r e a s e d . anguish and m o r t a l physical t o r m e n t s inflicted by the w i t c h . H e r e , t h e n , is t h e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e g r o w i n g p r o p o r t i o n o f w o m e n

Women,

a t t e n d a n t at t h e s i c k - b e d o f t h e v i c t i m , w e r e w e l l p l a c e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e

recorded
4

on witchcraft i n d i c t m e n t s : almost half o f these ( 4 7 . 6 8 per c e n t ) w e r e w o m e n . proportionally

formally

more whose

t e s t i f y i n g in w i t c h c r a f t c a s e s i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . W o m e n w e r e simply b e t t e r placed than m e n to describe the incidents and activities that c o n f o r m e d t o t h e a l t e r e d p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f w i t c h c r a f t as a c r i m i n a l o f f e n c e . T h e shift in t h e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e o f f e n c e w a s i n s t i g a t e d b y t h e l e g a l e l i t e . A f t e r 1660 the local justices and the courts w e r e reluctant t o admit charges o f witchcraft e x c e p t in c a s e s o f m y s t e r i o u s a n d t e r r i f y i n g i l l n e s s l e a d i n g t o d e a t h o r , m o r e r a r e l y , wdiere t h e a c c u s e d w a s d i r e c t l y a l l e g e d t o b e i n v o l v e d in d i a b o l i c p r a c t i c e s . T h i s r e s t r u c turing o f the o f f e n c e by magistrates and lawyers certainly does n o t indicate l a r y m a t e r i a l p r o d u c e d in t h e official i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e l a t e t h e i r p o w e r s in t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f s t o c k o r t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n any f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e in t h e n a t u r e o f p o p u l a r b e l i e f c o n c e r n i n g w i t c h c r a f t . T h e a n c i l seventeenth-century exercise and now o f agricultural c a s e s d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t at t h e l o c a l l e v e l w i t c h e s w e r e still b e l i e v e d t o

i n v o l v e d in w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e p e r i o d . In t h e last v e a r s o f Elizabeth's reign ( 1 5 9 6 - 1 6 0 2 ) 3 8 . 2 p e r c e n t o f witnesses against w i t c h e s n a m e s w e r e e n d o r s e d o n t h e i n d i c t m e n t s w e r e w o m e n ; 4 3 . 4 p e r c e n t in t h e r e i g n o f J a m e s I. H o w e v e r , a f t e r t h e R e s t o r a t i o n f e m a l e w i t n e s s e s w e r e in t h e m a j o r i t y ( 5 2 . 9 p e r c e n t ) in t h e c o u n t i e s t h a t f o r m e d t h e H o m e C i r c u i t . T h e y w e r e a l s o in a m a j o r i t y in this l a t t e r p e r i o d in i n d i c t m e n t s e m a n a t i n g f r o m t h e assize c o u r t s o f t h e N o r t h e r n C i r c u i t ( 5 6 p e r c e n t ) , t h o u g h n o t in N o r f o l k C i r c u i t c a s e s ( 4 3 cent).

3

per

T h e a p p a r e n t r i s e in t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f f e m a l e w i t n e s s e s is n o t m e r e l v t h e

p r o d u c t o f a c h a n g e in t h e r e c o r d i n g p r a c t i c e s o f t h e c l e r k s o f a s s i z e . E a r l y in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e c l e r k s did n o t , in a n y o f t h e i n d i c t m e n t s f o r m a j o r c r i m inal o f f e n c e s , i n v a r i a b l y a n n o t a t e t h e d o c u m e n t w i t h t h e n a m e s o f all t h o s e w e r e e x p e c t e d t o t e s t i f y at t h e a s s i z e s ; in l a t e r r e c o r d s s u c h o m i s s i o n s s e e m who less

d o m e s t i c p r o c e d u r e s . B u t t h e legal e l i t e , u n l i k e its E l i z a b e t h a n p r e d e c e s s o r s ,

306

CLIVE

HOLMES

WOMEN:

WITCHES

AND

WITNESSES

307

r e f u s e d t o e n t e r t a i n f o r m a l a c c u s a t i o n s b a s e d o n this k i n d o f e v i d e n c e .

So,

for

II
It is d i f f i c u l t t o m a k e c o n f i d e n t a s s e r t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e a n d p a t t e r n s o f p o p u l a r b e l i e f s a b o u t w i t c h c r a f t . A l l t h e s o u r c e s a r e , in s o m e m e a s u r e , d i s t o r t e d b y r e f r a c tion through the conceptual f r a m e w o r k o f the elite. Y e t w e m a y suggest a couple o f its f e a t u r e s s a l i e n t t o this e n q u i r y . F i r s t , t h e m y s t e r i o u s p o w e r s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d w i t c h c r a f t w o u l d n o r m a l l y b e p o s s e s s e d b y w o m e n . T h e r e is l i t t l e o f t h e s o p h i s t i cated misogyny, a p o w e r f u l b r e w o f biblical and Aristotelian emphases on female inferiority, developed by elite c o m m e n t a t o r s in p r o s e c u t i o n . lineage:
1 1

e x a m p l e , a t t h e S u f f o l k assizes in 1 6 9 4 f o u r i n d i c t m e n t s , t h r e e f o r k i l l i n g b v w i t c h c r a f t a n d o n e f o r e n t e r t a i n i n g evil s p i r i t s , w e r e p r e f e r r e d a g a i n s t P h i l i p p a M u n n i n g s of Hartest but, though no charges w e r e formally levelled, her neighbours
9

also of

b e l i e v e d h e r t o b e guilty o f d e s t r o y i n g s t o c k and spoiling b r e w i n g .

T h e case

J a n e W e n h a m , f o u n d g u i l t y a t t h e H e r t f o r d assizes in 1 7 1 2 f o r d i a b o l i c d e a l i n g s , revealed longstanding popular suspicions o f a traditional kind that had little to do with the elite c o n c e r n s that i n f o r m e d the language o f the i n d i c t m e n t . O n e W a l k e r n y e o m a n b e l i e v e d that he had lost s t o c k t o the value o f 2 0 0 t h r o u g h h e r malefic e n c e o v e r the years; a n o t h e r local f a r m e r ' s sheep had died m y s t e r i o u s l y after he t h r e a t e n e d W e n h a m f o r s t e a l i n g his t u r n i p s .
1 0

obliged to explain

the

substantial

plurality o f w o m e n

In s o f a r as any a t t e n t i o n w a s p a i d at t h e . . . from the grandmother to the

p o p u l a r l e v e l t o q u e s t i o n s o f t h e o r i g i n o f this p o w e r , it a p p e a r s t h a t it w a s t h o u g h t t o i n h e r e in m a t r i l i n e a l 'by discent m o t h e r , and f r o m the m o t h e r t o the c h i l d r e n ' . S e c o n d l y , m e n and w o m e n Napier, m i n i s t e r o f G r e a t Linford and astrological physician, b e t w e e n shared and

T h e W e n h a m c a s e d e s e r v e s f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n . It c l e a r l y d i s p l a y s t h e c o m p l e x p r o c e s s w h i c h a t t e n d e d t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f l o c a l c o n c e r n s i n t o f o r m a l legal p r o c e d u r e . S u s p i c i o n a g a i n s t W e n h a m h a d f e s t e r e d f o r y e a r s , a n d w a s r e i n f o r c e d in 1 7 1 1 b y t h e m y s t e r i o u s b e h a v i o u r a n d i l l n e s s o f a p o s s e s s e d m a i d s e r v a n t . T h e g i r l ' s affliction was studied and the charge o f w i t c h c r a f t against W e n h a m e n g i n e e r e d by local Anglican c l e r g y m e n , eager to use the opportunity to assert the reality o f witchcraft in t h e f a c e o f g r o w i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l s c e p t i c i s m . T h e c a s e , f o r t h e m , w a s a s k i r m i s h in t h e w i d e r b a t t l e a g a i n s t d e i s m a n d a g n o s t i c i s m . B u t w h e n t h e d i v i n e s s o u g h t t o i n d i c t W e n h a m f o r ' w a s t i n g a n d c o n s u m i n g ' h e r v i c t i m , t h e c l e r k o f assize i n s i s t e d t h a t ' h e n e i t h e r c o u l d , n o r w o u l d , lay it s o ' ; an i n d i c t m e n t f o r w i t c h c r a f t r e q u i r e d e i t h e r t h e d e a t h o i t h e v i c t i m o r p r o o f o f d i a b o l i c p r a c t i c e s . T h i s w a s , as t h e c l e r i c a l p r o s e c u t o r s c o m p l a i n e d , an o d d r e a d i n g o f t h e J a c o b e a n l e g i s l a t i o n , b u t it w a s o n e t h a t h a d b e g u n t o b e f a v o u r e d b y t h e j u d g e s in t h e 1 6 3 0 s , and w h i c h was revived after the peculiar c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f the Civil W a r and I n t e r r e g n u m H e n c e , in t h e W e n h a m c a s e , t h e o d d , s a r d o n i c f o r m t a k e n b y t h e ' c o n v e r s i n g f a m i l i a r l y w i t h t h e D e v i l in t h e s h a p e o f a c a t ' o s t e n s i b l y e n t e r t a i n e e m p l o y f e e d e o r r e w a r d e a n y evill a n d w i c k e d s p i r i t ' . In t h e Wenham case the manipulation of popular concerns and belief by cases.

a fear o f w i t c h e s . F r o m a sample o f the cases c o m i n g t o the attention o f Richard 1601 1 6 2 7 , R o n a l d S a w y e r has n o t i c e d t h e p l u r a l i t y o f w o m e n b o t h a m o n g t h o s e n a m e d as w i t c h e s ( 9 4 . 7 p e r c e n t ) , a n d a m o n g N a p i e r ' s p a t i e n t s , a g r o u p o f 1 0 9 p e r s o n s , w h o believed themselves the victims o f witchcraft ( 5 9 . 7 per c e n t ) . Sawyer's figures further suggest that w o m e n w e r e quicker to n o m i n a t e those thev held responsible for their sufferings: 4 5 . 5 per cent o f Napier's male patients w e r e ready to n a m e t h e w i t c h p e r s e c u t i n g t h e m ; t h e figure f o r f e m a l e p a t i e n t s is 5 8 . 2 p e r c e n t . tations, occasioned by abuse or r u m o u r s that suggested that they w e r e n a m e m e n a n d w o m e n in a l m o s t e q u a l n u m b e r s as t h e i r s l a n d e r e r s .
1 2

Women witches,

seeking t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f the ecclesiastical c o u r t s against the d a m a g e t o t h e i r r e p u -

