Teaching Concept

Teaching Concept
Discourse Analysis

The Functions of Language
Language exists to serve three main functions: experiential, interpersonal, and textual.
Language experiential function serves language users needs to make meanings of their
`world, to label the various experiences they have. In other words, language is used to
represent users thoughts. It is user to label things, feelings, attitudes, [...]

DIarsipkan di bawah: Bahasa, Inglish | 5 Komentar
General Instructional Objectives
Ditulis pada Januari 25, 2008 oleh Pakde sofa


Teaching Aids

There are many kinds of teaching aids used by English teachers in teaching EFL. The
following are the aids which you have to be familiar with.
A. Visual Aids.
A.1. Blackboard
Blackboard is available in almost every classroom. It is used in almost every language
teaching. The teacher usually writes definition, words, [...]

UNDERSTANDING STUDENTS NEEDS AND INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

Instructional design process is very complex. It is a systematic planning of instruction in
which attention is ed elements (Kempf 1985:11). The four fundamental elements are
objectives, materials, method, and evaluation. These elements are interrela sted in different
ways, being sequential linear order (Tyler), reciprocal (Taba, Kemp), and sequentially [...]

DIarsipkan di bawah: Bahasa, Inglish | 1 Komentar
Menengok Bahasan Psikolinguistik


Hakikat Psikolinguistik

Subpokok bahasan di atas telah membahas topik awal yang sangat penting dalam bab
pengantar terhadap kajian psikolinguistik, yakni hakikat psikolinguistik. Pada pembahasan
tersebut, dikemukakan sejumlah definisi psikolinguistik yang diberikan para ahli. Meskipun
beragam, namun semua definisi secara umum merujuk kepada kajian bahasa dalam sudut
pandang psikolog.
Selain itu, untuk mempermudah Anda dalam [...]

Cakupan Semantik

CAKUPAN SEMANTIK
Hakikat Belajar dan Pembelajaran
Dari uraian di atas; kita dapat menyimpulkan bahwa makna bahasa, khususnya makna
kata, terpengaruh oleh berbagai konteks. Makna kata dapat dibangun dalam kaitannya
dengan benda atau objek di luar bahasa. Dalam konsepsi ini, kata berperan sebagai label
atau pemberi nama pada benda-benda atau objek-objek yang berada di alam semesta. [...]

The Principles of Classification Essays

Classification is one of the patterns of exposition. There are some principles in writing
classification essays.

The principles of classification

One principle is applied at each level of classification

The member of the categories should not be overlap

It should be complete

Organizing the classification essay

Introductory paragraph

At least one developmental [...]

THE ESSAY

Elements of Essay
Main Parts of an Essay
An essay has three main parts: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

The introductory paragraph attracts the readers attention and informs the reader what your
main topic of discussion will be. An introductory paragraph has two parts:

general statements

a thesis statement

[...]

THE PARAGRAPH

The Elements of a Paragraph

A paragraph is a group of related sentences which develops one main idea or one main
topic. A good paragraph has five basic elements: a topic, a topic sentence, supporting
sentences, unity and coherence, A topic is what the paragraph is about or what [...]

Discourse Analysis

The Functions of Language

Language exists to serve three main functions: experiential, interpersonal, and textual.
Language experiential function serves language users needs to make meanings of their
`world, to label the various experiences they have. In other words, language is used to
represent users thoughts. It is user to label things, feelings, attitudes, events, and others
that constitute our environment.

The interpersonal function of language serves users needs to establish and maintain social
relathionship with other members of the society. Language is used for a wide range of
communication purposes users are trying to achieve. They use it to perform actions such as
instructing, informing, inviting, showing likes and dislikes, and others. At the same time,
users reflect their views on their social status in relation to the people they interact with.
Social values are also shared and maintained through peoples use of languge.

Textual function of language, on the other hands refers to the capacity of language to
èmbody language users thoughts and actions. It gives forms to concepts and meanings
language users intend to express by means of textual features or elements. The three
functions of language can be identified at the same time in any piece of language used by
speakers and writers.

You have learned about the three main functions of language. It is, then, time to check your
comprehension of the above dicussions. Now, do the following exercises. When you finish,
check your answers with the key answers provided in the last section of the module.

DISCOURSE AND CONTEXT OF SITUATION

Field of Discourse

Defined as language doing some jobs in some contexts of situation the job of a discourse is
to represent the meanings of its context of situation. In representing such meanings of
discourses may vary in their qualities, particularly in their unity and coherence. To judge the
quality of discourse it is necessary to analyze the context of situation which can be inferred
from the elements of the discourse. In analyzing a context of situation we focus attention on
its three components or aspects, i.e. Its field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and its mode
of discourse. In analyzing the field of discourse we need to identify its processes,
participants, and its attendant circumstances.

