Global warming

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search For past climate change see Paleoclimatology and Geologic temperature record. For scientific and political disputes, see Global warming controversy and Climate change consensus.

1880-2009 global mean surface temperature difference relative to the 19611990 average

Comparison of ground based (blue) and satellite based (red: UAH; green: RSS) records of temperature variations since 1979. Trends plotted since January 1982.

Mean surface temperature change for the period 2000 to 2009 relative to the average temperatures from 1951 to 1980.[1] Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of Earth's near-surface air and oceans since the mid-20th century and its projected continuation. According to the 2007 Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), global surface temperature increased 0.74 0.18 C (1.33 0.32 F) during the 20th century.[2][A] Most of the observed temperature increase since the middle of the 20th century has been caused by increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases, which result from human activity such as the burning of fossil fuel and deforestation.[3] Global dimming, a result of increasing concentrations of atmospheric aerosols that block sunlight

from reaching the surface, has partially countered the effects of warming induced by greenhouse gases. Climate model projections summarized in the latest IPCC report indicate that the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 1.1 to 6.4 C (2.0 to 11.5 F) during the 21st century.[2] The uncertainty in this estimate arises from the use of models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations and the use of differing estimates of future greenhouse gas emissions. An increase in global temperature will cause sea levels to rise and will change the amount and pattern of precipitation, probably including expansion of subtropical deserts.[4] Warming is expected to be strongest in the Arctic and would be associated with continuing retreat of glaciers, permafrost and sea ice. Other likely effects include changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, species extinctions, and changes in agricultural yields. Warming and related changes will vary from region to region around the globe, though the nature of these regional variations is uncertain.[5] As a result of contemporary increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide, the oceans have become more acidic; a result that is predicted to continue.[6][7] The scientific consensus is that anthropogenic global warming is occurring.[8][9][10][B] Nevertheless, political and public debate continues. The Kyoto Protocol is aimed at stabilizing greenhouse gas concentration to prevent a "dangerous anthropogenic interference".[11] As of November 2009, 187 states had signed and ratified the protocol.[12]

Temperature changes
Main article: Temperature record

Two millennia of mean surface temperatures according to different reconstructions, each smoothed on a decadal scale, with the actual recorded temperatures overlaid in black. Evidence for warming of the climate system includes observed increases in global average air and ocean temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and rising global average sea level.[13][14][15][16][17] The most common measure of global warming is the trend in globally averaged temperature near the Earth's surface. Expressed as a linear trend, this temperature rose by 0.74 0.18 C over the period 19062005. The rate of warming over the last half of that period was almost double that for the period as a whole (0.13 0.03 C per decade, versus 0.07 C 0.02 C per decade). The urban heat island effect is estimated to account for about 0.002 C of warming per decade since 1900.[18] Temperatures in the lower troposphere have increased between 0.13 and 0.22 C (0.22 and 0.4 F) per decade since 1979, according to satellite temperature measurements.

Temperature is believed to have been relatively stable over the one or two thousand years before 1850, with regionally varying fluctuations such as the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age.[19] Estimates by NASA's Goddard Institute for Space Studies (GISS) and the National Climatic Data Center show that 2005 was the warmest year since reliable, widespread instrumental measurements became available in the late 19th century, exceeding the previous record set in 1998 by a few hundredths of a degree.[20][21] Estimates prepared by the World Meteorological Organization and the Climatic Research Unit show 2005 as the second warmest year, behind 1998.[22][23] Temperatures in 1998 were unusually warm because the strongest El Nio in the past century occurred during that year.[24] Global temperature is subject to short-term fluctuations that overlay long term trends and can temporarily mask them. The relative stability in temperature from 2002 to 2009 is consistent with such an episode.[25][26] Temperature changes vary over the globe. Since 1979, land temperatures have increased about twice as fast as ocean temperatures (0.25 C per decade against 0.13 C per decade).[27] Ocean temperatures increase more slowly than land temperatures because of the larger effective heat capacity of the oceans and because the ocean loses more heat by evaporation.[28] The Northern Hemisphere warms faster than the Southern Hemisphere because it has more land and because it has extensive areas of seasonal snow and sea-ice cover subject to ice-albedo feedback. Although more greenhouse gases are emitted in the Northern than Southern Hemisphere this does not contribute to the difference in warming because the major greenhouse gases persist long enough to mix between hemispheres.[29] The thermal inertia of the oceans and slow responses of other indirect effects mean that climate can take centuries or longer to adjust to changes in forcing. Climate commitment studies indicate that even if greenhouse gases were stabilized at 2000 levels, a further warming of about 0.5 C (0.9 F) would still occur.[30]

External forcings
External forcing refers to processes external to the climate system (though not necessarily external to Earth) that influence climate. Climate responds to several types of external forcing, such as radiative forcing due to changes in atmospheric composition (mainly greenhouse gas concentrations), changes in solar luminosity, volcanic eruptions, and variations in Earth's orbit around the Sun.[31] Attribution of recent climate change focuses on the first three types of forcing. Orbital cycles vary slowly over tens of thousands of years and thus are too gradual to have caused the temperature changes observed in the past century.

Greenhouse gases
Main articles: Greenhouse effect, Radiative forcing, and Atmospheric CO2

Greenhouse effect schematic showing energy flows between space, the atmosphere, and earth's surface. Energy exchanges are expressed in watts per square meter (W/m2).

Recent atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) increases. Monthly CO2 measurements display seasonal oscillations in overall yearly uptrend; each year's maximum occurs during the Northern Hemisphere's late spring, and declines during its growing season as plants remove some atmospheric CO2. The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared radiation by gases in the atmosphere warm a planet's lower atmosphere and surface. It was proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824 and was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896.[32] The question in terms of global warming is how the strength of the presumed greenhouse effect changes when human activity increases the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases have a mean warming effect of about 33 C (59 F).[33][C] The major greenhouse gases are water vapor, which causes about 3670 percent of the greenhouse effect; carbon dioxide (CO2), which causes 926 percent; methane (CH4), which causes 49 percent; and ozone (O3), which causes 37 percent.[34] [35][36] Clouds also affect the radiation balance, but they are composed of liquid water or ice and so have different effects on radiation from water vapor. Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to increased radiative forcing from CO2, methane, tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide. The concentrations of CO2 and methane have increased by 36% and 148% respectively since 1750.[37] These levels are much higher than at any time during the last 650,000 years, the period for which reliable data has been extracted from ice cores.[38][39][40] Less direct geological evidence indicates that CO2 values higher than this were last seen about 20 million years ago.[41] Fossil fuel burning has produced about three-quarters of the increase in CO2 from human activity over the past 20 years. Most of the rest is due to land-use change, particularly deforestation.[42]

Over the last three decades of the 20th century, GDP per capita and population growth were the main drivers of increases in greenhouse gas emissions.[43] CO2 emissions are continuing to rise due to the burning of fossil fuels and land-use change.[44][45]:71 Emissions scenarios, estimates of changes in future emission levels of greenhouse gases, have been projected that depend upon uncertain economic, sociological, technological, and natural developments.[46] In most scenarios, emissions continue to rise over the century, while in a few, emissions are reduced.[47][48] These emission scenarios, combined with carbon cycle modelling, have been used to produce estimates of how atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases will change in the future. Using the six IPCC SRES "marker" scenarios, models suggest that by the year 2100, the atmospheric concentration of CO2 could range between 541 and 970 ppm.[49] This is an increase of 90-250% above the concentration in the year 1750. Fossil fuel reserves are sufficient to reach these levels and continue emissions past 2100 if coal, tar sands or methane clathrates are extensively exploited.[50] The destruction of stratospheric ozone by chlorofluorocarbons is sometimes mentioned in relation to global warming. Although there are a few areas of linkage, the relationship between the two is not strong. Reduction of stratospheric ozone has a cooling influence. [51] Substantial ozone depletion did not occur until the late 1970s.[52] Ozone in the troposphere (the lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere) does contribute to surface warming.[53]

Aerosols and soot

Ship tracks over the Atlantic Ocean on the east coast of the United States. The climatic impacts from aerosol forcing could have a large effect on climate through the indirect effect. Global dimming, a gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth's surface, has partially counteracted global warming from 1960 to the present.[54] The main cause of this dimming is aerosols produced by volcanoes and pollutants. These aerosols exert a cooling effect by increasing the reflection of incoming sunlight. The effects of the products of fossil fuel combustionCO2 and aerosolshave largely offset one another in recent decades, so that net warming has been due to the increase in nonCO2 greenhouse gases such as methane.[55] Radiative forcing due to aerosols is temporally limited due to wet deposition which causes aerosols to have an atmospheric lifetime of one week. Carbon dioxide has a lifetime of a century or more, and as such, changes in aerosol concentrations will only delay climate changes due to carbon dioxide.[56]