But a general fear o f a local w o m a n possessing the formidable p o w e r s attributed t o w i t c h e s does n o t automatically t r a n s m u t e i n t o legal p r o s e c u t i o n . C o n f r o n t e d b v p o w e r - w i e l d i n g w o m e n , v i l l a g e r s at first i n s t a n c e m i g h t s e e k t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e y w e r e n o t t h e v i c t i m s o f s u c h p o w e r , p e r h a p s t o c o n t r o l a n d d e p l o y it f o r t h e i r o w n p u r p o s e s . T h e w i t c h , in c o n s e q u e n c e , m i g h t b e t r e a t e d w i t h an e l a b o r a t e i f c a u t i o u s d e f e r e n c e . Edward Fairfax noted that the inhabitants o f K n a r e s b o r o u g h Forest c o e x i s t e d w i t h t h e w i t c h - c l a n s in t h e i r m i d s t , a n d t h a t t h e h e a d o f o n e o f t h e l a t t e r ' h a d so p o w e r f u l h a n d o v e r t h e w e a l t h i e s t n e i g h b o u r s a b o u t h e r , t h a t n o n e o f t h e m refused t o d o anything she r e q u i r e d , vea, I u n b e s o u g h t thev p r o v i d e d h e r w i t h and m e a t f r o m their o w n t a b l e s ' .
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indictment bringing

t h e o f f e n c e w i t h i n t h e c o m p a s s o f t h e c l a u s e o f t h e s t a t u t e t h a t m a d e it f e l o n y ' t o

e l e m e n t s o f the elite, b o t h the T o r y divines crusading against infidelity and t h e c y n i c s o f t h e legal e s t a b l i s h m e n t w h o d e r i d e d a n d s o u g h t t o f r u s t r a t e t h e i r e f f o r t s , is v e r y a p p a r e n t . L o c a l s u s p i c i o n s a n d c o n c e r n s h a d t o b e m o u l d e d t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f legal categorization and p r o c e d u r e and, b e v o n d t h e s e , t o the political and theological c o n c e r n s o f the elite which i n f o r m e d and shaped the juridical forms. B u t s u c h t r a n s m u t a t i o n w a s n o t p e c u l i a r t o t h e p o s t - 1 6 6 0 c a s e s in w h i c h it e m e r g e s m o s t c l e a r l y . It w a s a p e r m a n e n t f e a t u r e o f t h e f o r m a l p r o s e c u t i o n o f w i t c h c r a f t . From them first, 1 5 6 3 s u s p i c i o n s r o o t e d in f o l k l o r e had t o b e o r c h e s t r a t e d t o to the machinery accommodate point and the values o f the elite. T h i s raises a critical

fire,

A similarly dense and long-standing n e t w o r k o f

s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s is a p p a r e n t in P e n d l e F o r e s t b e t w e e n t h e r i v a l w i t c h - f a m i l i e s , h e a d e d bv their r e s p e c t i v e m a t r i a r c h s , O l d C h a t t o x and O l d D e m d y k e , and the villagers. T h e latter n o t only tolerated the petty thefts, begging and e x t o r t i o n o f the suspected w i t c h e s , b u t e m p l o y e d t h e m r o u t i n e l y b o t h in d o m e s t i c i n d u s t r y a n d as h e a l e r s . T h e y sought p r o t e c t i o n f r o m the w i t c h e s ' p o w e r b o t h bv paying blackmail and bv recourse to counter-magic.
1 4

c o n c e r n i n g t h e analysis o f t h e r o l e o f w i t n e s s e s , m a l e a n d f e m a l e . W e m u s t c o n s i d e r : h o w local fears and suspicions w e r e drawn t o the attention o f the magistracy; some s e c o n d l y , h o w far the authorities tailored the e v i d e n c e t o the constraints i m p o s e d b y t h e c h a n g i n g a s s u m p t i o n s o f a s y s t e m in w h i c h t h e w i t n e s s e s w e r e , in measure, only marginal participants.

H o w did villagers w h o m a y have c o - o p e r a t e d , if uneasily, w i t h the s u s p e c t e d w i t c h c o m e t o t e s t i f y a g a i n s t h e r ? In b o t h K n a r e s b o r o u g h a n d P e n d l e t h a t t r a n s f o r mation was accomplished bv the direct intervention o f m e m b e r s o f the elite. Fairfax's e n g a g e m e n t in t h e p r o s e c u t i o n o f t h e K n a r e s b o r o u g h w i t c h e s s t e m m e d f r o m the m v s t e r i o u s i l l n e s s o f his d a u g h t e r , H e l e n , w h o e v e n t u a l l y a t t r i b u t e d h e r c o n d i t i o n t o t h e i r m a l e f i c e n c e . In L a n c a s h i r e t h e z e a l o u s m a g i s t r a t e , R o g e r N o w e l l , 'a v e r y r e l i g i o u s h o n e s t g e n t l e m a n , p a i n e i u l l in t h e s e r v i c e o i his C o u n t r e v ' , w a s m o v e d b y

308

CLIVE

HOLMES

WOMEN:

WITCHES

AND

WITNESSES

309

l o c a l r u m o u r s t o l a u n c h an i n v e s t i g a t i o n . N o w e l l ' s i n t e r v e n t i o n , w h i l e s p u r r e d one o f the accused the b o y a t t e m p t e d suicide -

by

T h e r o l e o f l o c a l m e n in o r g a n i z i n g t h e p r o c e s s w h e r e b y s u s p i c i o n a n d g o s s i p w e r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o f o r m a l a c c u s a t i o n , as in t h e 1 5 8 2 O s k l e v a n d W a l t o n d e n u n c i a t i o n s , is a p p a r e n t in o t h e r c a s e s , a d m i t t e d l y f e w , w h e r e w e c a n r e c o n s t r u c t a narrative with s o m e confidence. In 1682 Temperance Lloyd was convicted for afflicting G r a c e T h o m a s o f B i d e f o r d ; t h e b u l k o f the t e s t i m o n y was p r o v i d e d b y w o m e n w h o had a t t e n d e d the girl during h e r long sickness, b u t the accusation was driven on by her b r o t h e r - i n - l a w , T h o m a s Eastchurch, a respected local m e r c h a n t . H e had sought t h e advice o f a n u m b e r o f e m i n e n t physicians on G r a c e ' s with equal v i g o u r . behalf. O n c e the w i t c h c r a f t diagnosis had b e e n suggested, h e pursued L l o y d ' s d e s t r u c t i o n
1 6

local suspicions and t e n s i o n s , swiftly t r a n s f o r m e d t h e m . R e l e n t l e s s i n t e r r o g a t i o n o f eventually elicited the required confession o f diabolic activities. Such e x a m p l e s o f direct elite orchestration are, h o w e v e r , r a r e . In t h e b u l k o f c a s e s t h e d e c i s i o n t o b r i n g a w i t c h t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e authorities appears t o have b e e n u n d e r t a k e n entirely within the n e i g h b o u r h o o d , and t h e p r o c e s s o f t r a n s m u t a t i o n , w h e r e b y s u s p i c i o n b e c a m e p r o s e c u t i o n , is o p a q u e . Y e t a f e w cases provide significant indicators c o n c e r n i n g that p r o c e s s . B r i a n D a r c y ' s s e l f - c o n g r a t u l a t o r y a c c o u n t o f his s h o r t b u t s p e c t a c u l a r c a r e e r as a w i t c h - h u n t e r in n o r t h - e a s t e r n E s s e x in 1 5 8 2 p e r m i t s s o m e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e l o c a l i n s t i g a t i o n o f p r o s e c u t i o n . D a r c y , l i k e R o g e r N o w e l l , w a s w e l l v e r s e d in t h e c o n t i nental theories c o n c e r n i n g the satanic dimension o f witchcraft, and he p r o v e d a v i g o r o u s a n d i n v e n t i v e i n q u i s i t o r ; in c a s e s f r o m S t O s y t h , D a r c y ' s h o m e , a n d its i m m e d i a t e v i c i n i t y , l o c a l b e l i e f s h i n t e d at in t h e e a r l i e s t d e p o s i t i o n s w e r e H o w e v e r , n o t all t h e 1 5 8 2 c a s e s w e r e g e n e r a t e d d i r e c t l y b y D a r c y ' s lvst, encouraging the villagers of Oakley and W a l t o n to voice quickly s w a m p e d by a plethora o f importations f r o m the current theology o f witchcraft. inquisitorial long-held to t e c h n i q u e s o r r e f r a c t e d t h r o u g h his r i c h i m a g i n a t i o n . H i s a c t i v i t i e s a c t e d as a c a t a their suspicions o f their n e i g h b o u r s , Annis H e a r d and J o a n R o b i n s o n , t o the authorities. D a r c y , d e d i c a t i n g his e n e r g i e s t o t h e p u r s u i t o f t h e S t O s y t h ' s c o v e n , s e e m s have m a d e little a t t e m p t t o shape p r i m a r y t e s t i m o n y f r o m these peripheral c o m m u n i t i e s . A l l w i t n e s s e s c o n c u r r e d t h a t t o c r o s s t h e s e w o m e n , t o r e f u s e t o l e n d o r sell t h e m i m p l e m e n t s or goods, to demand the return o f b o r r o w e d articles or p a y m e n t , c o u l d b e d a n g e r o u s . Agricultural and d o m e s t i c r o u t i n e s had failed; s t o c k had sicke n e d , d i e d , o r a c t e d u n n a t u r a l l y ( T h o m a s R i c e ' s g o o s e , ' t h a t h a t h b e e n as g o o d f o r t h e b r i n g i n g f o o r t h o f h e r b r o o d e as a n y g o o s e in W a l t o n ' , h a d r e f u s e d t o h a t c h her eggs). Illness, occasionally mortal, had afflicted their enemies. Yet, as in K n a r e s b o r o u g h and P e n d l e , social relations w e r e m a i n t a i n e d w i t h the w i t c h e s . T h e v i l l a g e r s , i f t h e y d i d fall f o u l o f H e a r d o r R o b i n s o n , h a d r e c o u r s e t o c o u n t e r - m a g i c h e a t i n g a b e w i t c h e d s p i n d l e t o g e t i t t o w o r k a g a i n ; b u r n i n g t h e e a r s o f an a f f l i c t e d pig t o c u r e it; using a r e d - h o t i r o n t o g e t m i l k t o c h u r n and w o r t t o b r e w . e x p e r i e n c e o f their maleficence tended, not surprisingly, to concentrate on m e r e l y to a c k n o w l e d g e their use of, c o u n t e r - m a g i c to frustrate the w i t c h . Men the The a n d w o m e n c o n c u r r e d in s u s p e c t i n g H e a r d a n d R o b i n s o n o f w i t c h c r a f t , b u t f e m a l e i n t e r r u p t i o n o f d o m e s t i c r o u t i n e s . W o m e n also s e e m r e a d i e r t o d e p l o y , o r perhaps suspicions against H e a r d and R o b i n s o n , g e n e r a l l y h e l d , w e r e o b v i o u s l y o f long duration; thev c a m e t o the attention o f the authorities b e c a u s e the villagers w ere inspired
r

T e n years b e f o r e , a local J P had r e p o r t e d that W i d o w P e a c o c k

o f M a l m e s b u r y was ' o f very bad fame and very terrible to the p e o p l e ' , yet ' n o b o d y will e y t h e r b e at the c h a r g e to p r o s e c u t e h e r , o r r u n t h e hazard o f h e r r e v e n g e if she b e a c q u i t t e d . . . e x c e p t s u c h a p e r s o n as this M r W e b b ' .
1 7