Tenor of Discourse

If the field discourse refers to the content of discourse i.e. the processes, the participants,
and the attendant circumstances involved WITHIN a discourse, the tenor of discourse refers
to the PERSONS who are interesting by means of a discourse, i.e. the persons who are in
charge of the production, the transmission, and the nature of the RELATIONS obtaining
between the persons respective ROLES. The role relations comprise three aspects: the
relevant AGENT ROLES, the relevant DYADIC STRUCTURE, and the relevant SOCIAL
DISTANCE. These three aspects of the role relations are closely related to whether or not
the social activity involving the discourse is institutionalized. An institutionalized activity
tends to involve specific agent roles, a hierarchical dyadic structure, and a social distance
that leans towards the maximal degree

Mode of Discourse

The mode of discourse refers to how language plays its role in social activities. The mode of
discourse comprises three components or aspects too. They are LANGUAGE ROLE, PROCESS
SHARING, and MEDIUM. The role of language may be CONSTITUTIVE or ANCILLARY. The
process sharing ranges from the most ACTIVE to the most PASSIVE. Process sharing is
closely related to CHANNEL, which may be PHONIC or GRAPHIC. The component, i.e.
Medium, is divided into SPOKEN MEDIUM and WRITTEN MEDIUM. Medium refers to how
linguistic elements are organized in a discourse.

Discourse and Field of Discourse

Entitled "Discourse and The Field of Discourse this unit is mainly concerned with how
elements of the field of discourse are represented by language, particularly by the
experiential component of the semantic system. As the representation of the field of
discourse, the experiential component is similarly composed of three kinds of elements, i.e.
processes, participants, and attendant circumstances. Processes may be classified into three
major types, i.e. material, mental, and relational processes, and three minor types, i.e.
behavioral, verbal, and existential processes.

Each of the process types involves specific types of participant. The participant types
include: Actor - Goal/Patient, Senser - Phenomenon, Carrier - Attribute, Identified -
Identifier, Behaver, Sayer - Target, Existent, Beneficiary, and Range. Processes may also
involve attendant circumstances. Circumstantial elements include: Extent and Location in
Time and Space, Manner, Cause, Accompaniment, Matter, and Role.

The processes, participants, and circumstances which constitute the content of a discourse
are interwoven in a coherent way, and are expressed by appropriate lexical and
grammatical elements. By studying the lexical and grammatical elements we will be able to
analyze the processes, participants, and circumstances which constitute that content of the
discourse.

Discourse and Tenor of Discourse

The tenor of discourse is represented in discourse by the Interpersonal function of language.
In the English Interpersonal system there are four major speech functions, i.e. statements,
questions, offers, and commands, by means of which addressers and addressees exchange
information as well as goods and services in appropriate, effective, and efficient ways. This
is made possible by organizing pieces of information into propositions which consists of
Moods and Residues. The Mood plays a vital role in interpersonal interactions because it
embodies the essential elements required in interpersonal exchanges, i.e. persons/subjects,
time reference, modality, and polarity. The verbal operators, which are limited in number
but quite adequate in function, enable speakers and listeners to interact effectively and
efficiently. With the aid of the Residue system, which incorporates a great variety of
predicators, complements, and adjuncts, addressers and addresses are able to exchange
practically all kinds of information, goods, and services.

Discourse and Mode of Discourse

The mode of discourse, which is the component of a context of situation that specifically
refers to language, is represented by the textual function of language. The job of the textual
component of the semantic system is to organize message. In the context of sentence, a
message takes the form of theme plus rheme. The theme constitutes what a speaker wants
to focus on. In functions as the starting point for the message to be expressed. Therefore,
the theme is represented by the sentence constituent that occupies the front position. The
elements following the theme constitute the theme, i.e. the elements of the message that
relate to the theme.

A theme may be unmarked, i.e. typical, or marked, i.e. no typical. A theme is classified as a
simple theme if its elements constitute one single constituent of a sentence, e.g. a nominal
group, a nominalization, a prepositional phrase, an adverbial phrase etc. The other type is
multiple theme, i.e. a message theme that consists of two or more units that constitute
different constituent Unlike a simple theme which is always a topical/experiential theme, a
multiple theme consists of one topical theme plus one or more non-topical themes, i.e.
textual and/or interpersonal themes.

Every sentence-type - declarative, imperative, explanative, WH-interrogative, or Yes/No-
interrogative - has a specific theme. Besides the specific theme - mostly a topical one -
there may be one or more additional themes, so that the theme becomes a multiple theme.
Except in Yes/No-questions, the additional themes are textual and/or interpersonal themes.

The Structure of Discourse

As members of a socio-cultural group we have been involved in various of social activity.
This frequent involvement has made us aware that every type of social activity is structure
in a distinct way, i.e.it consists of certain essential elements which are arranged in a specific
way. Since a discourse constitutes the verbal expression of a social activity, the discourse
would naturally have a structure which corresponds to that of the social activity it expresses
verbally.