In addition to their direct effect by scattering and absorbing solar radiation, aerosols have indirect effects on the radiation budget.[57] Sulfate aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei and thus lead to clouds that have more and smaller cloud droplets. These clouds reflect solar radiation more efficiently than clouds with fewer and larger droplets.[58] This effect also causes droplets to be of more uniform size, which reduces growth of raindrops and makes the cloud more reflective to incoming sunlight.[59] Indirect effects are most noticeable in marine stratiform clouds, and have very little radiative effect on convective clouds. Aerosols, particularly their indirect effects, represent the largest uncertainty in radiative forcing.[60] Soot may cool or warm the surface, depending on whether it is airborne or deposited. Atmospheric soot aerosols directly absorb solar radiation, which heats the atmosphere and cools the surface. In isolated areas with high soot production, such as rural India, as much as 50% of surface warming due to greenhouse gases may be masked by atmospheric brown clouds.[61] Atmospheric soot always contributes additional warming to the climate system. When deposited, especially on glaciers or on ice in arctic regions, the lower surface albedo can also directly heat the surface.[62] The influences of aerosols, including black carbon, are most pronounced in the tropics and sub-tropics, particularly in Asia, while the effects of greenhouse gases are dominant in the extratropics and southern hemisphere.[63]

Solar variation
Main article: Solar variation

Solar variation over thirty years. Variations in solar output have been the cause of past climate changes.[64] The effect of changes in solar forcing in recent decades is uncertain, but small, with some studies showing a slight cooling effect,[65] while others studies suggest a slight warming effect.[31]
[66][67][68]

Greenhouse gases and solar forcing affect temperatures in different ways. While both increased solar activity and increased greenhouse gases are expected to warm the troposphere, an increase in solar activity should warm the stratosphere while an increase in greenhouse gases should cool the stratosphere.[31] Observations show that temperatures in the stratosphere have been cooling since 1979, when satellite measurements became available. Radiosonde (weather balloon) data from the pre-satellite era show cooling since 1958, though there is greater uncertainty in the early radiosonde record.[69]

A related hypothesis, proposed by Henrik Svensmark, is that magnetic activity of the sun deflects cosmic rays that may influence the generation of cloud condensation nuclei and thereby affect the climate.[70] Other research has found no relation between warming in recent decades and cosmic rays.[71][72] The influence of cosmic rays on cloud cover is about a factor of 100 lower than needed to explain the observed changes in clouds or to be a significant contributor to present-day climate change.[73]

Feedback
Main article: Climate change feedback Feedback is a process in which changing one quantity changes a second quantity, and the change in the second quantity in turn changes the first. Positive feedback amplifies the change in the first quantity while negative feedback reduces it. Feedback is important in the study of global warming because it may amplify or diminish the effect of a particular process. The main positive feedback in global warming is the tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, a significant greenhouse gas. The main negative feedback is radiative cooling, which increases as the fourth power of temperature; the amount of heat radiated from the Earth into space increases with the temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere. Imperfect understanding of feedbacks is a major cause of uncertainty and concern about global warming.

Climate models
Main article: Global climate model

Calculations of global warming prepared in or before 2001 from a range of climate models under the SRES A2 emissions scenario, which assumes no action is taken to reduce emissions and regionally divided economic development.

The geographic distribution of surface warming during the 21st century calculated by the HadCM3 climate model if a business as usual scenario is assumed for economic growth

and greenhouse gas emissions. In this figure, the globally averaged warming corresponds to 3.0 C (5.4 F). The main tools for projecting future climate changes are mathematical models based on physical principles including fluid dynamics, thermodynamics and radiative transfer. Although they attempt to include as many processes as possible, simplifications of the actual climate system are inevitable because of the constraints of available computer power and limitations in knowledge of the climate system. All modern climate models are in fact combinations of models for different parts of the Earth. These include an atmospheric model for air movement, temperature, clouds, and other atmospheric properties; an ocean model that predicts temperature, salt content, and circulation of ocean waters; models for ice cover on land and sea; and a model of heat and moisture transfer from soil and vegetation to the atmosphere. Some models also include treatments of chemical and biological processes.[74] Warming due to increasing levels of greenhouse gases is not an assumption of the models; rather, it is an end result from the interaction of greenhouse gases with radiative transfer and other physical processes.[75] Although much of the variation in model outcomes depends on the greenhouse gas emissions used as inputs, the temperature effect of a specific greenhouse gas concentration (climate sensitivity) varies depending on the model used. The representation of clouds is one of the main sources of uncertainty in present-generation models.[76] Global climate model projections of future climate most often have used estimates of greenhouse gas emissions from the IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES). In addition to human-caused emissions, some models also include a simulation of the carbon cycle; this generally shows a positive feedback, though this response is uncertain. Some observational studies also show a positive feedback.[77][78][79] Including uncertainties in future greenhouse gas concentrations and climate sensitivity, the IPCC anticipates a warming of 1.1 C to 6.4 C (2.0 F to 11.5 F) by the end of the 21st century, relative to 19801999.[2] Models are also used to help investigate the causes of recent climate change by comparing the observed changes to those that the models project from various natural and human-derived causes. Although these models do not unambiguously attribute the warming that occurred from approximately 1910 to 1945 to either natural variation or human effects, they do indicate that the warming since 1970 is dominated by man-made greenhouse gas emissions.[31] The physical realism of models is tested by examining their ability to simulate current or past climates.[80] Current climate models produce a good match to observations of global temperature changes over the last century, but do not simulate all aspects of climate.[42] Not all effects of global warming are accurately predicted by the climate models used by the IPCC. Observed Arctic shrinkage has been faster than that predicted.[81] Precipitation increased proportional to atmospheric humidity, and hence significantly faster than current global climate models predict.[82][83]

Attributed and expected effects

Main articles: Effects of global warming and Regional effects of global warming Global warming may be detected in natural, ecological or social systems as a change having statistical significance.[84] Attribution of these changes e.g., to natural or human activities, is the next step following detection.[85]

Natural systems

Sparse records indicate that glaciers have been retreating since the early 1800s. In the 1950s measurements began that allow the monitoring of glacial mass balance, reported to the WGMS and the NSIDC. Global warming has been detected in a number of systems. Some of these changes, e.g., based on the instrumental temperature record, have been described in the section on temperature changes. Rising sea levels and observed decreases in snow and ice extent are consistent with warming.[17] Most of the increase in global average temperature since the mid-20th century is, with high probability,[D] atttributable to human-induced changes in greenhouse gas concentrations.[86] Even with current policies to reduce emissions, global emissions are still expected to continue to grow over the coming decades.[87] Over the course of the 21st century, increases in emissions at or above their current rate would very likely induce changes in the climate system larger than those observed in the 20th century. In the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, across a range of future emission scenarios, model-based estimates of sea level rise for the end of the 21st century (the year 20902099, relative to 1980-1999) range from 0.18 to 0.59 m. These estimates, however, were not given a likelihood due to a lack of scientific understanding, nor was an upper bound given for sea level rise. Over the course of centuries to millennia, the melting of ice sheets could result in sea level rise of 46 m or more.[88] Changes in regional climate are expected to include greater warming over land, with most warming at high northern latitudes, and least warming over the Southern Ocean and parts of the North Atlantic Ocean.[87] Snow cover area and sea ice extent are expected to decrease. The frequency of hot extremes, heat waves, and heavy precipitation will very likely increase.

Ecological systems
In terrestrial ecosystems, the earlier timing of spring events, and poleward and upward shifts in plant and animal ranges, have been linked with high confidence to recent warming.[17] Future climate change is expected to particularly affect certain ecosystems, including tundra, mangroves, and coral reefs.[87] It is expected that most ecosystems will be affected by higher atmospheric CO2 levels, combined with higher global temperatures. [89] Overall, it is expected that climate change will result in the extinction of many species and reduced diversity of ecosystems.[90]

Social systems
There is some evidence of regional climate change affecting systems related to human activities, including agricultural and forestry management activities at higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.[17] Future climate change is expected to particularly affect some sectors and systems related to human activities.[87] Low-lying coastal systems are vulnerable to sea level rise and storm surge. Human health will be at increased risk in populations with limited capacity to adapt to climate change. It is expected that some regions will be particularly affected by climate change, including the Arctic, Africa, small islands, and Asian and African megadeltas. In some areas the effects on agriculture, industry and health could be mixed, or even beneficial in certain respects, but overall it is expected that these benefits will be outweighed by negative effects.[91]

Responses to global warming

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is an approach to mitigation. Emissions may be sequestered from fossil fuel power plants, or removed during processing in hydrogen production. When used on plants, it is known as bio-energy with carbon capture and storage.