With Robert Webb, figure like U p c h e r ,

a wealthy m e m b e r o f the M a l m e s b u r y elite, w e have another

W a d d e and E a s t c h u r c h : a m a n w i t h w e a l t h , standing and c o n f i d e n c e . T h e s e characteristics w e r e essential, given that p r o s e c u t i o n was t i m e - c o n s u m i n g and expensive a n d its f a i l u r e m i g h t l e a v e a c c u s e r s h o s t a g e t o t h e m a l i c e o f t h e w i t c h , i f a c o m p l a i n t was to b e b r o u g h t t o the attention o f the authorities. Y e t the energetic p r o s e c u t o r w o u l d n o t s t a n d a l o n e ; his i m m e d i a t e c o m p l a i n t a g a i n s t t h e w i t c h w o u l d b e b a c k e d b y c o r r o b o r a t i v e t e s t i m o n y f r o m his n e i g h b o u r s , b o t h m e n a n d w o m e n . It is s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e w o m e n w h o b e c a m e i n v o l v e d in t h e p r o c e s s o f t e n r e t a i l e d older grievances and suspicions that had festered b u t previously g o n e u n r e m a r k e d to the authorities. John Swettson, a Cambridge apothecary, indicted Margaret C o t t o n f o r t h e d e a t h o f his i n f a n t d a u g h t e r in t h e s u m m e r o f 1 6 0 8 ; tw'o p o o r w o m e n j o i n e d h i m in t h e p r o s e c u t i o n , c o m p l a i n i n g o f m y s t e r i o u s d e a t h s in t h e i r f a m i l i e s eighteen m o n t h s b e f o r e . Samuel Pacy, a L o w e s t o f t m e r c h a n t , held A m v D u n y and R o s e C u l l e n d e r r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e m y s t e r i o u s i l l n e s s o f his t w o d a u g h t e r s , a n d h e a n d o t h e r m e m b e r s o f his f a m i l y t e s t i f i e d t o t h e i r a f f l i c t i o n s at t h e a s s i z e s . T h e y w e r e joined by eight additional witnesses. T h r e e testified c o n c e r n i n g the ailments o f their children, subsequent t o , but mirroring, the t o r m e n t s o f the Pacy girls. T h r e e , t w o m e n and a w o m a n , deposed c o n c e r n i n g the interruption o f agricultural routines that t h e y a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e w i t c h e s ; A n n e S a n d e s w e l l r e c a l l e d an i n c i d e n t s e v e n o r e i g h t years b e f o r e , while the m e n referred to occasions 'not long s i n c e ' . O f the witnesses, o n l y D o r o t h y D u r e n t b l a m e d t h e w i t c h e s f o r a d e a t h , t h a t o f h e r d a u g h t e r five v e a r s b e f o r e , a n d she a l s o t e s t i f i e d c o n c e r n i n g h e r i n f a n t s o n ' s i l l n e s s , f o r w h i c h she h a d s o u g h t h e l p f r o m a c u n n i n g - m a n , in 1 6 5 7 .
1 8

In s o m e c a s e s t h e a n c i l l a r y t e s t i m o n v

o f i e r e d b y w o m e n d e a l s w i t h i n c i d e n t s so r e m o t e as t o r o u s e t h e c o u r t ' s s u s p i c i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e w i t n e s s ' s m o t i v e s in c o m i n g f o r w a r d . W h e n E l i z a b e t h F i e l d t e s t i f i e d that her child had died m a n y years ago upon J a n e W e n h a m ' s t o u c h i n g it, the j u d g e a s k e d ' w h y she d i d n o t p r o s e c u t e . . . i m m e d i a t e l y ? ' H e r a r t l e s s r e p l y was a p o o r w o m a n , and the child had n o friends'
9

a n d e d u c a t e d b v D a r c y ' s c r u s a d e at n e i g h b o u r i n g St O s y t h . B u t t h e e f f e c t i v e d e c i s i o n t o t r a n s m u t e village s u s p i c i o n i n t o o f f i c i a l t e s t i m o n y , a n d t o o r g a n i z e n e i g h b o u r s f o r t h i s , w a s t a k e n bv l o c a l men. Edward U p c h e r had long R o b i n s o n f o r t h e d e a t h o f his w i f e . H e v i s i t e d t h e g a o l e d S t O s y t h w o m a n , their Ursley suspected

she a p p e a r e d

n o w , ' t h e O p p o r t u n i t y p r e s e n t i n g i t s e l f , a n d had n o t d o n e so b e f o r e b e c a u s e ' s h e d r e w f r o m the judge a stinging a n d i n s e n s i t i v e r e t o r t : ' w a s [she] g r o w n r i c h s i n c e ? " Y e t h e r e x p e r i e n c e , d r a w n i n t o the c o u r t to s u p p l e m e n t a case o r c h e s t r a t e d by o t h e r s , m a y have b e e n typical o f that o i m a n y w o m e n . In s e v e r a l c a s e s in t h e H o m e C i r c u i t in t h e E l i z a b e t h a n and J a c o b e a n period a witch w o u l d b e charged on a n u m b e r o f i n d i c t m e n t s , s o m e alleging malefic e n t a c t s u n d e r t a k e n y e a r s b e f o r e ; s o , in 1 5 7 2 at C h e l m s f o r d a s s i z e s , A g n e s F r a n c v s

K e m p , w h o , u n d e r D a r c y ' s r e l e n t l e s s q u e s t i o n i n g , h a d b e c o m e his s t a r w i t n e s s , c o n f e s s i n g s a t a n i c p r a c t i c e s a n d n a m i n g a w i d e c o v e n o f a c c o m p l i c e s ; she r e a d i l y c o n f i r m e d U p c h e r ' s s u s p i c i o n , a n d h e l e d t h e W a l t o n p r o s e c u t i o n . In O a k l e y , J o h n W a d d e , a v e o m a n w h o had suffered heavy stock losses for several years, was the first f o r m a l l y t o d e n o u n c e H e a r d , initially t o the ecclesiastical c o u r t , t h e n , e n c o u r Darcy.
1 5

a g e d b y t h e St O s v t h ' s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t o B r i a n

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was arraigned on four i n d i c t m e n t s ; t w o alleged r e c e n t incidents o f m u r d e r and the destruction o f stock; the o t h e r t w o dealt with m u r d e r s respectively t h r e e and six y e a r s e a r l i e r . In 1 5 9 6 at H e r t f o r d , A l i c e C r u t c h w a s a r r a i g n e d u p o n t w o i n d i c t m e n t s for the r e c e n t d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s t o c k , and u p o n a third i n d i c t m e n t for m u r d e r by w i t c h c r a f t f o u r y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y ; in this c a s e t w o m e n t e s t i f i e d t o t h e i r l o s s e s , w h i l e a w o m a n d e p o s e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e e a r l i e r d e a t h . T h i s l a t t e r c a s e is n o t u n t y p i c a l o f t h o s e i n v o l v i n g s e v e r a l i n d i c t m e n t s in w h i c h t h e n a m e s o f w i t n e s s e s a r e i c e n c e than t o those o f m o r e r e c e n t p r o v e n a n c e . listed: w o m e n f o r m e d a higher proportion o f the witnesses to the charges o f earlier malef2 0

t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l e f f o r t s a p p e a r t o h a v e b o r n e f r u i t . In c o n f e s s i o n s f r o m E n g l a n d in 16457 the Devil figures prominently: h e a p p e a r s in h u m a n

eastern guise,

c o n t r a c t s d i r e c t l y w i t h his a c o l y t e , a n d has c a r n a l r e l a t i o n s w i t h h e r . T h i s e x t e n sive g r o u p o f d e p o s i t i o n s is a t r i b u t e , in p a r t , t o M a t t h e w H o p k i n s ' s acquaintance accused's w i t h c o n t i n e n t a l t h e o r i e s , his skill as an i n q u i s i t o r , a n d his o w n p r u r i e n t f a n t a s i e s . B u t m a n y o f t h e c o n f e s s i o n s are far f r o m s t e r e o t y p e d , particularly the pedlar, met the divell midsomer
r

a r t l e s s a c c o u n t s o f t h e i r d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h S a t a n : so E l i z a b e t h S o u t h e r n e , a D u n w i c h

O n e further pattern that e m e r g e s last like a black boy 10 years old by a

f r o m the H o m e Circuit indictments m a y reinforce the suggestion that w o m e n w e r e being mobilized by m e n , w h o w e r e the driving force behind the decision t o bring l o c a l s u s p i c i o n s a n d f e a r s t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e c o u r t s . In 2 7 . 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e w i t c h craft accusations b e t w e e n 1 5 9 6 a n d 1 6 4 2 m e n a l o n e a c t e d as w i t n e s s e s , w h i l e in 6 7 . 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e m m e n a n d w o m e n t e s t i f i e d t o g e t h e r ; o n l y in 4 . 6 p e r c e n t o f t h e c a s e s did w o m e n t e s t i f y a g a i n s t an a c c u s e d w i t c h a l o n e . M e n and w o m e n b e l i e v e d that their f e m a l e n e i g h b o u r s c o u l d deploy malefic e n t p o w e r s . T h e y treated such witches warily, guarding themselves by seeking to avoid conflict, bv elaborate d e f e r e n c e , and, w h e n necessary, by erecting a p r o t e c tive shield o f c o u n t e r - m a g i c . H o w e v e r , a n o t h e r r e s p o n s e had b e e n m a d e available by the legislation of 1563. This strategy, prosecution, was usually pursued by s u b s t a n t i a l m e n in t h e c o m m u n i t y w h o w o u l d lay t h e c h a r g e , a n d s o l i c i t t h e c o n f i r m a t o r y testimony o f their neighbours, often w o m e n . Y e t the elite w h o controlled the judicial m a c h i n e r y had their o w n agenda, and cases emanating f r o m local tensions and suspicions w o u l d have t o b e adjusted, and m i g h t b e t r a n s f o r m e d , w h e n b r o u g h t t o the attention o f magistrates and ministers. T h e s e groups w e r e c o n c e r n e d , with the trivia o f stock-loss or the interruptions of domestic and not agricultural

w h i t e t h o r n e as s h e w e n t t o W e s t l e t o n a n d t h e r e h e p r o m i s e d h e r 2s 6 d a n d h e h a d i t n o t t h e n b u t said s h e s h o l d h a v e i t t h e n e x t t i m e she c a m e that way but he favled of his promise,

2 1

he

met

her

indeed,

but

complayned of the hardnes of the t i m e s .

T h e i d e a t h a t a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e D e v i l is t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e w i t c h ' s p o w e r , l a r g e l y a b s e n t in e a r l y d e p o s i t i o n s , s e e m s t o h a v e b e c o m e m o r e understood by the mid-seventeenth century. generally

W e c o u l d s i m p l v a r g u e t h a t t h e t e s t i m o n y o f w o m e n in p o s s e s s i o n c a s e s o r as s e a r c h e r s , in w h i c h t h e y r e p e a t e d a n d c o n f i r m e d e l i t e t h e o r i e s , is a n o t h e r i n d i c a tion o f the general transformation However, construction was involved, o f popular belief engineered by the complex process of divines. cultural and a d e t a i l e d analysis s u g g e s t s t h a t a m o r e

in w h i c h m i n i s t e r s a n d l a w y e r s p l a y e d a d i r e c t

immediate role.

p r o c e s s e s , b u t (as in t h e c a s e o f S m i t h ) w i t h d i a b o l i s m , o r w i t h m y s t e r i o u s a i l m e n t s a n d d e a t h . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f this l a t t e r e m p h a s i s in t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y e x p l a i n s t h e p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f f e m a l e w i t n e s s e s in l a t e r c a s e s . Women, d e s p i t e t h e i r n u m e r i c a l i n v o l v e m e n t , w e r e l a r g e l y p a s s i v e a c t o r s in whose