From experience we also know that structure is not the property of individual discourse and
individual social activity only, but it is shared by discourse and social activities which belong
to the same type. Every discourse type has a distinct structure which corresponds to the
structure of the type of social activity that is verbally expressed by the discourse type.
Classroom discourse would have a structure that differs from that of shopping discourse or
problem-solution discourse.

The structure various types of discourse constitutes one of the focal objects of discourse
analysis .The other focal object is the texture of discourse, i.e. how its meaning elements
are interrelated. The structure and the texture of a discourse play a very important role in
determining its unity and its coherence.

Discourse Structure and Contextual Confifuration

Every discourse type has a definite structure. It is for this reason that we can easily
distinguish one discourse type from another, our knowledge of the structures of various
discourse types also enables us to judge whether a sequence of utterances is a non
discourse, an incomplete discourse, or a complete one. It also enable us to judge whether
or not a discourse is well-formed. We have developed this knowledge mainly through our
socio-cultural experience by participating in various kinds of social activity.

The various discourse types are technically referred to as registers or genres of discourse.
Every registers or genre is closely related to a specific social activity because a discourse is
essentially the verbal expression of the related social activity. Therefore the structure of the
discourse (type)necessarily corresponds to the structur of the (type of) social activity. the
basic unit of the social activity is technically referred to as contextual configuration, or
shortened as CC. It is the structure of the CC that is actually expressed verbally by its
related discourse. Every CC is structure in accordance with how a specific field of discourse
is merged with a specific tenor and a specific mode of discourse. Our knowledge of the
structures of various types of discourse as well as their relations to the structures of their
CCs enables us to participate smoothly and effectively in a greet number of discourses and
their related social activities

Discourse Structure and Its Elements

A discourse is a semantic unit. Therefore, its structure consists of units of meaning which
are exchanged by the agent roles, i.e. the speaker/writer and the addressee. The structure
involves obligatory and optional elements may be iterated, but the iteration of elements has
to be performed according to certain rules.

In analyzing the structure of a discourse we have to identify and describe its obligatory and
optional elements, the sequence of those elements, and the iteration of certain elements.

The Texture of Discourse

Unlike discourse structure, which refers to the sequencing of the obligatory and optional
elements of a discourse corresponding to a specific social activity, discourse texture refers
to the interrelations of semantic elements contained in the individual messages of a
discourse. Therefore, texture is not determined by the completeness of a discourse; an
incomplete discourse may also have good texture.

Discourse texture is determined by how the meaning elements contained in the individual
messages of a discourse are related to each other; the better the interrelations the better
the texture. These semantic interrelations are realized by appropriate lexico-grammatical
elements. Thus, discourse texture is primarily a network of relations among linguistic
elements. These relations are referred to as co-textual relations, because they exist within
the text itself, without directly involving its context of situation.

Althoug texture also contribute to the establishment of discourse unity, partioulary its co-
textual unity,the main role of texture is elements as an integral network.

Texture, Cohesive Ties, and Cohesive Devices

The texture of a discourse is composed of the meaning relations among the individual
messages that are involved in the discourse. These meaning relations are referred to as
cohesive ties. Cohesive ties may be co-referential (i.e. referring to the same entity), or co-
extensional (i.e. belonging to the semantic field)

Cohesive ties area formally represented by cohesive devices, i.e. lexico-grammatical
elements which signify componential relations (such as `reference substitution, and
èllipsis) pr organic relations (such `conjunctives and àdjacency pairs. Such devices area
classified as grammatical devices. Besides, there are lexical devices, which are sub-divided
into those that signify componential relations (such and those that signify organic relations
(such as `continuatives).

Grammatical and lexical devices represent non-structural cohesion. In addition to these
there are special device, such as `parallelism, `theme-rheme, and `Given-New, which
represent structural cohesion.

Discourse Texture and Coherence

The texture of a discourse is essentially a network of intermessages and intra-messages
realtions of meaning. These meaning inter-realtions are realized by cohesive chains (of
meaning) and bya chain interactions. Themore elements of a messages the greater the
contribution to forming a cohesive texture.

This contributions will be still greater if each cohesive chain involves a large number of
successive messages. Besides cohesive chains, chains interactions also play a very
important role in developing the texture of a discourse. A chain interactions is a situation in
which at least two elements oa a a cohesives chain stand in the same realtins to at least to
elements ao another cohesive chain. The relations may be "actor an actions "actions and
acted-upon, "actor and location, etc. The more elemetns of a cohesive chain or other
chains, the more cohesive the texture of a discourse is, the more coherent the discourse will
be.