Mitigation
Main article: Global warming mitigation See also: Carbon capture and storage and Fee and dividend Reducing the amount of future climate change is called mitigation of climate change. The IPCC defines mitigation as activities that reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, or enhance the capacity of carbon sinks to absorb GHGs from the atmosphere.[92] Many

countries, both developing and developed, are aiming to use cleaner, less polluting, technologies.[45]:192 Use of these technologies aids mitigation and could result in substantial reductions in CO2 emissions. Policies include targets for emissions reductions, increased use of renewable energy, and increased energy efficiency. Studies indicate substantial potential for future reductions in emissions.[93] Since even in the most optimistic scenario, fossil fuels are going to be used for years to come, mitigation may also involve carbon capture and storage, a process that traps CO2 produced by factories and gas or coal power stations and then stores it, usually underground.[94]

Adaptation
Main article: Adaptation to global warming Other policy responses include adaptation to climate change. Adaptation to climate change may be planned, e.g., by local or national government, or spontaneous, i.e., done privately without government intervention.[95] The ability to adapt is closely linked to social and economic development.[93] Even societies with high capacities to adapt are still vulnerable to climate change. Planned adaptation is already occurring on a limited basis. The barriers, limits, and costs of future adaptation are not fully understood. Another policy response is engineering of the climate (geoengineering). This policy response is sometimes grouped together with mitigation.[96] Geoengineering is largely unproven, and reliable cost estimates for it have not yet been published.[97]

UNFCCC
Most countries are Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).[98] The ultimate objective of the Convention is to prevent "dangerous" human interference of the climate system.[99] As is stated in the Convention, this requires that GHGs are stabilized in the atmosphere at a level where ecosystems can adapt naturally to climate change, food production is not threatened, and economic development can proceed in a sustainable fashion. The UNFCCC recognizes differences among countries in their responsibility to act on climate change.[100] In the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC, most developed countries (listed in Annex I of the treaty) took on legally binding commitments to reduce their emissions.[101] Policy measures taken in response to these commitments have reduced emissions.[102] For many developing (non-Annex I) countries, reducing poverty is their overriding aim.[103] At the 15th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties, held in 2009 at Copenhagen, several UNFCCC Parties produced the Copenhagen Accord.[104] Parties agreeing with the Accord aim to limit the future increase in global mean temperature to below 2 C.[105]

Views on global warming

Main articles: Global warming controversy and Politics of global warming See also: Scientific opinion on climate change and Climate change consensus

Per capita greenhouse gas emissions in 2000, including land-use change.

Total greenhouse gas emissions in 2000, including land-use change. There are different views over what the appropriate policy response to climate change should be.[106][107] These competing views weigh the benefits of limiting emissions of greenhouse gases against the costs. In general, it seems likely that climate change will impose greater damages and risks in poorer regions.[108]

Politics
Developing and developed countries have made different arguments over who should bear the burden of costs for cutting emissions. Developing countries often concentrate on per capita emissions, that is, the total emissions of a country divided by its population.[109] Per capita emissions in the industrialized countries are typically as much as ten times the average in developing countries.[110] This is used to make the argument that the real problem of climate change is due to the profligate and unsustainable lifestyles of those living in rich countries.[109] On the other hand, commentators from developed countries more often point out that it is total emissions that matter.[109] In 2008, developing countries made up around half of the world's total emissions of CO2 from cement production and fossil fuel use.[111] The Kyoto Protocol, which came into force in 2005, sets legally binding emission limitations for most developed countries.[101] Developing countries are not subject to limitations. This exemption led the U.S. and Australia to decide not to ratify the treaty,[112] [113][114] although Australia did finally ratify the treaty in December 2007.[115]

Public opinion
In 20072008 Gallup Polls surveyed 127 countries. Over a third of the world's population was unaware of global warming, with people in developing countries less aware than those in developed, and those in Africa the least aware. Of those aware, Latin America leads in belief that temperature changes are a result of human activities while Africa, parts of Asia and the Middle East, and a few countries from the Former Soviet Union lead in the opposite belief.[116] In the Western world, opinions over the concept and the

appropriate responses are divided. Nick Pidgeon of Cardiff University finds that "results show the different stages of engagement[clarification needed] about global warming on each side of the Atlantic"; where Europe debates the appropriate responses while the United States debates whether climate change is happening

Jakarta
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the capital city of Indonesia. For other uses, see Jakarta (disambiguation).

Jakarta Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta

Special Capital Territory of Jakarta

(From top, left to right): Jakarta Skyline, Jakarta Old Town, Hotel Indonesia Roundabout, Monumen Nasional, Jakarta traffic, Istiqlal Mosque

Seal

Nickname(s): The Big Durian[1] Motto: Jaya Raya (Indonesian) (Victorious and Great)

Jakarta
Location of Jakarta in Indonesia

Coordinates: 612S 10648E / 6.2S 106.8ECoordinates: 612S 10648E / 6.2S 106.8E Country Indonesia Province Jakarta Government - Type Special administrative area

- Governor Area - City - Land - Water Elevation Population (2010) - City - Density - Metro

Fauzi Bowo 740.28 km2 (285.8 sq mi) 662.33 km2 (255.7 sq mi) 6,977.5 km2 (2,694 sq mi) 7 m (23 ft) 9,580,000 9,580,000 14,464.08/km2 (37,461.8/sq mi) 24,094,000
[2]

Time zone WIB (UTC+7) Area code(s) +62 21 www.jakarta.go.id (official site) Enjoy Website Jakarta (tourism site) Jakarta (English pronunciation: /dkrt/;[3] Indonesian: /dakarta/), officially the Special Capital Territory of Jakarta, is the capital and largest city of Indonesia. Located on the northwest coast of Java, it has an area of 661 square kilometres (255 sq mi) and a 2010 census count population of 9,580,000.[2] Jakarta is the country's economic, cultural and political centre. It is the most populous city in Indonesia and in Southeast Asia, and is the twelfth-largest city in the world. The metropolitan area, Jabodetabek, is the second largest in the world. Jakarta is listed as a global city in the 2008 Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network (GaWC) research.[4] The city's name is derived from the Old Javanese word "Jayakarta" which translates as "victorious deed", "complete act", or "complete victory". Established in the fourth century, the city became an important trading port for the Kingdom of Sunda. It grew as the capital of the colonial Dutch East Indies. It was made capital of Indonesia when the country became independent after World War II. It was formerly known as Sunda Kelapa (3971527), Jayakarta (15271619), Batavia (1619 1942), and Djakarta (19421972). Landmarks include the National Monument and Istiqlal Mosque. The city is the seat of the ASEAN Secretariat. Jakarta is served by the Soekarno-Hatta International Airport, Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport, and Tanjung Priok Harbour; it is connected by several intercity and commuter railways, and served by several bus lines running on reserved busways.

History
Main article: History of Jakarta

Pre-colonial era

The former Stadhuis of Batavia, the seat of Governor General of VOC. The building now serves as Jakarta History Museum, Jakarta Old Town area. The Jakarta area was part of the fourth century Indianized kingdom of Tarumanagara.[5] Following the decline of Tarumanagara, its territories, including the Jakarta area, became part of the Kingdom of Sunda. The harbour area became known as Sunda Kelapa and by the fourteenth century, it was a major trading port for the kingdom. The first European fleet, four Portuguese ships from Malacca, arrived in 1513 when the Portuguese were looking for a route for spices.[6] The Kingdom of Sunda made a peace agreement with Portugal by allowing the Portuguese to build a port in 1522 in order to defend against the rising power of the Sultanate of Demak from central Java.[7] In 1527, Fatahillah, a Sumatran Malay warrior from Demak attacked and conquered Sunda Kelapa, driving out the Portuguese. Sunda Kelapa was renamed Jayakarta,[7] and became a fiefdom of the Sultanate of Banten which became a major Southeast Asia trading center.

The Castle of Batavia, seen from West Kali Besar by Andries Beeckman circa 1656-58 Through the relationship with Prince Jayawikarta from the Sultanate of Banten, Dutch ships arrived in Jayakarta in 1596. In 1602, the British East India Company's first voyage, commanded by Sir James Lancaster, arrived in Aceh and sailed on to Banten where they were allowed to build a trading post. This site became the center of British trade in Indonesia until 1682.[8] Jayawikarta is thought to have made trading connections with the English merchants, rivals of the Dutch, by allowing them to build houses directly across from the Dutch buildings in 1615.[9]

Colonial era
When relations between Prince Jayawikarta and the Dutch deteriorated, Jayawikarta's soldiers attacked the Dutch fortress. Prince Jayakarta's army and the British were defeated by the Dutch, in part owing to the timely arrival of Jan Pieterszoon Coen (J.P. Coen). The Dutch burned the English fort, and forced the English to retreat on their ships. The victory consolidated Dutch power and in 1619 they renamed the city "Batavia."

Batavia c.1870 Commercial opportunities in the capital of the Dutch colony attracted Indonesian and especially Chinese immigrants, the increasing numbers creating burdens on the city. Tensions grew as the colonial government tried to restrict Chinese migration through deportations. On 9 October 1740, 5,000 Chinese were massacred and the following year, Chinese inhabitants were moved to Glodok outside the city walls.[10] The city began to move further south as epidemics in 1835 and 1870 encouraged more people to move far south of the port. The Koningsplein, now Merdeka Square was completed in 1818, the housing park of Menteng was started in 1913,[11] and Kebayoran Baru was the last Dutchbuilt residential area.[10] By 1930 Batavia had more than 500,000 inhabitants,[12] including 37,067 Europeans.[13] The Japanese renamed the city "Jakarta" during their World War II occupation of Indonesia.