Ill
T h e m o s t s p e c t a c u l a r t e s t i m o n y in w i t c h - t r i a l s , w h i c h , in c o n s e q u e n c e , is o v e r r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e p u b l i s h e d a c c o u n t s , w a s p r o v i d e d b y t h o s e w h o , it w a s c l a i m e d , w e r e possessed by the Devil through the agency o f a witch. Nine w o m e n were c o n v i c t e d at L e i c e s t e r assizes in 1 6 1 6 u p o n t h e t e s t i m o n y o f t h e t h i r t e e n - v e a r - o l d E d w a r d S m i t h ; his fits d u r i n g t h e t r i a l , ' i n t h e s v g h t o i all t h e g r e a t e s t p a r s o n s h e r e , as d y v e r s k n y g h t s a n d l a d i e s a n d m a n n y o t h a r s o i t h e b e t t a r s o r t ' , w e r e W i l l i a m A v e r y , a f t e r r a v i n g in t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e j u d g e s , ' c a m e t o his 'most periect terrible to be tolld'. H o r r o r might be punctuated by m o m e n t s o f didactic piety. understanding, and . . . spoke very discreetly, Christianly, and charitably t o e v e r y p o i n t ' ; Jane T h r o c k m o r t o n , upon the witch's c o u r t r o o m confession, e m e r g e d from h e r fit, k n e e l e d a n d a s k e d h e r f a t h e r ' s b l e s s i n g .
2 2

t h e f o r m a l legal p r o c e s s a g a i n s t w i t c h e s in t h e b u l k o f t h e c a s e s t h a t c a m e t o t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e j u d i c i a r v . D o e s this a r g u m e n t a l s o h o l d f o r t h o s e w o m e n elite? W o m e n contexts: first, a l s o w i t n e s s e d a g a i n s t w i t c h e s in t w o m o r e d e p o s i t i o n s , o n t h e f a c e o f i t , s u g g e s t far m o r e e n g a g e m e n t in t h e c o n c e r n s ot t h e distinctive, if r a r e r , as v i c t i m s o f d i a b o l i c p o s s e s s i o n t h r o u g h t h e i n s t i g a t i o n o f a w i t c h ;

s e c o n d l y , as e x a m i n e r s f o r t h e p h y s i c a l m a r k s w h i c h w e r e i n c r e a s i n g l y s e e n as k e y e v i d e n c e in p r o s e c u t i o n . S u c h t e s t i m o n y , it s e e m s , r e f l e c t e d a n d c o n f i r m e d i n t e l l e c t u a l e d i f i c e s o f w i t c h c r a f t as d i a b o l i s m ; o f t h e i n f e r i o r i t y o f w o m e n as i n d i c a t e d by their g r e a t e r susceptibility t o satanic t e m p t a t i o n c o n s t r u c t e d by the elite. Protestant divines sought t o t r a n s f o r m the gross popular superstitions that

Cases o f diabolic possession through

t h e a g e n c y o f a w i t c h p r e s e n t e d t h e m a x i m u m o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r an e d i f y i n g a n d c a t h a r t i c d r a m a in t h e c o u r t T h e y a l s o e m p h a s i z e d t h e d i a b o l i c o r i g i n s o f t h e w i t c h ' s power upon w h i c h t h e d i v i n e s so p e r t i n a c i o u s l y insisted. As in N e w England,

2 3

e m e r g e d in t h e w i t c h c r a f t t r i a l s . T h e i r m i s s i o n a r y e f f o r t s , a p p a r e n t in t h e i n t e r r o gation o f M a r y S m i t h and the t r i u m p h a n t publication o f h e r eventual confession o f d i a b o l i s m , w e r e d e s i g n e d t o insist o n t h e i r t h e o l o g i c a l c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n , t h a t s a t a n i c c o v e n a n t was the e s s e n c e o f the o f f e n c e . T h e i r treatises, s e r m o n s and editions o f confessions, often explicitly designed for 'the capacity o f the simpler sort', w e r e r e i n f o r c e d by w o r k s that w e r e m o r e obviously popular chapbooks, broadsides War and ballads and by the t h e a t r e o f the c o u r t and the g a l l o w s . By the Civil

w o m e n , particularly adolescents, preponderate among 'possessed' a c c u s e r s . d e g r e e o f i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e s e g i r l s w h o in t h e i r t e s t i m o n y so reinforced academic theory, deserves discussion.

The

comprehensively

M o s t o f the published accounts o f possession cases provide a narrative w h i c h d e s c r i b e s t h e v i c t i m ' s c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h t h e w i t c h as t h e first act o f the subse-

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q u e n t d r a m a . T h o m a s D a r l i n g i n a d v e r t e n t l y f a r t e d as h e p a s s e d A l i c e G o o d e r i d g e ; W i l l i a m P e r r v failed t o salute J o a n C o c k e with sufficient c o u r t e s y w h e n they m e t ; M e r c v S h o r t , w h e n an a c c u s e d w i t c h h e l d in B o s t o n g a o l b e g g e d h e r f o r a l i t t l e t o b a c c o , ' a f f r o n t e d t h e h a g ' : all w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y s u b j e c t e d t o f e a r f u l p h y s i c a l a n d mental t o r m e n t s .

2 4

identification might prove seductive to those w h o s e s y m p t o m s bewildered medical experts, their families and neighbours, and, crucially, themselves. The victim behavb e c a m e t h e f o c u s o f an i n t e n s e a t t e n t i o n , o f t e n , as w i t h [Catherine W r i g h t a n d A n n e G u n t e r , demonstrably absent from their previous affective relations. T h e ioural traits o f possession, while c o n f o r m i n g t o a basic p a t t e r n , could b e individually s h a p e d t o p r o v i d e an o u t l e t f o r p e r s o n a l f e e l i n g s t h a t w o u l d n o t o t h e r w i s e a c h i e v e s a n c t i o n e d e x p r e s s i o n s e x u a l f a n t a s i e s , r e l i g i o u s d o u b t s , r a g e at p a r e n t s , f r u s t r a tion with the constrictions i m p o s e d by social and g e n d e r r o l e s . Nicholas S t a r k e y ' s c h i l d r e n , a g e d n i n e a n d t e n , d e l i g h t e d in ' f i l t h i e a n d u n s a v o u r y s p e e c h e s ' ; they s c o f f e d at S c r i p t u r e as ' b i b l e b a b l e , b i b l e b a b l e ' ; t h e b o y b i t his m o t h e r a n d c a l l e d h e r ' w h o r e ' ; M a r g a r e t B y r o m , a p o o r k i n s w o m a n w h o lived on the Starkey family's charity, ' n i c k n a m e d and t a u n t e d ' h e r b e n e f a c t o r s .
2 8

B u t , b y t h e t i m e it w a s e m p l o v e d b y C o t t o n

M a t h e r in his

a c c o u n t s o f t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e G o o d w i n c h i l d r e n a n d o f M e r c y S h o r t , this w a s simply the f o r m u l a i c c o n v e n t i o n o f a substantial literary g e n r e . T h e actual process w h e r e b v t h e s u f f e r e r ' s a f f l i c t i o n w a s r e c o g n i z e d as p o s s e s s i o n , a n d t h e w i t c h - i n t e r m e d i a r v n o m i n a t e d , i n v o l v e d far m o r e c o m p l e x t r a n s a c t i o n s . A f e w documents e n a b l e us t o s e e this p r o c e s s d i r e c t l v . A c c o r d i n g t o a p a m p h l e t o f 1 6 1 2 M r s E l i z a b e t h B e l c h e r , 'a v e r t u o u s a n d g o d l y g e n t l e - w o m a n ' , s t r u c k J o a n V a u g h a n , t h e d a u g h t e r o f a n o t o r i o u s l o c a l w i t c h , a f t e r J o a n had m a d e an o b s c e n e g e s t u r e at h e r : a fewdays l a t e r E l i z a b e t h w a s p o s s e s s e d , c r y i n g o u t in h e r fits, 'Heere comes Joane Vaughan, awav with J o a n e Vaughan'. A manuscript offers a very different account. E l i z a b e t h h a d b e e n s i c k f o r fifteen m o n t h s ; p h y s i c w a s u n a v a i l i n g , as w e r e t h e e f f o r t s o f the local practitioner o f astrological m e d i c i n e , Richard Napier. B e l c h e r ' s friends suspected witchcraft, b u t she r e f u s e d t o e n t e r t a i n this s u g g e s t i o n . Then, when the that E l i z a b e t h w a s in h e r fit, t h o s e a t t e n d i n g h e r b e g a n t o n o m i n a t e s u s p e c t s ; all w e r e r e j e c t e d until they n a m e d J o a n . bystanders named Joan again: ' H a t h she d o n e i t ? ' , t h e s i c k w o m a n a s k e d ; Elizabeth responded, 'Did she?', and from

But while the possessed w e r e and

a p p r o p r i a t i n g l a n g u a g e a n d b e h a v i o u r in w a y s t h a t w e r e i n t e n s e l y p e r s o n a l

liberating, the structure to which m o s t accusations c o n f o r m e d , including the assertion o f the responsibility o f a witch for the victim's e x p e r i e n c e , was the p r o d u c t o f a s o c i a l p r o c e s s in w h i c h k e y r o l e s w e r e p l a y e d b y a d u l t s a n d m a l e s . T h e p o s s e s s e d adolescents w e r e the tools o f the divines; their dramatic performances f r a i l t y o f t h e ' w e a k e r s e x e ' in t h e f a c e o f s a t a n i c t e m p t a t i o n . reinforced t h e w i t c h c r a i t - a s - d i a b o l i c - c o v e n a n t t h e o l o g y , w i t h its a n c i l l a r y e m p h a s i s u p o n t h e

m o m e n t n e v e r c e a s e d t o a c c u s e J o a n , t e s t i f y i n g a t N o r t h a m p t o n assizes w h e r e t h e witch was c o n d e m n e d .

2 5

In o t h e r c a s e s , t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r m a t o f t h e n a r r a t i v e 'who

b a r e l y c o n c e a l s t h e m o r e d i f f u s e r e a l i t y . T h e o r t h o d o x b e g i n n i n g o f t h e a c c o u n t of t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e d a u g h t e r o f L a d v J e n n i n g s h e r f e a r o f an o l d w o m a n s u d d a i n l y a p p e a r e d t o h e r att t h e d o r e a n d d e m a n d e d a pin o f h e r ' s e e m s q u i t e i r r e l e v a n t t o t h e s u b s e q u e n t s t o r y . T h e girl n o m i n a t e d w i t c h e s o n l y a f t e r a s e v e r e i l l n e s s o f f o u r m o n t h s d u r i n g wdiich d e s p e r a t e m e d i c a l r e m e d i e s h a d b e e n u n s u c cessfullv a t t e m p t e d , and t h e r e had b e e n m u c h discussion a m o n g the family visitors o f the possibilitv o f w i t c h c r a i t . If the possession-through-witchcraft and diag-