Besides the number and the length of cohesive chains which exist among successive
messages, as well as the length and the number of chain interactions which involve the
cohesive chains, the interrelationships of chain inteactions are also very important. The
chain interactions within a discourse should be related to each other in such a way that they
from an integrated network of chain interactions.

No chain interaction should be isolated from the network. Otherwise, the cohesiveness of
the discourse texture will be less than optimal, and thus the discourse will not have optimal
coherence.


Teaching Aids

There are many kinds of teaching aids used by English teachers in teaching EFL. The
following are the aids which you have to be familiar with.

A. Visual Aids.
A.1. Blackboard
Blackboard is available in almost every classroom. It is used in almost every language
teaching. The teacher usually writes definition, words, or sentences, he is teaching on the
blackboard. He can draw some pictures to help him teach effectively. The teacher should
plan and use the blackboard skillfiully in order to teach the language effiectively.

A.2. Picture.
Picture are very useful and effective media in EFL teaching. It can be used for teaching,
speaking, listening comprehension, structure, vocabulary and cultural contents etc. In order
to be effective and increase the students interest, the pictures used should be clear, and
large enough to be seen by the whole class. Pictures taken from magazines, calendars
advertisement are recommended to be taken and used for teaching EFL.

A.3. Flashcards.
Flashcards are a set of cards, measuring about 30 by 25 cm, which contain pictures or
words on one side and their meaning on the other. These cards can be used to teach
structures, vocabulary, etc. The flashcars containing words can be used for teaching games
in which groups of students are holding cards in order to form the desired structure.

A.4. Chalts.
Charts contain series of pictures in the form of simple (Irawing (stick figures). These charts
are used for giving oral drills in using structures, vocaloulary and speaking. They can also
be used to teach guided writing in vvhich students are exposed to series of pictures and told
to write a story about these pictures.

A.5. Conversion Cards.
Conversion cards are set of cards containing signs such as +, -, and ? which can be used to
drill the students in transforming one structure (pattern) into another structure. e.g., from
positive statement into negative one.

A.6. Calendar.
Calendar, a set of days, date, week and months of the year, and holiday marked, is a
practical aid for teaching English tenses.

A.7. Flannel Boards.
Flannel boards are visual aid made up a board covered with flannel (woolen material) on
which some pictures can be attached. Because of the replaceable and moveable pictures
flannel board can be used for many purposes in EFL teaching such as for teaching writing,
structure, vocabulary etc.

A.8. Models.
Imitative object, like toys, are useful means for teaching vocabulary. Since students can
touch the model, or remove them with their hands, model can make the students remember
the things longer than what they are taught by using pictures. Some common models used
in EFL teaching are model clock, and coins or bank notes.

A.9. Maps.
Maps which are usually applied in geography lesson are used in EFL teaching. The detail
drawing of maps, indicating roads, streets, buildings, rivers, and bridges, etc. can be used
to teach students how to show direction in speaking and writing lesson.

A. 10. Slides.
A slide is a single film mounted on a frame, which contains pictures of various kinds. Slides
are projected by using slide projector on the screen. The slide is very effectively used for
various skills in teaching EFL. Since any pictures can be filmed, the use of slides are very
flexible. Modem slide projeclors are operated by using remote control.

A. 11 Film Strips.
Film strips are series of films projected on the screen by using a special projector. Since
they contain related pictures, they can be used for teaching oral as well as writing skills.
The individual picture can be shown on the screen as long as it is needed.

A. 12. OHP (Overhead Projector)
This instrurnent is widely used loday. The teacher can draw pictures or write anything he
wants to teach on a plastic transparency which are then projected on the screen. This
instrument can be used for teaching any skills desired, such as writing, speaking,
vocabulary ctc. even dictation. Well planned materials presented through OHP will make the
teaching more effective.

B. Audio Aids.
B.13. Tapes.
Tapes are very familiar instruments. When materials are well prepared or well recorded, the
lesson will be more interesting and effiective. Tapes can be used to teach aural as well, oral
lesson such as speaking, listening comprehension etc.

B.14. Language Laboratory.
The new development in the use of tape as an audio aid is language laboratory. It is a room
equipped with hearing and speaking instrument. Students can listen to recorded materials
as well as record their own voice. In this way language laboratory can be used for individual
as well as group practice. The teacher then can teach different skills, sush as what he can
do with the tape recorder.

C. Audio Visual Aids
C.15. Films.
Films which are widely known can serve as a very useful means of teaching EFL. There are
some films which are produced maily for teaching English. If English teachers can obtain
good films they will get good advantages of using these films, because films can provide a
wide range of stimuli, increase students interest, help improve students listening as well as
speaking skills.

C.16. Television.
TV is now used effectively by EFL teachers. The TV programs which are planned carefully
can reach a wide range of audience. Some video-taped materials are now available in the
market. When they are well prepared and selected carefully, it can give advantages to the
teacher, like those given by film.