Independence era
Following World War II, Indonesian Republicans withdrew from Allied-occupied Jakarta during their fight for Indonesian independence and established their capital in Yogyakarta. In 1950, once independence was secured, Jakarta was once again made the national capital.[10] Indonesia's founding president, Sukarno, envisaged Jakarta as a great international city, and instigated large government-funded projects with openly nationalistic and modernist architecture.[14][15] Projects included a clover-leaf highway, a major boulevard (Jalan MH Thamrin-Sudirman), monuments such as The National Monument, Hotel Indonesia, a shopping centre, and a new parliament building. In October 1965, Jakarta was the site of an abortive coup attempt in which 6 top generals were killed, precipitating a violent anti-communist purge in which half-a million were

killed, and the beginning the beginning of Suharto's New Order. A monument stands where the generals' bodies were dumped. In 1966, Jakarta was declared a "special capital city district" (daerah khusus ibukota), thus gaining a status approximately equivalent to that of a state or province.[16] Lieutenant General Ali Sadikin served as Governor from the mid-60's commencement of the "New Order" through to 1977; he rehabilitated roads and bridges, encouraged the arts, built several hospitals, and a large number of new schools. He also cleared out slum dwellers for new development projectssome for the benefit of the Suharto family[17][18]and tried to eliminate rickshaws and ban street vendors. He began control of migration to the city in order to stem the overcrowding and poverty.[19] Foreign investment contributed to a real estate boom which changed the face of the city.[20] The boom ended with the 1997/98 East Asian Economic crisis putting Jakarta at the center of violence, protest, and political maneuvering. After 32 years in power support from President Suharto began to wane. Tensions reached a peak in when four students were shot dead at Trisakti University by security forces; four days of riots and violence ensued that killed an estimated 1,200, and destroyed or damaged 6,000 buildings.[21] Much of the rioting targeted Chinese Indonesians.[22] Suharto resigned as president, and Jakarta has remained the focal point of democratic change in Indonesia.[23] Jemaah Islamiah-connected bombings occurred almost annually in the city between 2000 and 2005,[10] with another bombing in 2009.[24]

Administration
[edit] Kota or kotamadya (cities) of Jakarta

Map of the cities (kotamadya) of DKI Jakarta. Each city is divided into subdistricts (kecamatan) Officially, Jakarta is not a city, but a province with special status as the capital of Indonesia. It has a governor (instead of a mayor), and is divided into several sub-regions with their own administrative systems. As a province, the official name of Jakarta is Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta ("Special Capital City District of Jakarta"), which in Indonesian is abbreviated to DKI Jakarta. Jakarta is divided into five kota or kotamadya ("cities" - formerly municipalities), each headed by a mayor, and one regency (kabupaten) headed by a regent. In August 2007, Jakarta held its first ever election to choose a governor, whereas previously the city's governors were appointed by local parliament. The poll is part of a country-wide decentralization drive, allowing for direct local elections in several areas.[25] The cities/municipalities of Jakarta are:

Central Jakarta (Jakarta Pusat, formerly 'Weltevreden') is Jakarta's smallest city and home to most of Jakarta's administrative and political center. It is characterized by large parks and Dutch colonial buildings. Landmarks include the National Monument (Monas), the Istiqlal Mosque, and museums.[26] West Jakarta (Jakarta Barat) has the highest concentration of small-scale industries in Jakarta. The area includes Jakarta's Chinatown and landmarks include the Chinese Langgam building and the Toko Merah building. West Jakarta contains part of the Jakarta Old Town.[27] South Jakarta (Jakarta Selatan), originally planned as a satellite city, is now the location of large upscale shopping centers and affluent residential areas. Jakarta Selatan functions as Jakarta's ground water buffer,[28] but recently the green belt areas are threatened by new developments. Much of the CBD area of Jakarta is concentrated in Setia Budi, South Jakarta, bordering the Tanah Abang/Sudirman area of Central Jakarta. East Jakarta (Jakarta Timur) territory is characterized by several industrial sectors erected in this city.[29] There is also still some area of swamps and rice fields in this city.[29] North Jakarta (Jakarta Utara) is the only city in Jakarta that is bounded by the sea (Java Sea). It is the location of the Tanjung Priok Port. Big-scale and mediumscale industries are concentrated in North Jakarta. North Jakarta contains the location of Jakarta Old Town, formerly known as Batavia since the 17th century, and was a center of VOC trade activity in Dutch East Indies. Also located in North Jakarta is Ancol Dreamland (Taman Impian Jaya Ancol), currently the largest integrated tourism area in South East Asia.[30]

The only regency (kabupaten) of Jakarta is:

Thousand Islands (Kepulauan Seribu), formerly a subdistrict of North Jakarta, is a collection of 105 small islands located on Java Sea. It has a high conservation

value because of its unique and special ecosystems. Marine tourism, such as diving, water bicycle, and wind surfing, is the most important touristic activity in this territory. The main transportation between these islands are speed boat or small ferries.[31] Jakarta's Cities/Municipalities (Kota Administrasi/Kotamadya) Total Population Area Total population City/Regency population Density (km2) (km2) (registered)(2007)[32] [32] (2007)[32] South Jakarta 141.27 1,730,680 2,100,930 14,872 East Jakarta 188.03 2,159,785 2,421,419 12,878 Central Jakarta 48.13 880,286 889,680 18,485 West Jakarta 129.54 1,562,837 2,172,878 16,774 North Jakarta 146.66 1,200,958 1,453,106 9,908 Thousand Islands 8.7 19,915 19,980 2,297

Government
In September 1945, the government of Jakarta City was changed from the Japanese Djakarta Toku-Betsu Shi into the Jakarta National Administration. This first government was held by a Mayor until the end of 1960 when the office was changed to that of a Governor. The last mayor of Jakarta was Sudiro, until he was replaced by Dr Sumarno as Governor. In 1974, Based on the Act No. 5 of 1974 relating to the Fundamentals of Regional Government, Jakarta was confirmed as the capital city of Indonesia and one of Indonesia's 26 provinces.[32] See also: List of Governors of Jakarta

Geography and climate

Geography
Jakarta is located on the northwest coast of Java, at the mouth of the Ciliwung River on Jakarta Bay, which is an inlet of the Java Sea. Officially, the area of the Jakarta Special District is 662 km2 of land area and 6,977 km2 of sea area.[33] Jakarta lies in a low, flat basin, averaging 7 metres (23 ft) above sea level;[citation needed] 40% of Jakarta, particularly the northern areas, is below sea level,[34] while the southern parts are comparatively hilly. Rivers flow from the Puncak highlands to the south of the city, across the city northwards towards the Java Sea; the most important[clarification needed] is the Ciliwung River, which divides the city into the western and eastern principalities. Other rivers include the Pesanggrahan, and Sunter. These rivers, combined with Jakarta's low topography make it prone to flooding from swollen rivers in the wet season and high sea tides. Other contributing factors include

clogged sewage pipes and waterways that service an increasing population, in addition to deforestation near rapidly urbanizing Bogor and Depok in Jakarta's hinterland. Furthermore, Jakarta is an urban area with complex socio-economic problems that indirectly contribute to triggering a flood event.[35] Major floods occurred in 1996[36][37] when 5,000 hectares of land were flooded [38] and 2007.[39] Losses from infrastructure damage and state revenue were at least 5.2 trillion rupiah (572 million US dollars) and at least 85 people were killed [40] and about 350,000 people forced from their homes.[41] Approximately 70% of Jakarta's total area was flooded with water up to four meters deep in parts of the city.[42][43] The Thousand Islands, which are administratively a part of Jakarta, are located in Jakarta Bay north of the city.