IV
A s i m i l a r analysis is a l s o a p p r o p r i a t e in d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e e v i d e n c e o f t h e t h i r d g r o u p o f f e m a l e w i t n e s s e s , those w h o testified t o the physical m a r k s that w e r e to characterize a witch. T h e y t o o confirmed, if m o r e tangentially, thought suppositions

c o n c e r n i n g b o t h the diabolic nature o f witchcraft and female inferiority. And equally it is t h e e l e m e n t o f e l i t e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e i r t e s t i m o n y t h a t is most apparent. A t L a n c a s t e r assizes in 1 6 3 4 s o m e t w e n t y p e o p l e w e r e c o n v i c t e d as w i t c h e s . T h e accusation, levelled by a ten-year-old boy, was firmly r o o t e d in l o n g - s t a n d i n g found l o c a l s u s p i c i o n : it w a s c o r r o b o r a t e d b y e v i d e n c e o f t h e w i t c h - m a r k s o n t h e a c c u s e d . F o u r m e n and sixteen w o m e n w e r e accused; thirteen o f the w o m e n w e r e t o h a v e m a r k s o r p a p s , a n d t h e s e w e r e l o c a t e d in t h e g e n i t a l a r e a o f e l e v e n o f t h e m . T h e L a n c a s t e r c a s e p r o v i d e s t h e first i n s t a n c e o f t h e fullv d e v e l o p e d , o f f i c i a l l y s a n c t i o n e d , s e a r c h f o r t h e w i t c h ' s m a r k in E n g l a n d , a n d t h e i r u s u a l d i s c o v e r y in t h e p u d e n d a . L a n c a s t e r s h o u l d a l s o h a v e b e e n t h e last i n s t a n c e o f t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n they sought a respite of execution while further investigations w e r e of s u c h e v i d e n c e in c o u r t . T h e 1 6 3 4 c o n v i c t i o n s t r o u b l e d s o m e o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s a n d undertaken: re-examHarvey. other t h e s e , s a n c t i o n e d b y t h e P r i v y C o u n c i l , i n c l u d e d an e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e . F o u r o f the c o n v i c t e d w o m e n w e r e b r o u g h t to L o n d o n and in t h e p r e s e n c e o f a p a n e l o f d i s t i n g u i s h e d p h y s i c i a n s h e a d e d b y W i l l i a m ined. T e n L o n d o n m i d w i v e s ' m a d e diligent search and inspeccion o f those w o m e n ' T h e y r e p o r t e d t h a t o n e o f t h e w o m e n had u n u s u a l b u t e x p l i c a b l e m a r k s ; o n t h e o t h e r t h r e e t h e v f o u n d ' n o t h i n g u n n a t u r a l l n e y t h e r in t h e s e c r e t s o r a n y p a r t e s o f t h e i r e b o d y e s , n o r a n y t h i n g e l y k e a t e a t e o r m a r k e , n o r any s i g n e t h a t a n y s u c h e t h i n g e h a i t h e v e r b e e n e ' . Y e t d e s p i t e this c r i t i q u e , a n d f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n s

n o s i s is t h e p r o d u c t o f a d i a l o g u e i n v o l v i n g m a n v a c t o r s , so t o o w a s t h e s u b s e q u e n t b e h a v i o u r o f t h e v i c t i m s , c u l m i n a t i n g in t h e i r c o u r t r o o m p e r f o r m a n c e s . A b a s i c p a t t e r n o f l a n g u a g e a n d g e s t u r e , g a i n i n g d e f i n i t i o n in t h e c e n t u r y a f t e r 1 5 9 0 , was l e a r n e d b v t h e p o s s e s s e d , l a r g e l v in r e s p o n s e t o t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h o s e w h o g a t h e r e d a b o u t t h e m t o o f f e r c o n s o l a t i o n and t o p a r t i c i p a t e v i c a r i o u s l y in t h e c o n f l i c t with Satan. M i c h a e l M a c D o n a l d , analysing D r S t e p h e n B r a d w e l l ' s a c c o u n t o f the possession o f M a r y G l o v e r , shows h o w h e r s y m p t o m s , initiallv clarity' a diagnosis o f possession through w i t c h c r a f t . 1619, (1603) 'undistinc-

t i v e ' , ' s t r e n g t h e n e d and changed o v e r t i m e , so that thev c o n f i r m e d with increasing

2 6

D r J o h n C o t t a , w r i t i n g in 'ordinarily' sick',

c o m p l a i n e d that the actions and accusations o f the possessed

involved 'the abusive impression o f s o m e indiscreete whispering about the p o s s e s s i o n n a r r a t i v e s , w e r e a v a i l a b l e in t h e s i c k r o o m . mony p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e d r a m a ,

w h i l e in s e v e r a l c a s e s p a r a d i g m s o f a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o u r , in t h e f o r m o f e a r l i e r
2 7

T h e b e h a v i o u r and testiother of

o f the possessed w e r e thus entangled with the interests o f various

chieflv f r o m t h e i r o w n familv n e t w o r k s , b u t also

medical professionals and divines. T h e possessed themselves w e r e not simply malleable puppets articulating the c o n c e r n s o f o t h e r s in a p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l v e n t r i l o q u i s m . T h e witchcraft-possession

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c o n c e r n i n g the reliability o f the search p r o c e d u r e during the wave o f prosecutions in E a s t A n g l i a in 1 6 4 5 6 , p r e - t r i a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e a c c u s e d b y ' a n c i e n t skilfull m a t r o n s a n d m i d w i v e s ' c o n t i n u e d as a f e a t u r e o f t h e w i t c h a c c u s a t i o n s in E n g l a n d and the A m e r i c a n colonies into the eighteenth century.
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c l a w e d his n e w d i s c i p l e , d r a w i n g b l o o d w i t h w h i c h t o sign t h e c o m p a c t a n d l e a v i n g an i n s e n s i b l e s c a r as its t a n g i b l e s y m b o l . From this s t r u c t u r a l r e s e m b l a n c e , the conEnglish c o m m e n t a t o r s d e v e l o p e d a syncretist t h e o r y , c o m b i n i n g continental

cepts and insular f o l k l o r e . T h e w i t c h e n t e r s a c o v e n a n t with Satan w h o m a r k s h e r and draws b l o o d ; the D e v i l t h e n provides a familiar w h o regularly sucks b l o o d f r o m t h e r e s u l t i n g w o u n d , d r a w i n g it i n t o a t e a t ; this i n v e r t e d E u c h a r i s t is d e s i g n e d t o ' p u t h e r in m i n d o f damnation'.
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T h e t e s t i m o n y o f t h e s e ' k n o w i n g w o m e n ' r e s u l t e d in t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n o f a n u m b e r o f i n d i v i d u a l s . M o r e o v e r , w i t h its e m p h a s i s u p o n t h e f e m a l e g e n i t a l s , it r e i n f o r c e s t h e g e n d e r - o r i e n t e d d i m e n s i o n o f the a c a d e m i c t h e o r y o f w i t c h c r a f t , and r e s o n a t e s w i t h t h e m o r e o v e r t c o n t i n e n t a l d i s c u s s i o n s o f w o m e n ' s i n s a t i a b l e l u s t as a m a j o r e l e m e n t in t h e i r c o m p a c t a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h S a t a n . As w i t h t h e p o s s e s s e d a d o l e s c e n t s , h o w e v e r , a full u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e c o n t e x t i n w h i c h t h e i r r o l e as w i t n e s s e s d e v e l o p e d a l l o w s us t o s e e t h e m a t r o n s a n d m i d w i v e s as m a r g i n a l p a r t i c i p a n t s in p r o c e d u r e s o r i g i n a t i n g in t h e c o n c e r n s o f e x c l u s i v e l y m a l e g r o u p s : t h e c l e r g y , a g a i n , and t h e m a g i s t r a c y . A c a d e m i c writers w e r e frequently embarrassed by aspects o f the popular beliefs a b o u t w i t c h c r a f t t h a t e m e r g e d in a c c u s a t i o n s . Yet 'that which by e x p e r i e n c e is found t o b e t r u e ' could n o t simply b e dismissed, and c o n s e q u e n t l y had t o b e read o r s h a p e d in a w a y t h a t p e r m i t t e d its i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o t h e i r t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t s h e n c e the misogynous explanations developed by the divines to a c c o u n t for the plurality o f female witches that e m e r g e d f r o m popular accusation. T h a t the a c c o m m o d a t i o n o f p o p u l a r b e l i e f and intellectual t h e o r y o f t e n p r o v e d a w k w a r d , and the resultant problem synthesis uneasy, is v e r y apparent in t h e divines' wrestling with the to posed by the witches' familiars. These creatures, which according professional

the original transaction,

'the m o r e to aggravate the w i t c h ' s

T h e w o r k o f the academics had b e e n to i n c o r p o r a t e local ' e x p e r i e n c e ' e m e r g i n g f r o m t h e s u b s t r a t e o f p o p u l a r b e l i e f i n t o a g e n e r a l t h e o r y , w h i l e still m a i n t a i n i n g the c o h e r e n c e o f the latter. T h e i r theories w e r e to b e r e i n f o r c e d , and d e v e l o p e d , by a n o t h e r g r o u p : lawyers and magistrates. B y t h e e a r l y s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y s o m e l o c a l officials w e r e c l e a r l y t r o u b l e d b y the evidential p r o b l e m s p o s e d b y the usual f o r m o f w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n . A c c o u n t s o f the v i c t i m ' s sufferings that f o l l o w e d a c u r s e , r e i n f o r c e d by various dubious bits o f c o n f i r m a t o r y c o u n t e r - m a g i c , i n c r e a s i n g l y s e e m e d i n s u b s t a n t i a l . A c c o r d i n g l y , in the absence o f a confession, magistrates sought tangible p r o o f o f the w i t c h ' s status. T h e i r q u e s t t o o k a n u n i b e r o f d i r e c t i o n s . In 1 6 1 2 t h e N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e J P s , f a c e d with a difficult case, experimented with the water-ordeal as p r a c t i s e d on the C o n t i n e n t a n d a p p r o v e d b y K i n g J a m e s ; t h e t h r e e a c c u s e d w i t c h e s all f l o a t e d , a n d 'the suspition that was b e f o r e n o t well g r o u n d e d , was n o w c o n f i r m e d ' .
3 4

So effec-

tive a litmus test p r o v e d attractive t o o t h e r magistrates b e f o r e the Civil W a r , and t h e t e c h n i q u e w a s u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y in t h e 1 6 4 5 6 w i t c h - h u n t in e a s t e r n E n g l a n d . H o w e v e r , its lavish e m p l o y m e n t b y H o p k i n s a n d S t e a r n e h a r d e n e d o b j e c t i o n s t h a t had already b e e n e x p r e s s e d by a n u m b e r o f clerics, notably the influential W i l l i a m P e r k i n s , w h o d e n o u n c e d t h e p r a c t i c e as u n w a r r a n t e d b y S c r i p t u r e , a n d t h u s m e r e l y a f o r m o f i l l i c i t c o u n t e r - m a g i c . In 1 6 4 6 J u d g e G o d b o l t h a l t e d t h e u s e o f t h e w a t e r o r d e a l b y H o p k i n s a n d his e n t o u r a g e a n d , a l t h o u g h it s u r v i v e d as a v i g o r o u s e l e m e n t in t h e p o p u l a r r e s p o n s e t o w i t c h c r a f t , its official e m p l o y m e n t c e a s e d save in v e r y r e m o t e jurisdictions. T h e discovery o f the physical peculiarities thought to m a r k a w i t c h p r o v i d e d , as did t h e w a t e r - o r d e a l , t h e d e s i r e d p o s i t i v i s t i c t e s t o f g u i l t . A n d , l i k e t h e o r d e a l , it w a s an i m p o r t a t i o n f r o m c o n t i n e n t a l p r a c t i c e , t h o u g h r e w o r k e d t o accommod a t e p a r o c h i a l e x p e r i e n c e . E u r o p e a n c o m m e n t a t o r s a s s e r t e d t h a t at t h e m a k i n g o f t h e c o v e n a n t t h e D e v i l c l a w e d o r b r a n d e d his n e o p h y t e , l e a v i n g an i n s e n s i b l e s c a r ; p r o p e r physical e x a m i n a t i o n could reveal such satanic stigmata and, by 1 6 0 0 , their d i s c o v e r y b y q u a l i f i e d e x p e r t s w a s e s s e n t i a l f o r c o n v i c t i o n in s o m e j u r i s d i c t i o n s . A f e w E n g l i s h t h e o r i s t s f o l l o w t h e i r c o n t i n e n t a l c o u n t e r p a r t s in d e s c r i b i n g t h e a n a e s thetic mark, but in other writings and in local police practice the test was t r a n s i o r m e d , d u p l i c a t i n g t h e E n g l i s h a c c o u n t o f t h e c o v e n a n t b y an e m p h a s i s o n t h e f a m i l i a r . In E n g l a n d , t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e s u c k e d t e a t b e c o m e s an a p p r o p r i a t e demonstration, before 1634: e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e s e a r c h f o r t h e i n s e n s i b l e b r a n d in S c o t l a n d the earliest surviving instance is t h e demand of a or G e n e v a , o f the w i t c h ' s pact with Satan. T h e search was e m p l o y e d intermittently Southampton marks

popular b e l i e f w e r e k e p t by t h e w i t c h and e m p l o y e d t o e x e c u t e h e r designs, w e r e a l m o s t u n i q u e t o E n g l i s h f o l k l o r e . In c o n s e q u e n c e t h e y w e r e o f t e n t h e b u t t o f t h e j i b e s o f s c e p t i c s , a n d d i v i n e s w e r e t a x e d t o e x p l a i n t h e i r p r e s e n c e in t e r m s o f t h e i r t h e o l o g y o f w i t c h c r a f t . G i f f o r d set o u t t h e d i f f i c u l t y : S a t a n was the efficient cause 'to o f t h e w i t c h ' s m a l e f i c e n c e ; S a t a n a n d his m i n i o n s w e r e d e s c r i b e d in S c r i p t u r e m a s q u e r a d i n g as ' s u c h p a l t r i e v e r m i n , as c a t s , m i s e , t o a d s and w e a s i l s ' ?