Media Theory

The English teachers are recommended to use instructional media. The reasons are the
media they are going to use will motivate the students to learn, will increase their interest,
and will widen the channel of communication between the teacher and the students, so that
the teaching will be more communicative and effective.

In fact learning is the acquisition of skills and knowledge which are in fact the result of
taking, the responses caused by stimuli into the students mind which create sensory
impression. The task of the teacher is to provide various kinds of stimuli, which can be done
by using media. Besides, media can also serve as a substitute for the things which are
difficult to find.

From the point of view of students life, the experience two realities one school reality and
outside school reality which is more varied and rich. Media can function as a means of
providing both realities. In this way media can make the students more interested in their
study.

However, it demands more attention and ability of the teacher to use them in order that
their use becomes more effective. The effectiveness of using media is also determined by
teachers attitudes towards media.

Instructional media has three characteristics. First is fixative characteristics which refers to
their ability to record the information and event, and reserve then for futures reproduction.
Second, manipulative property (characteristics) which refer to their ability to transform of
an object or event in many ways. Third, distributive property which refer to their ability to
transport any event through space to millions of audience so that they can view the event at
the same time and form. These three properties gave advantages to English teachers, such
as it is possible to show or demontrate something which without media the students cannot
experience this thing.

Media Selection Before you select media for teaching EFL , you have to ask five questions
namely:

Whether the attainment of objectives requires a particular media.

What media property will help achieve the objective.

What particular response from the students I require from the use of media.

How the class will likely respond to the media.

How to evaluate the effectiveness of the media.

According to Curzon, the teacher had better not use media if the media could not
accelerate, intensify and consolidate the students behavioral changes. According to Gagle
media could contribute effectively to the growth of specific learning capabilities. Kemp
(1985) mentions five criteria for selecting media namely:

Appropriateness refers to the suitability of media with the teaching

Level of sophistication refers to the relevancy of media with the level of students.

Cost or the expenditure which should be considered by the teacher and compared with
learning benefit anticipated.

Availability refers to whether the media are within reach. If they are not available the
teacher should find the alternative.

Technical quality refers to the guality of media in perforning thier functior well.

Besides knowing the criteria you have to know detail charateristics of the media that you
possibly select in the future.

Computers can also be used to learn social science such as language. The advantages are
that computer never gets tired can evaluate the students progress can accommodate many
students control the leaming precess and functions with less error. Its limitations are they
are expensive indiviuaIy learning is difficult to arange most program are in matematical
science.

Filmstrips and slides are used in EFL teaching. Their advantages are the individual pictures
can be help long on the screen for a discussion, pictorial or graphic can be used along or in
combination the size permits easy storage they are cheap and do not require dark room.
The sequence of slides call be altered out not of filmstrips they are easily made. the
limitation of filmstrip are that the sequence cannot be altered less altractive compared with
film carmot be made easily in the school.

Games and simulation is a simplified and operational model of a real life situation. Its
characteristics are that is has rules structure and time limit. It enable students to take part
in many vicarious events and roles. Its advantages are the students can seek problems it
satisfied the students placing student in more realistic enviromnents can be coupled with
the use of media and generate students interest. On the other hand its limitations are it
often distort social situation, time consuming, and require only a few people.

Films are of two kinds namely 8 rnm and 16 mm. The 8 mm films are easy to operate by
teachers as well as by students individualy or in groups. Films used as instruction media
have some advantages namely they can record events as they happen can be used to
create animation of drawings and bring other nation and people on the screen. However
they have limitation are films are expensive and are not always suitable for the subject
taught.

OHP is a projector operaled by using transparency on which the teacher writes or draws
pictures which are projected on a screen. they have some advantages such as, because of
its placement the teacher can have eye contact with the students while using the OHP, the
OHP can be used in a bright room, and their materials can be produced easily by the
teacher. The limitations are they need careful arrangement to avoid obstruction of the
students sight, the limited number of OHP may cause some difficulties in scheduling their
use.

Pietures are two dimensional visual representation of persons, places or things on the forrn
of photographs, sketches, eartoons, murals, or charts, graphs, and maps. As instructional
media pictures have advantages such as they are cheap, gave the same experience to the
students, their visual detail enable students to study complicated object, can by used to
correct misconception, stimulate further studies and can fokus students attention The
limittation of pictures are that the size and distance of the pictures can cause distortion, the
lack of color limits the proper interpretation, and students do not always know how to read
pictures.

Tape recorders are electrical instruments with which a cassette containing recorded speech
of native speakers is played. As a means of teaching EFL, tape recorder have their
advantages and limitations. The advantages are they are widely available, can record events
or people for later use, and their limitation are it is difficultt to locate the recorded item if it
is in the midde of the cassette and due to the different systems it is somtime difficult to play
one cassette with different reccord players.