Climate
Jakarta has a hot and humid tropical wet and dry climate (Aw) according to the Kppen climate classification system. Despite being located relatively close to the equator, the city has distinct wet and dry seasons. Wet seasons in Jakarta cover the majority of the year, running from November through June. The remaining four months forms the citys dry season. Located in the western-part of Indonesia, Jakarta's wet season rainfall peak is January with average monthly rainfall of 385 millimetres (15.2 in), and its dry season low point is July with a monthly average of 31 millimetres (1.2 in).
[hide]Climate data for Jakarta Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep

Month

Jan

Feb

Oct Nov Dec Year

31.3 )

Average 29.9 30.3 31.5 32.5 32.5 31.4 32.3 32.0 33.0 32.7 32.0 31.8 (88.3 high C (F) (85.8) (86.5) (88.7) (90.5) (90.5) (88.5) (90.1) (89.6) (91.4) (90.9) (89.6) (89.2) Average 24.2 24.3 25.2 25.1 25.4 24.8 25.1 24.9 25.5 25.5 24.9 (76.8 low C (F) (75.6) (75.7) (77.4) (77.2) (77.7) (76.6) (77.2) (76.8) (77.9) (77.9) (76.8)
) 24.9 25.0 (77)

Precipitatio 384.7 309.8 100.3 257.8 133.4 83.1 30.8 34.2 29.0 33.1 175.0 84.0 1,655.2 n mm (15.146 (12.197 (3.949 (10.15 (5.252 (3.272 (1.213 (1.346 (1.142 (1.303 (6.89 (3.307 (65.165 (inches) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
Avg. rainy days
26 20 15 18 13 17 5 24 6 9 22 12 187

Source: World Meteorological Organisation [44]

Culture
As the economic and political capital of Indonesia, Jakarta attracts many domestic immigrants who bring their various languages, dialects, foods and customs. The Betawi (Orang Betawi, or "people of Batavia") is a term used to describe the descendants of the people living in and around Batavia and recognized as an ethnic group from around the 18th-19th century. The Betawi people are mostly descended from

various Southeast Asian ethnic groups brought or attracted to Batavia to meet labor needs, and include people from different parts of Indonesia.[45] The language and Betawi culture are distinct from those of the Sundanese or Javanese. The language is mostly based on the East Malay dialect and enriched by loan words from Dutch, Portuguese, Sundanese, Javanese, Chinese, and Arabic. Nowadays, the Jakarta dialect (Bahasa Jakarta) used as a street language by people in Jakarta is loosely based on the Betawi language. Betawi arts are rarely found in Jakarta due to their low profile and most Betawi have moved to the border of Jakarta, displaced by new immigrants. It is easier to find Java or Minang based wedding ceremonial instead of Betawi weddings in Jakarta. It is easier to find Javanese Gamelan instead of Gambang Kromong (a mixture between Betawi and Chinese music) or Tanjidor (a mixture between Betawi and Portuguese music) or Marawis (a mixture between Betawi and Yaman music). However, some festivals such as the Jalan Jaksa Festival or Kemang Festival include efforts to preserve Betawi arts by inviting artists to give performances.[46] There has also been a Chinese community in Jakarta for many centuries. Officially, they make up 6% of the Jakarta population, though this number may be under-reported.[47] Jakarta has several performing art centers, such as the Taman Ismail Marzuki (TIM) art center in Cikini, Gedung Kesenian Jakarta near Pasar Baru, Balai Sarbini in Plaza Semanggi area, Bentara Budaya Jakarta in Palmerah area, Pasar Seni (Art Market) in Ancol, and traditional Indonesian art performances at the pavilions of some Provinces in Taman Mini Indonesia Indah. Traditional music is often found at high-class hotels, including Wayang and Gamelan performances. Javanese Wayang Orang performance can be found at Wayang Orang Bharata theater near Senen bus terminal. As the nation's largest city and capital, Jakarta has lured much national and regional talent who hope to find a greater audience and more opportunities for success. Jakarta is hosting several prestigious art and culture festivals as well as exhibitions, such as the annual Jakarta International Film Festival (JiFFest), Jakarta International Java Jazz Festival, Jakarta Fashion Week, Jakarta Fashion & Food Festival (JFFF), Flona Jakarta (Flora and Fauna exhibition, held annually on August in Lapangan Banteng park featuring flowers, plant nursery, and pets), also Indonesia Creative Products and Jakarta Arts and Crafts exhibition. The Jakarta Fair is held annually from mid June to mid July to celebrate the anniversary of the city. It is largely centered around a trade fair, however this month-long fair also has featured entertainments, arts and music performances by local bands and musicians. Several foreign art and culture centers also established in Jakarta, mainly serve to promote culture and language through learning centers, libraries, and art galleries. Among these foreign art and cultural centers are Netherlands Erasmus Huis, UK British Council, France Centre Culturel Franais, Germany Goethe-Institut, Japan Foundation, and Jawaharlal Nehru Indian Cultural Center.

Museums
See also: List of museums and cultural institutions in Indonesia

National Museum of Indonesia in Central Jakarta The museums in Jakarta cluster around the Central Jakarta Merdeka Square area, Jakarta Old Town, and Taman Mini Indonesia Indah. The Jakarta Old Town contains museums that are former institution buildings of Colonial Batavia. Some of these museums are Jakarta History Museum (former City Hall of Batavia), Wayang Museum (former Church of Batavia), the Fine Art and Ceramic Museum (former Court House of Justice of Batavia), Maritime Museum (former Sunda Kelapa warehouse), Bank Indonesia Museum (former Javasche Bank), and Bank Mandiri Museum (former Nederlandsche Handels Maatschappij). Several museums that are clustered in central Jakarta around the Merdeka Square area are National Museum of Indonesia, Monas (National Monument), Istiqlal Islamic Museum in Istiqlal mosque, and Jakarta Cathedral Museum on second floor of Jakarta Cathedral. Also in central Jakarta area the Taman Prasasti Museum (former cemetery of Batavia), and Textile Museum in Tanah Abang area. The recreational area of Taman Mini Indonesia Indah in East Jakarta contains fourteen museums such as Indonesia Museum, Purna Bhakti Pertiwi Museum, Asmat Museum, Bayt al-Qur'an Islamic Museum, Pusaka (heirloom) Museum, and other science-based museum such as Research & Technology Information Centre, Komodo Indonesian Fauna Museum, Insect Museum, Petrol and Gas Museum, also Transportation Museum. Other museums are Satria Mandala Military Museum, Museum Sumpah Pemuda, and Lubang Buaya.

Cuisine
Jakarta has a vast range of food available at hundreds of eating complexes located all over the city. From the modest street-side foodstalls and traveling vendors to the highclass expensive restaurants. The traditional Padang restaurants and humble budget Javanese Warteg (Warung Tegal) foodstalls is ubiquitous in the capital. Next to myriad selections of Indonesian food and regional specialities from all over Indonesia, there is

also international food, especially Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Thai, Indian, American, French, Middle Eastern, to modern fusion food because of the cosmopolitan population. [48] One of the popular local cuisine of Jakarta is Soto betawi, which is a cow milk or coconut milk broth with beef tendons, intestines, tripe. The other popular cuisine are kerak telor, gado-gado, sate, and kue cucur. Main article: Communications in Indonesia Newspapers Daily newspapers in Jakarta include Bisnis Indonesia, Investor Daily, Jakarta Globe, The Jakarta Post, Indo Pos, Seputar Indonesia, Kompas, Media Indonesia, Republika, Pos Kota, Warta Kota, Lampu Merah and Suara Pembaruan. Television

Government television: TVRI. Private national television: TPI, RCTI, Metro TV, Indosiar, StarANTV, SCTV, Trans TV, TV ONE, Trans 7, and Global TV. Local television: Jak-TV, O-Channel, Elshinta TV and Space-Toon. Cable television: First Media, TelkomVision Satellite television: Indovision, TelkomVision

All TV Stations are analog PAL, but now are going to Digital (in trial version).

Economy, governance and infrastructure

Grand Indonesia, a mixed-use complex including a shopping mall and the Hotel Indonesia, located on the hotel's traffic circle in Jakarta Jakarta's economy depends heavily on financial service, trade, and manufacturing. Industry includes electronics, automotive, chemicals, mechanical engineering and biomedical sciences manufacturing.[49] In 2009, 13% of the population had an income per capita in excess of US$ 10,000 (Rp 108,000,000).[50] The economic growth of Jakarta in 2007 was 6.44% up from 5.95% the previous year, with the growth in the transportation and communication (15.25%), construction (7.81%)

and trade, hotel and restaurant sectors (6.88%).[32] In 2007, GRP (Growth Regional Domestic Product) was Rp. 566.45 trillion. The largest contributions to GDRP was by finance, ownership and business services (28.7%); trade, hotel and restaurant sector (20.4%), and manufacturing industry sector (15.97%).[32] In 2007, per capita GRDP of DKI Jakarta inhabitants was an 11.63% compared to previous year[32] Both GRDP by at current market price and GRDP by at 2000 constant price in 2007 for Municipality of Central Jakarta (Jakarta Pusat) is higher than other municipalities in DKI Jakarta, which is 145.81 million rupiahs and 80.78 million rupiahs.[32] A new law in 2007 forbids the giving of money to beggars, buskers and hawkers, bans squatter settlements on river banks and highways, and prohibits spitting and smoking on public transportation. Unauthorized people cleaning car windscreens and taking tips for directing traffic at intersections will also be penalized. Critics of the new legislation claim that such laws will be difficult to enforce and it tends to ignore the desperate poverty of many of the capital's inhabitants.[51] Surveys show that "less than a quarter of the population is fully served by improved water sources. The rest rely on a variety of sources, including rivers, lakes and private water vendors. Some 7.2 million people are without clean water."[52] In Kelurahan Penjaringan, one of Jakarta's largest slums, clean drinking water is in limited supply. Diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, cholera and acute respiratory infection are on the rise because of contaminated water.[53]