b e m i g h t i e t e r r i b l e s p i r i t s , full o f p o w e r , r a g e a n d c r u e l t i e s ' . W h y , t h e n , w e r e t h e v Having p o s e d t h e p r o b l e m , G i f f o r d s k e t c h e s an a n s w e r , 'it is e v e n o f s u b t i l t i e ' . T h e d e v i l s a d o p t t h e s e b a s e g u i s e s s o as n o t t o t e r r i f y t h e i r d u p e s b y r e v e a l i n g t h e i r h o r r e n dous f o r m s and p o w e r . 'odd performances',

3 0

T h i s e a r l y a n s w e r is f l e s h e d o u t b y l a t e r w r i t e r s i n t o a Glanvill ingenuously described them, from the

m o r e detailed narrative o f the w i t c h ' s transaction with Satan that assimilates further as J o s e p h
3 1

popular belief system.

It a p p e a r s in t h e e a r l i e s t t r i a l s t h a t it w a s c o m m o n l y t h o u g h t

that the w i t c h h o u s e d and fed h e r familiars: U r s l e v K e m p l o d g e d h e r t w o c a t s , a l a m b a n d a t o a d in a l a r g e w o o l lined p o t , maintaining t h e m on b e e r , cake and w h i t e b r e a d . T h e mented with the witch's blood. So, after accomplishing diet s e e m s o r d i n a r y e n o u g h , i f e x t r a v a g a n t , b u t it w a s o c c a s i o n a l l y s u p p l e Mother W a t e r h o u s e ' s fell p u r p o s e s , h e r i a m i l i a r , a c a t , w a s r e w a r d e d w i t h a c h i c k e n and a d r o p o f h e r b l o o d ; this she g a v e h i m b y p r i c k i n g h e r h a n d o r f a c e a n d p u t t i n g t h e b l o u d t o his m o u t h w h y c h e h e s u c k e d .
3 2

l e e t j u r y in 1 5 7 9 t h a t W i d o w W a l k e r s h o u l d b e s e a r c h e d f o r a n y b l o o d y D e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d a n d a n a l y s e d in i s o l a t i o n , t h i s b l o o d - g i f t b o r e s o m e affinities t o the idea o f P r o t e s t a n t continental theorists, that Satan, after m a k i n g the c o v e n a n t , in t h e 1 5 8 2 S t O s y t h i n v e s t i g a t i o n , as did t h e D e r b y s h i r e J P s in 1 5 9 7 .

' w h i c h is a c o m o n t o k e n t o k n o w all w i t c h e s b y ' ; B r i a n D a r c v h a d s u s p e c t s s e a r c h e d

3 5

But the

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p r a c t i c e w a s n o t u n i v e r s a l : in 1 5 9 3 M o t h e r S a m u e l ' s m a r k w a s d i s c o v e r e d

after

c r a f t sayd t h a t s o m e o f t h e d e v i l e s i m p e s h a d s u c k e d h e r ' ; b u t , d e s p i t e t h i s w e i g h t y p r o f e s s i o n a l o p i n i o n f r o m S t e a r n e a n d his c i r c u s , t h e n t o u r i n g t h e Isle o f E l y , t h e l o c a l m i d w i f e w a s f a r m o r e c i r c u m s p e c t in h e r t e s t i m o n y . S o m e , l i k e t h e m i d w i v e s in 1634, were prepared to exculpate individuals, validity o f the e n t i r e p r o c e d u r e ; J o h n H a l e , m i n i s t e r o f B e v e r l e y , r e p o r t e d t h e d o u b t s o f 'a skilful m i d w i f e ' c o n c e r n i n g t h e w i t c h ' s colonial j u r i e s , hardly p e r m i t any exhaustive analysis o f h o w London the or to question mark.

h e r e x e c u t i o n , a n d in 1 6 2 1 a J P h a d t o p r e s s his c o l l e a g u e s o n t h e M i d d l e s e x B e n c h t o i n s t i t u t e t h e s e a r c h o f a s u s p e c t ; in this c a s e t w o o f t h e t h r e e w o m e n w h o e x a m i n e d E l i z a b e t h S a w y e r w e r e ' b r o u g h t in b y t h e O f f i c e r s o u t o f t h e s t r e e t e , p a s s i n g there bv c h a n c e ' .

3 6

N o r , in t h e s e e a r l y e x a m p l e s , w a s t h e s e a r c h s o c o n c e n t r a t e d 1 6 3 4 Lancaster proceedings with 'paps and

Massachusetts,
4 0

on the genital area. T h e key event behind the o r m a r k s in h e r s e c r e t s ' in t h e findings

their emphasis on female sexuality, and the f r e q u e n t appearance o f similar t i o n o f t h e f o u r t h e d i t i o n o f The Countrey Justice by Michael Dalton, lawyer

T h e l a c o n i c r e f e r e n c e s in t h e E n g l i s h r e c o r d s , a n d e v e n t h e f u l l e r v e r d i c t s o f the 'Ansient and K n o w i n g W o m e n ' p e r c e i v e d t h e i r m a r g i n a l r o l e as s e a r c h e r s . In p a r t i c u l a r , t h o s e s e a r c h e s in w h i c h n o i n c r i m i n a t i n g m a r k s w e r e f o u n d , t h u s e x c u l p a t i n g an a c c u s e d w i t c h , l e a v e f e w t r a c e s in t h e E n g l i s h r e c o r d s , t h o u g h s u c h o c c a s i o n s m a y have b e e n f r e q u e n t . It is t e m p t i n g t o fill t h e l a c u n a e b y i n t r o d u c i n g a c o m p a r a t i v e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e o t h e r r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s w h e r e w o m e n p l a y e d a r o l e in t h e p e n u m b r a o f the legal s y s t e m . W h i l e w o m e n w e r e a p p o i n t e d t o c o n d u c t physical e x a m i n a t i o n s in civil a n d c r i m i n a l cases turning on virginity or p r e g n a n c y , they w e r e most execuJ. S. frequently employed on juries empanelled to test the claim that a w o m a n convicted o f a c a p i t a l f e l o n y w a s p r e g n a n t . In t h e e v e n t o f a p o s i t i v e d e t e r m i n a t i o n where the jury's 'pregnant' verdict was subsequently proved incorrect. t i o n w a s d e l a y e d , aryi t h e r e s p i t e u s u a l l y b e c a m e a r e p r i e v e , e v e n i n t h o s e c a s e s C o c k b u r n , c o n s i d e r i n g t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h w h i c h s u c h ' m i s t a k e s ' w e r e m a d e , has argued that the j u r y o f w o m e n e m b o d i e d the s e n t i m e n t o f the c o u r t and the w i d e r c o m m u n i t y in f a v o u r o f m e r c y in a p a r t i c u l a r c a s e .
4 1

o f t h e s e a r c h e r s t h e r e a f t e r , is t h e p u b l i c a -

C a m b r i d g e s h i r e J P , in 1 6 3 0 . D a l t o n r e v i s e d his i n f l u e n t i a l v a d e - m e c u m f o r l o c a l m a g i s t r a t e s in t h e l i g h t o f t h e 1 6 2 7 Guide to Grand-Jury Men b y t h e d i v i n e , R i c h a r d B e r n a r d , w h i c h sets o u t t h e full-fledged t h e o r y e x p r e s s i n g t h e r o l e o f the familiar in t e r m s o f the diabolic c o m p a c t . D a l t o n cites B e r n a r d with enthusiastic approval a n d e m p h a s i z e s t h e u t i l i t y o f t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e m a r k s as i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e proof ' m a i n e points t o d i s c o v e r and c o n v i c t . . . for t h e y p r o v e fully that t h o s e w i t c h e s h a v e a f a m i l i a r a n d m a d e a l e a g u e w i t h t h e D e v i l ' . Y e t D a l t o n a l s o t r a n s f o r m s his s o u r c e in a k e v r e s p e c t . B e r n a r d insists, w i t h c o p i o u s citation o f t h e available English c a s e s , t h a t t h e m a r k m a y b e a n y w h e r e , b u t t h a t , s i n c e it is l i k e l y t o b e in hidden places', the search must be diligent. Dalton, in his s u m m a r y , language o f Bernard's argument: the teats, 'these the Devil's marks . . . in t h e i r s e c r e t e s t p a r t s , a n d t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e d i l i g e n t a n d c a r e f u l s e a r c h ' .
3 7

'very the

shifts

be often Fortified

bv Dalton's confident p r o n o u n c e m e n t s , magistrates after 1 6 3 0 , confronted by the e v i d e n t i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t t y p i f i e d all w i t c h c r a f t a c c u s a t i o n s , e m p l o y e d t h e r e c o m m e n d e d b o d v s e a r c h as a r o u t i n e a s p e c t o f p r e - t r i a l p r o c e d u r e . A n d t h e authoritative. T h e r o l e and s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n of the w o m e n w h o p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e search colonial search f o c u s e d u p o n t h e g e n i t a l a r e a , as D a l t o n ' s m i s r e a d i n g o f his s o u r c e p r o v e d e q u a l l y

A similar a r g u m e n t may explain simply

s o m e o f t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n s in s e a r c h e s f o r t h e w i t c h ' s m a r k s ; t h e y w e r e

expressions o f local s e n t i m e n t c o n c e r n i n g the i n n o c e n c e o r guilt o f the accused. Searchers w e r e often p r e p a r e d t o testify n o t only t o the a c c u s e d ' s physical m a r k s , b u t t o h e r r e p u t a t i o n as a w i t c h , o r t o t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e o f h e r m a l e f i c e n c e . Frances W a r d , with three other w o m e n nominated by the constable o f Heath, found incriminating marks on M a r g a r e t M o r t o n . Y e t W a r d was hardly a neutral o b s e r v e r : she a t t r i b u t e d t h e d e a t h s o f t w o o f h e r c h i l d r e n t o M o r t o n , a n d r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e a c c u s e d , h e r m o t h e r a n d h e r s i s t e r w e r e 'all a l o n g t i m e s u s p e c t e d ' o f w i t c h c r a f t . Y e t l o n g s t a n d i n g p o p u l a r s u s p i c i o n s did n o t i n v a r i a b l y l e a d t o t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t h e conclusive physical e v i d e n c e ; the search o f the W i d o w C o m a n o f Coggeshall, g e n e r ally s u p p o s e d t o b e a w i t c h , f o u n d n o d i s c o v e r y o f t h a t n a t u r e .
4 2

p r o c e d u r e s d o n o t a d m i t o f e a s y a n a l y s i s . It has b e e n s u g g e s t e d , in t h e

c o n t e x t , t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r l y a c t i v e p a r t w a s p l a y e d b y m i d w i v e s w h o , g i v e n an official d i s t r u s t o f t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a n d t h e s u s p i c i o n s o f w i t c h c r a f t t h a t f o c u s e d o n t h e i r presidency belief. myth. over the enclosed process of birth and their use of charms, were protecting their o w n precarious positions by associating themselves with o r t h o d o x
3 8