Television is an electrical device to transmit still in or moving images with accompanying
sound over a wire or through space. The device provide the viewers with program broadcast
from TV station Because of this competent, TV has been used as a means of teaching. The
advantages of TV can provide common base of experience for all viewers, brings to
classroom people, places and events, helps students to become more critical viewers,
enable students to see what is happening at that time, it help overcome the problems of the
lack of talented teachers, video tape helps the program to be recorded and reproduced. The
limitations are that the teaching programs of TV are difficult to match with the school
prograrns, detailed images are difficult for students to see in a large room, it makes the
students inattentive, some teahers consider TV as a threat that it might replace thern.

The Technique of Producing Sample Media

Pictures can be drown in many ways. Before you draw pictures you have to consider the
type of paper you are going to use, the size of the pictures and the type of pictures. In
order that the pictures will last long you have to think of the way to protect the pictures
from decaying. If you cannot draw pictures well you can copy and enlarge the pictures by
using methods of sguares, slide projector or pantograph. To make the pictures clear use
contrasting colors.

Flash cards are sets of cards containing pictures of action, things etc. The size is 25 x 30
cm. Behind the flash cards the names of the pictures or the letters are written in small
letters. The pictures drawn are in the forms of stick figures, pictures in detail, or
photographs cut out from a magazine.

Conversion cards are sel of small cards measuring 10 x 15 cm which + - ? signs used in
transformation drill. A chart is a display board made from thick paper or cardboard. It
contains related pictures usually in stick figures. Charts can also be used for calendars by
providing slots for days, date and months.

Flannel boards are made from boards or plywood covered with flannel cloth on which some
teaching materials in the form of cut out pictures pasted in the back with rough texture are
placed. These materials are moveable and replaceable so that they can provide the students
with various visual stimuli. Puppets can be made from different rnaterials among others
from paper bags, from ball, from cardboard and cement. In using paper bags, you just draw
a face, twist the two corners for ears, and held the bottom with rubber band on your wrist.
In using balls, you draw faces, on the ball, make holes for the neck, and use stitched
clothes for its dress. The cement plaster can be made into heads, make faces and paint
them. A short piece of bamboo stuck to the heads can be their necks which are then
covered with clothes for their dresses. The bamboo should be big enough for your finger. A
figur cut out from a cardboard can be a puppet, by cutting hands into three section, and
then join them with strings, and then using barnboo sticks for the body and hands to move
them can make the conversation lively.

Clock face can be made from thick cardboard of 25 x 25 cm. The clock is draw on the board
which is covered with white paper. The bour hand and the minute hand can be made from
strong cardboard and painted black. The hands are fastened in the center of the clock by
using paper fastener and small flat rings attached to it.

PLANNING ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEST

The Significance of English Tests

The reasons for giving test to the students among others are to motivate students, to
reinforce their learning and to measure the student performance in language learning.
Beside it can also be a feed-back to the teacher to improve the future process of teaching
and learning. The teacher will be able to locate areas of difficulty the students are facing.
According to Heaton (1988) there are four approaches in language testing namely

essay translation approach according to which the forms of the tests ara essay writings
translation and grammatical analysis.

structural linguistic approach. which test student language skill separately, concentrating on
the student mastery of phonology, grammar and vocabulary. These are tested by using
sentences separated from the context.

integrative approach which emphasize meaning and the total communicative effect of the
language. The integrative characteristic is indicated by the use of cloze tests and dictation,
which are assumed to measure different skills.

communicative approach, this approach has similarity with the integrative approach, both
approaches emphasize meaning in their test rather than structures and form. However,
there differences between these two. Communicative approach is totally concerned with
how a language is used for communication.

According to Harris (1969) there are four purposes of language test.

screening tests, used to determine the readness to join programs, such as an entrance
examination used to select the students who are ready to study in a university.

placement tests which serve to place students according their level of competence.

diagnostic test which are used to diagnose the students strengths and weaknesses.

aptitude test, to measure and to predict the student performance.

achievement test used to measure the extent to which the students have achieved the
objectives.

evaluative tests which are used to evaluate the whole programs. This kind of tests are
usually used in educational research.

Viewed from the maker of the test there are two kinds. a) The teacher made test assumed
to have content validity since is constructed on the basis of curriculum the students have
learned. b) The standardized tests prepared by experts, and tried many times to improve
their validity and reliability. They are used for wider population, who the test makers are not
familiar with

Charactics of Good Tests
The characteristics of a good test are:

valid

reliable

practical and

discriminating

A test is said to be valid if it measure what to be measures. There are several types of
validity namely

Face validity which indicates that a test looks valid to other testers especially its
appearance, composition, items, organization and contents.

Content validity indicates that the test reflects what the students have learned or the
contents of the curriculum.