Demography
The 2010 census counted some 9.58 million people, well above all government estimates. [54] The area of DKI Jakarta is 662.33 km2, suggesting a population density of 14,464 people/km2. Inwards immigration tended to negate the effect of family planning programs.[32] The population has risen from 1.2 million in 1960 to 8.8 million in 2004, counting only its legal residents.[citation needed] The population of greater Jakarta is estimated at 23 million, making it the second largest urban area in the world.[citation needed] By 2025 the population of Jakarta may reach 24.9 million, not counting millions more in surrounding areas.[55]

Tourism and landmarks

West Irian Liberation Statue, one of the many Sukarno era monuments in the city. Jakarta is primarily a city of government and business. It is seldom viewed as a centre for tourism other than the old part of the city which is a popular tourist destination.[56] However the Jakarta authority saw the opportunity to develop the city's reputation as a service and tourism city. There are many new tourism infrastructures, entertainment centers, and international-class hotels and restaurants being built in Jakarta. Jakarta also possesses many historical places and cultural heritage.[57]

Night view of Jakarta, Indonesia The National Monument, stands at the center of Merdeka Square, the central park of the city. Near the national monument stands a Mahabharata themed Arjuna Wijaya chariot statue and fountain. Further south through Jalan Thamrin, the main avenue of Jakarta, the "Selamat Datang" (welcome) statue stands on the fountain in the center of Hotel Indonesia roundabout. Other landmarks include the Istiqlal Mosque, the Jakarta Cathedral, and the West Irian Liberation monument. The Wisma 46 building in Central Jakarta is currently the highest building in Jakarta and Indonesia. Tourist attractions include Taman Mini Indonesia Indah, Ragunan Zoo, Jakarta Old Town, and the Ancol Dreamland complex on Jakarta Bay, including Dunia Fantasi theme park, Sea World, Atlantis Water Adventure, and Gelanggang Samudra. Most of the visitors attracted to Jakarta are domestic tourists from all over Indonesia, the majority of them from the neighboring provinces of West Java, Banten, Lampung, and Central Java. As the gateway of Indonesia, Jakarta often serves as the stop-over for foreign visitors on their way to Indonesian popular tourist destinations such as Bali and Yogyakarta. Most foreign visitors from the neighboring ASEAN countries; such as Malaysia and Singapore, visit Jakarta (to some extent also include Bandung) for shopping purposes, since the city is famous for its cheap but fair quality products, especially textiles, craft and fashion products. Jakarta is sprawling with numerous malls, shopping centers, and traditional markets. Jakarta shopping malls with areas in excess of 100,000 metres square, include Grand Indonesia, Pacific Place Jakarta, Plaza Indonesia and Plaza e'X, Senayan City, Plaza Senayan, Pasaraya, Pondok Indah Mall, Mal Taman Anggrek, Mal Kelapa Gading, Mal Artha Gading, and Mall of Indonesia.[58] Other smaller but popular malls are Sarinah

Thamrin, Ratu Plaza, Atrium Senen, Mall Ambassador and Pasar Festival. Traditional markets include Blok M, Tanah Abang, Senen, Pasar Baru, Glodok, Mangga Dua, Cempaka Mas, and Jatinegara.

Parks

The National Monument in the center of Medan Merdeka Park Taman Suropati is located in Menteng garden city subdistrict, Central Jakarta. The park is surrounded by several Dutch colonial buildings. Taman Suropati was known as Burgemeester Bishopplein during the Dutch colonial time. The park is circular shaped with a surface area of 16,322 m2. There are several modern statues in the park made by artists of the ASEAN countries, which contributes to the other nickname of the park "Taman persahabatan seniman ASEAN" ("Park of the ASEAN artists friendship").[59] Still located in Menteng area are the parks Taman Menteng and Situ Lembang pond. The Taman Menteng was built on the former Persija soccer Stadium. Taman Lapangan Banteng (Buffalo Field Park) is located in Central Jakarta near Istiqlal Mosque, Jakarta Cathedral, and Jakarta Central Post Office. It is about 4,5 hectares. Initially it was called Waterlooplein of Batavia and functioned as the ceremonial square during Netherlands Indies. Many of the colonial monuments and memorials erected on the square were demolished during Sukarno era which later built the present monument in the square. The most notable landmark inside the park is the Monumen Pembebasan Irian Barat (Monument of the Liberation of Irian Barat). During the 1980s, the park is used as a bus terminal. In 1993, the park turned into a public space again and has become a recreation place for people and occasionally also used as an exhibition place or other events.[60] The Jakarta Flona (Flora dan Fauna), the flower and decoration plants also pet exhibition is held in this park around August annually. Taman Monas (Monas Park) or Taman Medan Merdeka (Medan Merdeka Park) is the park where the symbol of Jakarta, Monas or Monumen Nasional (National Monument) is located. The large open space was created by Dutch Governor General Herman Willem Daendels (1810) and was originally named Koningsplein (Kings Square). On 10 January 1993, President Soeharto initiate the action toward the beautification of the park. Several features in the park is a deer park and 33 trees that represents the 33 provinces of Indonesia.[61]

Transportation

Jakarta monthly Car Free Day, 2010. Jakarta is strained by transportation problems.[62] The city still suffers a lack of urban public transport services due to the long development of road networks that accommodate mostly private vehicles.[63] Most trips, however, are undertaken by non-motorized transportation (particularly walking) and numerous modes of public or demandresponsive transportation services.[64] Transport mode walking small bus motorcycle sedang/kijang (SUV) medium bus large bus ojek (motorcycle taxi) bicycle school/company bus economy train patas AC (bus) colt/mini cab omprengan bajaj becak pick up taxi express train truck other total No. trips ('000) % share 14,073 37.7 7,818 20.9 4,890 13.1 2,783 7.5 2,012 5.4 1,224 3.3 1,073 2.9 787 2.1 466 1.2 434 1.2 422 1.1 298 0.8 295 0.8 217 0.6 202 0.5 131 0.4 126 0.3 39 0.1 33 0.1 8 0.0 37,330 100

(Source: Technical Report Tables 1.3.2 of the Study on Integrated Transportation Master Plan for Jabodetabek (SITRAMP), undertaken by Pacific Consultants International and

ALMEC Corporation on behalf of the Indonesian National Development Planning Agency (BAPPENAS) and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), 2004.)

Road transport
Jakarta suffers from traffic congestion. A 'three in one' rule during peak hour was introduced in 1992, prohibiting fewer than three passengers per car on certain roads.

TransJakarta bus at Bundaran Hotel Indonesia traffic circle. "Auto rickshaws", called bajaj, provide local transportation in the back streets of some parts of the city. From the early 1940s to 1991 they were a common form of local transportation in the city. In 1966, an estimated 160,000 pedicabs (becak) were operating in the city; as much as fifteen percent of Jakarta's total workforce was engaged in becak driving. In 1971, becak were banned from major roads, and shortly thereafter the government attempted a total ban, which substantially reduced their numbers but did not eliminate them. A campaign to eliminate them succeeded in 1990 and 1991, but during the economic crisis of 1998, some returned amid less effective government attempts to control them.[65] The TransJakarta bus rapid transit service was developed in the context of development reform (or reformasi) and used Bogota's TransMilenio system as a model.[66] Jakarta's first busway line, from Blok M to Jakarta Kota opened in January 2004, followed by two additional lines in 2006. The city government plans to open an additional 13 lines within a decademaking the Jakarta system one of the world's fastest deployments of bus rapid transit (BRT). An outer ring road is under construction and is mostly operational. A toll road connects Jakarta to Soekarno-Hatta International Airport in the northwest of Jakarta, as are the port of Merak and Tangerang to the west, and Bogor and Puncak to the south. Bekasi, Cikarang, Karawang, Cikampek, Purwakarta, and Bandung to the east.

Railway
Long-distance railways and local tram services were first introduced during the Dutch colonial era. Trams were replaced with buses in the post-colonial era, however, long-

distance railways continue to connect the city to its neighboring regions as well as cities throughout Java through Java railways network. The neighboring cities of Jakarta such as Depok and Bogor to the south, Tangerang and Serpong to the west, and Bekasi, Karawang, and Cikampek to the east, is served by KRL Jabotabek, a mass rapid transit system serves commuters in and around Jakarta. The major rail stations are Gambir, Jakarta Kota, Jatinegara, Pasar Senen, Manggarai, and Tanah Abang. During peak hours, the number of passengers greatly exceeds the system's capacity, and crowding is common. Two lines of the Jakarta Monorail are under construction: the green line serving Semanggi-Casablanca Road-Kuningan-Semanggi and the blue line serving Kampung Melayu-Casablanca Road-Tanah Abang-Roxy. There are plans for a two-line metro (MRT) system, with a north-south line between Kota and Lebak Bulus, with connections to both monorail lines; and an east-west line, which will connect with the north-south line at the Sawah Besar station.