B u t this h y p o t h e s i s c a n n o t s u r v i v e D a v i d H a r l e y ' s d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a t its the vulnerability of midwives to witchcraft prosecution, is a Certainly s o m e midwives w e r e prepared to assert categorically that physr

The

searchers arguments

essential p r e m i s e ,
3 9

o b v i o u s l y t o o k t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s s e r i o u s l y , a n d this m i g h t l e a d t o in g e n e r a l .

a m o n g t h e m r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e i r d o u b t s in i n d i v i d u a l c a s e s o r a b o u t t h e p r o c e d u r e

i c a l m a r k s w e r e u n n a t u r a l , a n d t o d e n o u n c e t h o s e t h e y s e a r c h e d as g u i l t y o f d i a b o l i c r e l a t i o n s . In 1 6 4 5 B r i d g e t R e y n o l d s o f R a m s e y s e a r c h e d t h r e e l o c a l w o m e n , d i a g n o s e d t h e i r m a r k s as s u s p i c i o u s , a n d t e s t i f i e d a g a i n s t t h e m a t t h e a s s i z e s . In 1653 another m i d w i f e , M r s Odill o f Fairfield, C o n n e c t i c u t , authoritatively silenced those w o m e n w h o , in a m a c a b r e s c e n e b e n e a t h t h e g a l l o w s , h a d e x a m i n e d t h e c o r p s e o f an e x e c u t e d w i t c h a n d a r g u e d t h a t t h e g e n i t a l m a r k s w e r e ' s u c h as o t h e r women by in m i g h t h a v e ' . Y e t , while s o m e midwives affirmed and r e i n f o r c e d the search p r o c e d u r e s t h a t h a d b e e n s h a p e d in t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f t h e o l o g y a n d j u r i s p r u d e n c e divines and l a w y e r s , o t h e r s w e r e m o r e w a r y , using a n e u t r a l , e v e n l a n g u a g e in t h e i r d e p o s i t i o n s . W h e n Ellen Garrison o f U p w e l l was searched ambiguous,

T h e s e a r c h e s w e r e an u n s t a b l e c r e a t i o n t h a t j u x t a p o s e d t h e c o n c e p t u a l s c h e m e s o f the theologians with a pragmatic response by the magistracy to increasingly troubling evidential p r o b l e m s . T h o s e w o m e n , midwives and o t h e r s , w h o affirmed that their searches had revealed the D e v i l ' s m a r k r e i n f o r c e d , often unwittingly, ministerial theories c o n c e r n i n g the satanic d i m e n s i o n o f w i t c h c r a f t and the inferiority o f w o m e n . But a r g u m e n t s a m o n g the searchers and the ambiguous language with which they often hedged their findings m a y equally have led t o elite c o n c e r n that, the intellectual regarding the b o t h the efficacy o f the test and, b e y o n d viability o f

d e m o n o l o g i c a l s p e c u l a t i o n u p o n w h i c h i t r e s t e d so u n e a s i l y .

1 6 4 7 , ' s o m e t h a t w e r e t h e r e t h a t p r e t e n d e d t o h a v e skill in t h e d i s c o v e r y o f w i t c h -

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V
T h e p r o s e c u t i o n o f w i t c h e s in e a r l y m o d e r n E n g l a n d , a n d t h u s t h e r o l e o f w o m e n as w i t n e s s e s , is a p r o c e s s o f c o n s i d e r a b l e c u l t u r a l c o m p l e x i t y . It i n v o l v e d a c o n t i n uous b u t shifting dialogue a m o n g a variety o f social and professional g r o u p s . P o p u l a r belief, shared by m e n and w o m e n , was that the m y s t e r i o u s , harmful p o w e r that c o n s t i t u t e d w i t c h c r a f t w o u l d i n h e r e in c e r t a i n w o m e n . T h e r e s p o n s e t o this p o w e r , t o t h e t h r e a t s t h a t it p o s e d t o l i f e , t o h e a l t h , t o p r o p e r t y , a n d t o d o m e s t i c r o u t i n e s , was essentially instrumental: t o placate o r 'curry favour' with the witch; to secure an e f f e c t i v e c o u n t e r - m a g i c a g a i n s t a s s a u l t s . In 1 5 6 3 t h e e l i t e , f o l l o w i n g t h e e x a m p l e o f t h e i r c o n t i n e n t a l c o u n t e r p a r t s , c o n s t r u c t e d a m a c h i n e r y o f p r o s e c u t i o n a n d so a d d e d a n e w w e a p o n in t h e a r m o u r y a g a i n s t w i t c h c r a f t . V i c t i m s c o u l d n o w c h o o s e t o d e s t r o y t h e i r assailants t h r o u g h t h e f o r m a l l y s a n c t i o n e d p r o c e d u r e s o f t h e c o u r t s . T h e opportunity created by the legislation was e m p l o y e d by b o t h m e n and w o m e n , b u t m e n , u s u a l l y t h o s e o f s o m e s t a t u s in t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s , w e r e t h e m o r e e n g a g e d p a r t i c i p a n t s . It w a s t h e y w h o b r o u g h t c h a r g e s a n d w h o o r c h e s t r a t e d t h e p r o s e c u tion, organizing their neighbours t o testify t o earlier e x p e r i e n c e s o f the accused's m a l i c e . W o m e n , t h o u g h a c t i v e in t h e c r e a t i o n o f l o c a l s u s p i c i o n s t h r o u g h g o s s i p , a n d in t h e d e p l o y m e n t o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r o t e c t i v e t h e r a p i e s a n d t e c h n i q u e s t h a t r a t i f i e d a c c u s a t i o n , w e r e a n c i l l a r i e s in t h e f o r m a l p r o c e d u r e s o f q u a r t e r and assizes. T h o s e w h o c h o s e t o e m p l o y t h e official m a c h i n e r y a g a i n s t w i t c h e s w e r e o b l i g e d t o shape the local fears and r u m o u r s f r o m which the p r o s e c u t i o n e m a n a t e d t o the f o r m a l i t i e s o f t h e l a w as d e f i n e d b y t h e s t a t u t e s a n d t o t h e r e a d i n g o f t h e s e magistrates and j u d g e s . T h e changing c o n c e r n s o f t h e latter g r o u p s explain g r o w i n g p r o p o r t i o n o f f e m a l e w i t n e s s e s in w i t c h c r a f t t r i a l s , a p p a r e n t in t h e by the sessions

presuppositions. So the animals w h o frequently attended the witch w e r e diabolized as f a m i l i a r s p i r i t s o r e m a n a t i o n s o f S a t a n h i m s e l f . F r o m this t h e o l o g i c a l r e a d i n g o f f o l k l o r e e m e r g e d t h e t e s t o f t h e w i t c h ' s m a r k in its i n s u l a r E n g l i s h f o r m , a n d w i t h it t h e c o m m i t t e e s o f w o m e n w h o s e a r c h e d t h e a c c u s e d . All w i t n e s s e s , b u t particularly those girls w h o d e s c r i b e d their possession and the m a t r o n s w h o discovered the genital m a r k s , ratified the misogynous rationalizations p r o f f e r e d bv the divines t o explain the p r e p o n d e r a n t n u m b e r s o f w o m e n accused o f witchcraft. T h e i r testimony apparently confirmed that w o m e n w e r e the w e a k e r s e x , m o r e easily s e d u c e d b y s a t a n i c t e m p t a t i o n . B u t t h e m a c h i n e r y in w h i c h t h e v b e c a m e i n v o l v e d , o f t e n at t h e i n s t i g a t i o n o f m e n , w a s c r e a t e d , c o n t r o l l e d , a n d u l t i m a t e l y d i s c a r d e d b y t h e m a g i s t e r i a l a n d c l e r i c a l e l i t e . A n d it w a s t h e y w h o r e a d l o c a l e x p e r i e n c e in t e r m s o f a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e l l e c t u a l s c h e m e . T h e c o n s t r u c t i o n section of divergent and shifting systems o f ideas. We can show that figures of a p r o s e c u t i o n was a c o m p l e x , dialogic p r o c e s s , involving m a n y actors, and the interfemale is n o t p a r t i c i p a t i o n as w i t n e s s in t h e E n g l i s h t r i a l s w a s e x t e n s i v e a n d , proportionately,

g r o w i n g in t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . B u t t h e s o c i a l m e a n i n g o f t h e s e gories for any discussion o f witchcraft beliefs and p r o s e c u t i o n s .

s o easily r e a d . T h e y c e r t a i n l y d o n o t e l i m i n a t e ' g e n d e r ' o r ' m i s o g y n y ' as k e y c a t e -

Notes
1 K e i t h T h o m a s , Religion Macfarlane, 2 Witchcraft D e m o s , Entertaining in the Shape Wicked 3 and the Decline in Tudor and of Magic ( L o n d o n 1 9 7 1 ) , 5 6 8 . S e e also Alan Stuart England (London 1970), 160; John Devil and

Satan

(New York 1982), 64.