Empirical validity which shows that the results of the test have high correlation with the
results of the valid criterion measure.

Concurrent validity when the results of the test is correlated significantly with the present
results of valid rating or test.

Predictive validity when the results of the test are highly correlated with the results of later
valid measurement.

Construct validity is indicated by the test ability to measure specific characteristics in
accordance with the theory of language behaviour or language learning.

Reliability. A test is said to be reliable if it can produce stable or consistent scores although
the test is administered at different times. Reliability is a very important characteristic of a
test a test is not valid unless it is reliable. There are some factors which affect the reliability
of a test, namely the sample performance, the number of items, the administration of the
test, the student motivation and other factors beyond the control of the tester (such as
student sickness etc.).

There are several techniques of estimating the reliability of a test.

By using test retest technique. A test is used twice and then the results are correlated to
see the consistency of measuring.

By using parallel forms of the same test. Both are administered and then the results are
correlated. The coefficient of correlation will indicate the reliability of the test.

Split-half technique with which a test is divided into two and then both are correlated using
a particular formula. The result will indicate the whole reliability of a test.

Other characteristics of a good test is practicality which involves considering some factors
when selecting the test, namely economy, ease of administration, and ease of
interpretation. Economy involves considering whether the test will take a long time to
administer and to score. Ease of administration involves the consideration of whether the
test is easy or complicated to administer. ease of interpretation includes the consideration
of the reliability, the validity and norms for appropriate reference group. Finally, the
characteristic of a good test is discriminating which refers to the capacity of the test to
discriminate among the testees (peserta ujian) performances that is differentiate the bright
from the low candidates.

Table of Specification (Kisi-kisi Tes)

Before you write any test, the thing to do is make a kind of table of specification. It is a blue
print of your test, in the form of table or matrix, which contains a sample of performance
and types of tests you are going to use. The sample performance which are going to be
tested are selected on the bases of the objectives of a particular instructional plan (such as
lesson plan, etc.). The selection of the types of test depends on the objectives. There are
two types of tests, oral and written test. The following step is to determine the number of
item you are going to write, and their percentages. The number of item is decided on the
basis of what is emphasized.

To write an achievement test some factors should be considered. The table of specification
performances should include covered by a lesson unit and what have been learned by
students in several meetings. The types of test selected are oriented to the types of sample
performances mentioned in the lesson objectives and the number of items should be
determined on the basis of time allotted to do the test.

In writing a final semester test, the first thing to consider is the semester program. The
table of specification should contain wide variety of sample performances, selected on the
basis of their priority, and the number of items should be based on the time allotment.

That is his English cannot be understood because of his serious mistakes in structure
vocabulary and pronunciation. On the contrary, the student performance is given the score
of 4 if he can express his opinion well, on his expression can be understood well with good
grammar pronunciation (streis and intonation). So the components must be clearly stated
such as grammar vocabulary, pronunciation and the organization of ideas. The ecah
component should be discribed in term of its its characteristic. For example, students
grammar is still full of mistakes, his pronounciation is good the contents is in accordance
with his topic, his vocabulary is used correctly.

For objectives scores, the measurement should be repeated many times to reduce their
subjectivity. It would be better if the teacher uses more than one rater in scoring the
performance. The scores of each rater (penilai) are combined and then averaged. The result
is the score he should use.

Table
Before you begin to write a particular test examine the previous table of specification, which
contains specific information of the number of items you are going to write. After that you
still to summarize these items what skills are going to be measured, the technique of
measurement used, the aspects to be measured, kinds of items, and the technique of
scoring. These are included in one table with five column. see the following examples.

Writing Good Test and Interpreting The Test Rusults

Language performance can be evaluated by using objective and subjective types of test.
Before writing any test. the first using to do is to make a table of specification which
summarize what type of sill is going to be measure the technique of measurement, aspect
to be measured, kinds of iteg and method of scoring. After this, and considering the
previous table of specification final table can be made. In accordance with the technical
guide of the implementation of 1994 English curriculum this table should contain language
skill to be evaluated, themes, information about this theme class, indicator showing the
desired achievement, number of item the form of the item and the item number. In this unit
some techniques of writing tests have been presented such as how to write objective tests,
comprehension tests, listening comprehension tests, reading comprehension tests, writing
and speaking tests, and vocabulary tests.

Finally the statistical techniques of interpreting test scores have been discussed these
include making table of frequency and ranking the scores, to get meaningful interpretation
of the scores. Besides some formulas are presented to find the mean of the scores and the
standard deviation of the scores. The concept of mode and median, as well as the concept
of normal curve have also be presented which can be used to compare individual scores
with the score of students as a whole.