Air

Boarding Room at Terminal 3 Soekarno-Hatta International Airport Soekarno-Hatta International Airport (CGK) is the main airport serving the greater Jakarta area on the island of Java, Indonesia. The airport is named after the first President of Indonesia, Soekarno, and the first vice-president, Mohammad Hatta. The airport is often called Cengkareng by Indonesians. The airport's IATA code, CGK, originates from the name of the Cengkareng locality, a district situated to the northwest of the city. It is Indonesia's busiest airport handling more than 30 million passengers annually. A second airport, Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport (HLP) serves mostly private and VVIP/presidential flights.

Waterway
On 6 June 2007, the city administration started to introduce the Waterway, a new river boat service along the Ciliwung River.[62][67] Sea The main seaport for this transportation mode is the Tanjung Priok seaport.

Education
The biggest university in Jakarta is the University of Indonesia with campuses in Salemba and Depok.[68] Other government universities include Jakarta State University, Jakarta State Polytechnic, and Jakarta Islamic State University. Nowadays, the oldest university is the privately owned Universitas Nasional (UNAS).[69] Private universities in Jakarta include Trisakti University[70] Atma Jaya University, and Tarumanagara University. STOVIA was the first high school in Jakarta, established in 1851.[71] As the largest city and the capital, Jakarta houses a large number of students from various parts of Indonesia, many of whom reside in dormitories or home-stay residences. For basic education, there are a variety of primary and secondary schools, tagged with public (national), private (national and bi-lingual national plus) and international schools. Two of the major international schools located in Jakarta are the Jakarta International School and the British International School (BIS). Other international schools include the Jakarta International Korean School, Jakarta International Multicultural School,[72] Australian International School,[73] New Zealand International School,[74] Singapore International School and SPH International School[75]

Sports

The Bung Karno Stadium is capable of hosting 100,000 spectators Jakarta was host to the Asian Games in 1962,[76] host of the Asian Cup 2007,[77] and has hosted the regional-scale Southeast Asian Games several times. Jakarta's most popular football club is Persija, which plays its matches in the Bung Karno Stadium or Lebak Bulus Stadium. Another premiere division team is Persitara which plays its matches in the Sumantri Brojonegoro Stadium. The biggest stadium in Jakarta is the Bung Karno Stadium with a capacity of 88,083 seats.[78] For basketball, the Kelapa Gading Sport Mall in Kelapa Gading, North Jakarta, with a capacity of 7,000 seats, is the home arena of the Indonesian national basketball team. The Senayan sports complex has several sport venues, including the Bung Karno soccer stadium, Madya Stadium, Istora Senayan, a shooting range, a tennis court and a golf driving range. The Senayan complex was built in 1959 to accommodate the Asian Games in 1962.

In 2011, Jakarta, together with Bandung, Surakarta, Semarang and Palembang will again host the Southeast Asian Games.

ORIGINS OF LAKE TOBA In ancient times in a village in North Sumatra, there lived a farmer named Toba are alone in a valley of sloping and fertile. The farmer was working on the farm for the purpose of his life.

Besides working on his farm, he sometimes went fishing to the river which was not far from his home. Each time he was fishing, it's easy because the fish got in the clear river was a lot of fish. Pancingannya he cooked the fish for food. On one afternoon, after returning from the field he went straight to the river for fishing. But it is already long enough he did not provoke even a iakan gets. Events like that, never experienced before. Because usually fish in the river he was easy fishing. Because already too long no one takes the bait pole, he gets upset and decides to just quit fishing. But when he was about to pull pole, fishing rod suddenly was struck by the fish pulled the fishing rod away ketengah river. His heart was already annoyed that turned into a happy, Because he knows that the fish grabbed the pole it is a big fish. After a while he let the pole pulled to and fro, then hook it disentakkannya, and behold a great fish and flounder depending on the end of the rope-gelepar pole. With the fish quickly pulled to the ground so as not to loose. Smiling, happy eyes off her pole from the mouth of the fish. By the time he was releasing the hook, the fish looked at him meaningfully. Then, after the fish were placed into one place he went into the river to bathe. Feeling very happy because he never got that big fish. He smiled as he imagined how good will the fish meat when it's baked. When leaving the river to return to his house it was already dusk. Arriving home, he immediately brought a big fish pancingannya results into the kitchen. When he was about to light a fire for grilling fish, it turns out firewood in her home kitchen has run out. He immediately came out to take firewood from under the gutter of his house. Then, carrying a few pieces of firewood she climbed back into the house and went straight to the kitchen. By the time he arrived in the kitchen, she was surprised at all because the big fish that is not there anymore. But where the fish was placed seemed splayed some gold coins. Because of shock and surprise experienced a strange situation, he left the kitchen and entered the room. When the man opened the door, suddenly tersirap blood because in the room stood a woman with long and curly hair. The woman was combing her hair as she stood facing the mirror hanging on the bedroom wall. A moment later the woman suddenly turned around and looked at the man that stood bewildered at the mouth of the bedroom door. The man became very fascinated by that woman's face standing in front of extraordinary beautiful. He had never seen a woman as beautiful as it is already far though before he wandered into many lands. Because it was night, she asked that the lights on. After he turned on the lights, he invited her to accompany him kedapur because he wanted to cook rice for them. While waiting for the rice to cook, told by her that she is the incarnation of the great fish that had gained him when fishing in a river. Then explained also that several pieces of gold which is located in the kitchen that is incarnate scales. After several weeks she states willing to

accept his proposal on condition that he must swear that the rest of his life he will never bring up the origin of her incarnate myang of fish. After he was sworn Thus, kawinlah them. A year later, they were blessed with a son they named Samosir. The boy was pampered sngat which resulted in the boy's mother is less good tempered and lazy. Once big enough, the boy told his mother accompany rice every day for his father who worked in the fields. However, he often refused to work on that task so that her mother was forced to deliver rice to the fields. One day, the boy told his mother again to deliver rice to the fields for his father. At first he refused. However, because of continued forced her mother, with kesl he went to deliver the rice. On the way, most of the rice and side dishes pauknya he eats. Arriving in the fields, the rest of the rice that only a few he gave to his father. When received, the father was feeling very hungry because the rice was delivered late. Therefore, it is the father became very angry when he saw the rice given to him were the remnants. Growing anger when his son confessed that he who takes up most of that rice. Patience is the father is lost and he was at his son, saying: "Son of insolent. Do not know diuntung. You really the offspring of women who come from the fish! " Weeping, the boy ran home to meet his mother at home. To his mother he complained that he was beaten his father. All the words uttered slur his father told him in anyway. Listening to his son, the mother was so sad, especially because her husband has violated his oath to slur words he spoke to his son. The mother told her to immediately go up the hill which is located not so far from their house and climb the highest tree located at the top of the hill. Without asking again, the child's mother immediately take command. He ran toward the hill and climb it. When it appears by the mother her son had nearly reached the top of the climb a tree on the hill, he ran towards the river is not so far away from their homes. When he arrived on the banks of the river was accompanied by thunder, lightning is megelegar. A moment later he jumped into the river and suddenly turned into a big fish. At the same time, the river was a big flood and fell too heavy downpours. Some time later, the river water is already overflowing everywhere and tergenanglah valley where the river flows. Mr. Toba can not save himself, he was drowned by the inundation of water. Over time, a pool of water was more extensive and turned into a huge lake that later called the Lake Toba. Being a small island in the middle is named Samosir Island.

Idul Fitri in different areas Diamond dish commonly served in Idul Fitri Muslims in Indonesia to make Eid al-Fitr as a major feast day, moment to regroup with

their families, especially families who for some reason, such as work or marriage, must be separated. Starting two weeks before Idul Fitri, Muslims in Indonesia began to busy thinking about these festivals, the most important is Kampung Mudik or Go home, so that the government was facilitated by improving the roads are impassable. Hari Raya Idul Fitri in Indonesia is celebrated as a national holiday, which is celebrated by most of Indonesian people who are predominantly Muslim. Usually, the determination of Eid is determined by the government, but some Islamic organizations define differently. Idul Fitri in Indonesia called Lebaran, where most people go home (going home) to celebrate with family. During the celebration, a variety of dishes served. The most popular dish during the celebration of Idul Fitri in Indonesia is the diamond, which is very familiar in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, and Singapore. For children, usually the parents giving money to their feast. During the celebration, people usually visit the houses of neighbors or relatives to stay in touch, known as "kosher-halal bi", [4] begged pardon and forgiveness to them. Some state officials also held an open house for people who want to stay in touch. In Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei, Eid is also known as the Feast of Fasting or Hari Raya Aidil Fitri. Communities in Malaysia and Singapore also celebrate with Muslim communities around the world. As in Indonesia, the night before the celebration was always shouted Takbir at the mosque or prayer room, which revealed the victory and greatness of God. Diperkampungan, usually a lot of people who turn on a lamp or panjut, or torch in Indonesia. Many banks, private or government offices are closed during the celebration of Eid al-Fitr until the end of week celebration. The community here usually say to each other "Happy Eid" or "Salam Aidil Fitri" and "Sorry physical and spiritual" as an expression of apology to the fellow. In Malaysia there is also a tradition back home, or going home in Indonesia. Here there is also a tradition of giving money by the parents to children, known as the highway money. [5] [6] Muslims are a minority in the Philippines, so most people are not so familiar with this celebration. However, the celebration of Eid al-Fitr is set up as a national holiday by the government in the Republic Act No. 9177 and applied since 13 November 2002. [7] [Edit] South Asia In Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan, the night before Eid is called Chand Raat, or night of the month. The people visiting the various fairs and malls for shopping, with families and their children. The women, especially the young, often with each other their hands painted with traditional materials hennadan and wearing colorful chains. The most popular in South Asia during the celebration of Eid al-Fitr is to say Eid Mubarak to others. Children are encouraged to greet the parents. In welcoming this, they also hoped to obtain money, called Eidi, from the parents. On the morning of Eid, after a shower and clean, every Muslim is encouraged to use the new clothes, if they can commercialize them. Alternatively, they may use the clean clothes, which had been washed. Parents and boys go to mosque or open field, this tradition is called Eidgah, Eid prayers, thank God for the opportunity to worship in the