1630s

S e e C h a p t e r 2 0 in this b o o k by C h r i s t i n a L a r n e r ; also C a r o l F . K a r l s e n , The of a Woman ( N e w Y o r k 1 9 8 7 ) , 2 2 6 ; M a r i a n n e H e s t e r , Lewd Women (London 1 9 9 2 ) , 2 0 1 . Witches

and after 1 6 6 0 . T h e judiciary w e r e n o l o n g e r p r e p a r e d to entertain indictments for s t o c k - d a m a g e , t o w h i c h m e n had testified; fearful m o r t a l illness o r m e n t a l anguish a l o n e w o u l d sustain a p r o s e c u t i o n and w o m e n , a t t e n d a n t at t h e s i c k b e d o f t h e v i c t i m , w e r e b e t t e r p l a c e d t o give e v i d e n c e . T h e c o n c e r n s o f t h e legal elite also e x p l a i n t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f w o m e n in t h e s e a r c h e s f o r t h o s e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s tics w h i c h indicated c o n j u n c t i o n with diabolic familiars. L a w y e r s , t r o u b l e d by the absence o f evidence that m e t increasingly strict n o r m s for conviction, e x p e r i m e n t e d with a n u m b e r o f p r o c e d u r e s that might provide tangible p r o o f o f guilt or innoc e n c e . T h e search for the w i t c h ' s m a r k by c o m m i t t e e s o f w o m e n , approved bv the leading practical manual for local magistrates, proved the m o s t enduring o f these o f f i c i a l c o n f i r m a t o r y t e s t s . Its j u s t i f i c a t i o n lay in t h e d e v e l o p i n g t h e o r i e s o f t h e o t h e r m a j o r p r o f e s s i o n a l g r o u p i n v o l v e d in w i t c h c r a f t p r o s e c u t i o n , t h e d i v i n e s . W i t c h c r a f t p r o s e c u t i o n s a f t e r 1 5 6 3 p l a c e d t h e c l e r g y , w e l l r e a d in t h e c o n t i n e n t a l t h e o r y o f t h e e s s e n t i a l l y d i a b o l i c o r i g i n s o f t h e o f f e n c e , in a q u a n d a r y . M u c h o f t h e p o p u l a r b e l i e f t h a t e m e r g e d in t h e c o u r t s s e e m e d t o t r i v i a l i z e w i t c h c r a f t a n d t o g i v e a m m u n i t i o n t o s c e p t i c s . In c o n s e q u e n c e , e n g a g e d d i v i n e s u s e d e v e r y o p p o r tunity to educate the populace concerning their witchcraft-as-heresy formulation, 11 to transform popular belief with, to judge by the mid-seventeenth-century evidence, s o m e s u c c e s s . Y e t in t h i s p r o c e s s a s p e c t s o f p o p u l a r b e l i e f w e r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e t h e o r i e s o f t h e d i v i n e s . T h e f e a t u r e s o f w i t c h c r a f t t h a t e m e r g e d r e g u l a r l y in t h e t r i a l s c o u l d n o t easily b e d i s m i s s e d , a n d h a d t o b e a c c o m m o d a t e d t o theological 10 4 5 6 7 8 9

J . A . S h a r p e , ' W i t c h c r a f t and W o m e n in S e v e n t e e n t h - C e n t u r y E n g l a n d : N o r t h e r n E v i d e n c e ' Continuity C h a p t e r 2 2 in this c o l l e c t i o n . C . L ' E s t r a n g e E w e n , Witch Hunting o p s e s o f all t h e assize i n d i c t m e n t s . and Change,

Some

6 ( 1 9 9 1 ) , 1 7 9 9 9 . S e e also S h a r p e ' s

and Witch Trials ( L o n d o n 1 9 2 9 ) , p r o v i d e s syn-

F o r full citations o f t h e archival s o u r c e s used in this c h a p t e r , see t h e original v e r sion in Past and Present, 140 (1993), 145-79. T h e s a m p l e consists o f t h o s e assizes at w h i c h E s s e x w i t c h c r a f t cases w e r e d e t e r m i n e d ; t w e n t y c o u r t s b e t w e e n 1 6 0 0 and 1 6 2 4 ; six b e t w e e n 1 6 6 0 and 1 6 7 5 . F o r a g e n e r a l discussion o f t h e 'fall in t h e levels o f i n d i c t m e n t f o r England 81. Witchcraft (London 1720), 'The 15 and Witch Trials, Essay Concerning property o f f e n c e s ' , s e e J . A. S h a r p e , Crime in Early Modern T r a n s c r i b e d in E w e n , Witch Hunting Francis Hutchinson, An Historical 5 9 - 6 0 ; P R O , ASSI 3 5 / 1 3 5 / 1 4 . F o r t h e local conflicts s u r r o u n d i n g this p r o s e c u t i o n , (1982), 4 8 - 7 1 . F o r f u r t h e r discussion o f this issue, see C l i v e H o l m e s , ' P o p u l a r C u l t u r e ? W i t c h e s , Magistrates Understanding and Divines in Early Modern England', in S. L. Kaplan ed., Popular Culture (Berlin 1 9 8 4 ) , 945. see Phyllis G u s k i n , Century Studies, C o n t e x t o f W i t c h c r a f t : T h e C a s e o f J a n e W e n h a m ' , Eighteenth (London 1 9 8 4 ) , 5860.

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321

12 13 14 15

B a s e d on an analysis o f t h e E s s e x d e f a m a t i o n cases listed in M a c f a r l a n e , in Tudor and Stuart England, E d w a r d F a i r f a x , Daemonologia, T h o m a s P o t t s , The Wonderfull 1 6 1 3 ) , sigs C , E l v , E 2 v . W . W . , A True and Just the Witches, Rosen, Witchcraft Recorde, of the Information, Examination 278301.

Witchcraft

31 32 33 34

J o s e p h G l a n v i l l , Saducismus 1, 1 7 - 2 3 . W . W . , True and Just Recorde, M a t t h e w H o p k i n s , Discovery Witches of Northamptonshire,

Triumphatus,

2 n d edn ( L o n d o n 1 6 8 2 , W i n g G 8 2 3 ) pt and Witch Trials, 319.

ed. William Grainge (Harrogate 1 8 8 2 ) , 325. Discoverie of Witches in the Countie of Lancaster (London of All

sig. A 3 ; E w e n , Witch Hunting of Witches ( 1 6 4 7 ) , 3. Water:

sig. C 2 . F o r m o r e g e n e r a l discussion o f t h e w a t e r by Fire and The Medieval Judicial Ordeal

and Confession

o r d e a l , see R o b e r t B a r t l e t t , Trial (Oxford 1986). 35 36 E w e n , Witchcraft Most Strange Discoverie 37 and Demonianism,

at S. Oses in Essex ( L o n d o n 1 5 8 2 ) . T h e t e x t is r e p r o d u c e d in B a r b a r a in England Relation (University of Massachusetts 1 9 9 1 ) , 10357. This of the Informations Wiltshire JP of against 1672, Three Witches ( E x e t e r 1 6 8 2 ) , Gentleman's 38 (London 1682). of Sorcery and Witchcraft 39 and Witch Trials, and Antiquities 127, 185. 40 of the County and Demonianism, 23997. 42 of Leicester, 4 vols ( L o n d o n Strange 41 2 0 9 1 2 ; The Most Account of the Discovery

7 5 ; W . W . , True and Just Recorde, sig. 0 4 ; Henry Goodcole,

sigs C 3 , D 3 . The Wonderfull

' a n o n y m o u s ' t r a c t is o b v i o u s l y D a r c y ' s o w n w o r k . 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 A True and Impartial esp. 1 7 - 2 3 . L e t t e r o f an a n o n y m o u s Magazine, A Tryal of Witches, p u b l i s h e d in t h e 1 0 2 pt T ( l 8 3 2 ) , 4 9 2 . at the Assizes Held at Bury St Edmonds

and Admirable

Discoverie,

( L o n d o n 1 6 2 1 ) , sigs B 2 B 3 . 4 t h edn ( L o n d o n 1 6 3 0 ) , [ 2 7 3 ] : s e c o n d pagiWitchcraft Magic Trials ( B a l t i m o r e , M d in llth-Century

M i c h a e l D a l t o n , The Countrey Justice, nation, after 2 7 6 . S a n f o r d F o x , Science Massachusetts Social and Justice:

The Massachusetts Witchcraft, 101-3.

1 9 6 8 ) , 8390; Richard Weisman,

and Religion

F r a n c i s B r a g g e , A Full and Impartial (London 1 7 1 2 ) , 28. E w e n , Witch Hunting Ibid., 2 9 9 . J o h n N i c h o l s , The History and Admirable Discoverie

(Amherst, Mass. 1 9 8 4 ) , 8 8 , 3 (1990), 1-26.

D a v i d H a r l e y , ' H i s t o r i a n s as D e m o n o l o g i s t s : T h e M y t h o f t h e M i d w i f e - W i t c h ' , Hist. Medicine, J o h n H a l e , A Modest Enquiry S. C o c k b u r n , Introduction into the Nature of Witchcraft (Boston, Mass. 1 7 0 2 ) , 7 2 .

to the Assize Calendars

( L o n d o n 1 9 8 5 ) , 1 2 2 . T h e r e is a

1 7 9 5 1 8 1 1 ) , ii pt 2 ; E w e n , Witchcraft

v e r y useful discussion o f t h e various c o u r t - a p p o i n t e d b o d i e s m a d e up o f w o m e n in J a m e s C . O l d h a m , ' O n Pleading t h e B e l l y : A H i s t o r y o f t h e J u r y o f M a t r o n s ' , Criminal Justice Hist., 6 (1985), 1-64. G i l b e r t , ' W i t c h c r a f t in E s s e x ' , 2 1 1 , 2 1 5 .

of the Three Witches of Warboys ( L o n d o n 1 5 9 3 ) , sig. O v . T h i s

last t e x t is r e p r o d u c e d in R o s e n , Witchcraft, 23

T h e a u t h o r c a l c u l a t e s that in English cases that w e r e b e l i e v e d t o i n v o l v e p o s s e s sion t h r o u g h t h e a g e n c y o f a w i t c h , j u s t o v e r 8 0 p e r c e n t o f v i c t i m s w e r e f e m a l e . In N e w E n g l a n d t h e figure is 8 6 p e r c e n t . S e e C h a p t e r 1 9 in this b o o k f o r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n p o s s e s s i o n and g e n d e r in F r a n c e .

24

I[ohn] D j e n i s o n ] , The Most Wonderfull Goodenige Witchcraft

and True Storie,

of a Certaine

Witch Named of

Alse the

( L o n d o n 1 5 9 7 ) , 3 ; R i c h a r d B a d d e l e y , The Boy of Bilson Cases, 1648-1706,

(London 1622),

4 6 ; C o t t o n M a t h e r , ' A B r a n d P l u c k ' d o u t o f t h e B u r n i n g ' , in Narratives ed. G . L. Burr ( N e w Y o r k 1 9 1 4 ) , 2 5 9 - 6 0 . 25 The Witches of Northamptonshire Witchcraft, Healing 26 27 in Seventeenth-Century

( L o n d o n 1 6 1 2 ) , sigs B 2 C I . T h i s t e x t is in R o s e n , Bedlam: Madness, Anxiety and England (Cambridge 1 9 8 1 ) , 2 1 2 . in Elizabethan London Practisers (London 1 9 9 1 ) , (London 1619),

3 4 4 5 6 . S e e M i c h a e l M a c D o n a l d , Mystical and Hysteria of Severall

M i c h a e l M a c D o n a l d , Witchcraft J o h n C o t t a , A Short Discoverie

x x x v i ; s e e , in g e n e r a l , x x x i i i x x x i x . Sorts of Ignorant 6 9 . T h e a c c o u n t o f t h e possession o f t h e T h r o c k m o r t o n c h i l d r e n , p u b l i s h e d in 1 5 9 3 , was m a d e available t o t h e d e m o n i a c W i l l i a m S o m m e r s at N o t t i n g h a m in 1 5 9 7 8 , and t o Ann G u n t e r in B e r k s h i r e in 1 6 0 4 . S a m u e l H a r s n e t , A Discovery the Fraudulent 28 Practices of J. Darrell Concerning the Pretended and Grevous the Doctrine Concerning Possession of W. (London 1 5 9 9 ) , 9 3 . J o h n D a r r e l l , A True Narration Persons in Lancashire of Demoniah.es ination, 29 30 Dispossession is Applyed of the Strange Wherein Vexation by the Devil, and of 7 and W. Somers: of Possession Dispossession and of Somers

( L o n d o n 1 6 0 0 ) , first p a g i n a t i o n , 2 , 3 , 9 , and s e c o n d pagthe Certaine Possession in Lancashire (Middleburg), 4 5 .

1 0 ; G e o r g e M o r e , A True Discourse of 7 Persons in One Familie

T h e s e a r c h was e m p l o y e d in a V i r g i n i a case o f 1 7 0 6 and in t h e a c c u s a t i o n against J a n e W e n h a m o f W a l k e r n in 1 7 1 2 . G i f f o r d , Dialogue Concerning Witches and Witchcraftes, 223.