month of Ramadan with great meaning. Every Muslim is required to pay Zakah or Zakat Fitrah Fitr to the poor, so that they can also celebrate this victory. After the prayers, Muslim societies were disbanded dansetiap visiting each other and greet one another, including family members, children, parents, friends and neighbors. Some Muslims also make pilgrimages to the graves of their family members to pray for the salvation of the deceased. Usually, children visit their relatives and neighbors who are older to apologize and say hello. After meeting with friends and relatives, many people who go to parties, carnivals, and special celebrations in the gardens (with a picnic, fireworks, firecrackers, etc.). In Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan, many do bazaar, as the culmination of Eid al-Fitr. Some Muslims also use this celebration to distribute zakat mal, zakat on wealth, the poor people. In this way, Muslims in South Asia celebrate Eid al-Fitr in a festive atmosphere, as an expression of gratitude to God, and invite their family, friends, and the poor, as a sense of togetherness. [Edit] Saudi Arabia In Saudi Arabia, precisely in Riyadh, Muslims decorate the house during Eid arrived. A number of celebrations were held such as theatrical performances, poetry readings, parades, musical performances, and so forth. Problem menu Lebaran, Muslims over there eating lamb mixed with rice and traditional vegetables. This also happened in Sudan, Syria, and several other Middle Eastern countries. [8] [Edit] China In China, specifically in Xinjiang, it looks festive celebration of Idul Fitri. The man wearing a distinctive jacket and white cap, while women wear warm clothes and a veil half-closed. After the Eid prayers, meals and bersilaturahim party got underway. [8] [Edit] Iran Lebaran in Iran instead of less flamboyant. This is because the majority of Muslims there are followers of Shiite teachings. After the Eid prayers at the mosque or field, they simply continue with the event with family and close relationship with the events feeding from rich families to the less fortunate. [8] [Edit] Europe In Europe, the celebration of Eid al-Fitr is not done with so lively. In England for example, Eid is not celebrated as a national holiday. The Muslims in Britain should be looking for information on Eid day. Usually, this information is obtained from the nearest Islamic Center of Islamic mailing list. Eid is celebrated in a simple in Britain. Sermon delivered by the local Imam mosque, followed by a greet-congratulation. Usually in an area where there are many Muslims there, the offices and some schools in the area will provide a holiday for the Muslims. To determine the day of Eid itself, the scholars and

experts of Islamic religion often hold rukyat reckoning to determine the Idul Fitri holidays. [Edit] Turkey In Turkey, known as Eid al-Fitr Bayram (from Turkey). Usually everyone will pronounce each "Bayramnz Kutlu Olsun", "Mutlu Bayramlar", or "Bayramnz Mubarek Olsun". On Eid al-Fitr, people usually use their best clothes (known as Bayramlik) and the exchange of visits by people visiting the place of their loved ones like family, neighbors, and their friends and religious visit family graves that have been gone. In those days, younger people will be kissing their right hands and placing older on their foreheads while saying hello Bayram. The little children also commonly come into houses around the neighborhood to say hello, where they are usually given sweets, chocolates, traditional sweets such as baklava and Lokum, or a small amount of money. [Edit] America [Edit] North America Muslims in North America in general celebrate Eid in a quiet and solemn. Because the determination of the holiday depends on the review month, often many people do not realize that the next day is Eid al-Fitr. Communities use different methods to determine the end of Ramadan and the beginning of Shawwal. North Americans who are in the eastern region could be celebrating Eid on different days than those in the western region. In general, the end of Ramadan was announced via e-mail, website, or via telephone. Generally, a Muslim family in the West will wake up very early to prepare snacks. Everyone is encouraged to dress formally and new. Many families who wear traditional clothing from their country, because there is mostly Muslim immigrants. Next they will go to the Majlis the closest to pray. Salat can be held at a local mosque, hotel meeting rooms, arenas, or local stadium. Eid prayer is very important, and encouraged Muslims to pray Id beg forgiveness and reward. After prayers, there kutbah where the priest gives advice for congregations and are usually encouraged to end any past hatred or error which they may have. After prayer and kutbah, pilgrims embrace each other and each other to congratulate each other Eid. North American Muslims also celebrate Eid by giving and receiving gifts to the family. Empire State Building in New York City, United States, emit green lights in honor of Eid al-Fitr feast on December 12 to 14 October 2007. [9]

Drugs Indonesian From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Pending changes displayed on the page iniBelum Review Jump to: navigation, search

A bottle of heroin which is one of the best known drug. Stands for narcotic drugs and drug / dangerous materials. In addition to "drugs", another term that was introduced in particular by the Ministry of Health of the Republic of Indonesia is a drug which stands for Narcotics, Psychotropic and Addictive Substance. All of these terms, both "drugs" or drugs, referring to a group of substances that generally have a risk of addiction for its users. According to health experts is actually a psychotropic drug commonly used to anesthetize the patient while trying dioparasi or drugs for certain diseases. But now the perception is misused due to the use of which has been outside the dose limits.

Symptoms The Excessive Use of Drugs 1. Opiates (heroin, morphine, marijuana) - Feeling happy and happy - Indifference (apathy) - Lazy move - Drowsiness - Nausea - Slurred speech - Smaller pupils (dilated if an overdose) - Disorders of attention / memory 2. Marijuana - A sense of fun and happy - Relaxed and weak - Indifferent - Red eye - Increased appetite - Dry mouth - Lack of self-control - Often yawn / sleepy - Lack of concentration - Depression 3. Amphetamines (crystal meth, ecstasy) - Increased vigilance - Passionate - Feeling happy, happy - Dilated pupils - Pulse and blood pressure increase - Difficult to sleep / insomnia - Loss of appetite

4. Cocaine - Rapid heartbeat - Psychomotor agitation / restlessness - Euphoria / feeling happy excessive - Increased self-esteem - Talkative - Increased vigilance - Seizures - Pupil (pupil) widened - Increase in blood pressure - Sweating / chills - Nausea / vomiting - Easy fight - Psychosis - Blood brain hemorrhage - Blockage of blood vessels - Nystagmus horizontal / eyes move uncontrollably - Distonia (stiffness of neck muscles) 5. Alcohol - Slurred speech - Stagger - Facial redness - Talkative - Irritability - Focusing attention disorders - Breath alcohol odor 6. Benzodiazepines (pill nipam, BK, mogadon) - Slurred speech - Stagger - Facial redness - Talkative - Irritability - Focusing attention disorders Possible Signs of Substance Abuse Narcotics and addictive a. Physical - Drastic weight loss - The eyes look sunken and red, pale face, and lips blackish - Hands full with red spots, such as mosquito bites and no sign of the incision scar. Scratches and discoloration of skin in place injection site - Small bowel and substandard

- Constipation or upset stomach for no apparent reason b. Emotion - Very sensitive and get bored quickly - If reprimanded or scolded, she even shows defiance - Emotional ups and downs and do not hesitate to hit people or speak harshly against family members or people around - Erratic appetite c. Behavior - Lazy and often forget about the responsibilities and routine tasks - Show indifference and away from family - Often met with persons unknown family, left without saying goodbye and came home after midnight - Love to steal money at home, school or place of employment and pawn valuables at home. Likewise with valuables hers, many missing - Always out of money - Time at home is often spent in the bedroom, closet, storage, space dark, bathrooms, or other quiet areas - Fear of water. If exposed it will feel pain - because they were so lazy bath - Often with coughs and colds prolonged, usually occurs at the time of symptom "Withdrawal" - Attitudes tend to be manipulative and suddenly looked sweet when there wants, such as need money to buy drugs - Often lied and broken a promise with a variety of reasons - Experiencing heart palpitations - Frequent yawning - Excessive tears - Excessive sweating - Often have nightmares - Experienced headache - Experiencing pain / aching joints