SPECIAL TECHNIQUES FOR PROBLEM CLASSES

How to Deal with Weak Classes

Up to now you have learned something about the techniques of dealing with weak classes or
less able classes. Less able classes consist of students who are weak in productive aspect.
To cope with this kind of class three principles are used to modify the techniques and
activities. These principles are: a) limitation of aims, b) simplification of materials and c)
tighter control over learner production.

Limitation of aims can be carried out by concentrating on perceptive skills in teaching
English to the students. This means understanding is more emphasized rather than
producing a language. Three techniques are used namely

questions and answer in the mother tangue (Indonesian)

question in the foreign language and answers in the mother tongue

completion of a table of information from reading or listening

As for the simplification of materials you can teach your students to understand only. For
teaching structure especially the new one, the students are taught not to produce it but
hear it and respond to it, because it will take time for the weak learner to understand its
form and meaning. Besides this technique, students are taught the new structure with one
verb only.

To carry out the technique of tighter control you can use simple presentation and controlled
exercise. Besides this, you can also use phase out technique namely by erasing some parts
of dialogue which should be memorized by the students.

How to Deal with Mixed Ability Classes

So far you have learned that mixed ability class is a class which contain at least three of
their categories of very able, able, less able students. To deal with group the teacher should
be able to organize the groups that are representative of different ability levels or mixed.

Dictation is useful for mixed ability class because it can provide the students with various
activities. The very able students can write the whole text dictated, whereas the able
students are given a text, with some missing words. The less able students are given a
multiple choice.

Reading can be taught to the students by using work sheet of different types. The very able
students are given difficult questions whereas the able and the less able students are given
multiple choice questions.

Writing exercises of free composition. Writing a letter based on the text for mixed ability
groups is given by using some particular techniques. For group A (the very able students)
an exercise of writing a letter based on certain information is given, whereas for group B -
the students are given a task to write a straight forward letter, after the teacher discuss the
contains with the students. For group C (less able students) the exercise is in the form of
guided composition on the form of substitution tables, or sentence completion.

In teaching speaking to the group of mixed ability, the use of dialogues or small drama
recommeded.

In this unit you have learned some terms such as:
Streaming
non streaming
mixed ability
work card
sheet card
guided composition

How to Deal with Large Classes
A large class is a class of 30 or more students. A large class usually create management and
organization problems. To deal with this large class some techniques and activities are
suggested. Those are:

Reorganizing the teaching room to allow sufficient space for activities such as drama, role
play etc.

Pair-work, students are paired with each other and told to work in pair

Group work - students are grouped and told to finish a particular task together

Class section. Class is modified for example it is devided into two so that the teacher can
attend to each from time to time

Team teaching. The teacher cooperates with his colleague in teaching the large class.

How to Deal with Classroom Physical Condition Problems

So far you have learned the problems of classroom physical conditions. These include the
problem of

brightness

temperature

accoustics

lines of vision

layout of the desk

the possibility of moving the furniture

the significance of other furniture

a storage

facilities for displaying pictures,

You have also learned how to overcome these problems. Some suggestions on how to
overcome these problems have also been presented. The most important point is that you
have to do your best to implement these suggestions when you teach your students.
Some words which you have to remember are:
brightnes
acoustics feature
lines of vision
patterns
echo
pair work
group work
furniture
buletin board
black board
facial expressions
display

Based on The book title TEFL IV by Nurbahri



Instructional design process is very complex. It is a systematic planning of instruction in
which attention is ed elements (Kempf 1985:11). The four fundamental elements are
objectives, materials, method, and evaluation. These elements are interrela sted in different
ways, being sequential linear order (Tyler), reciprocal (Taba, Kemp), and sequentially linear
and reciprocal (Stenhouse). Three examples of instructional models are given in this
module. PPSI model is simple. Dick & Careys model is more complex. Kemps model is even
more complex.

To be comprehensive and exact Kemp has suggested ten elements in the instructional
design process in which the learning needs of students is placed in the middle of the oval
pattern to show its importance in the instructional planning system.

An instructional design process is beneficial for the school administrator who wants the
evidence of successful learning, the designer who wants evidence that a satisfactory
program has been designed, the teacher who wants to see learners gain the required
competencies, and the learners who want to be successful in their studies.

Before instructional design is made, data should be collected from different sources. In the
curriculum change these data can be obtained from the students, the parents, the teachers,
and the society as well. Data can be obtained by using questionnaires, interviews, school
observation and even tests.

Analysis and Identification of Students Needs In Learning English As a Foreign Language

Students have widely different needs because of differences in cultural background, age,
and previous educational background. Even if they are homogeneous, they have different
learning styles and needs.

Indonesian educational system is centralized so that the same high school curriculum of
1994 has been used throughout Indonesia since its implementation in 1994. Though
national survey revealed that both students and parents expect that the teaching of English
be directed towards the acquisition of oral communication, the administrators and policy
makers in the national system of education determined thet reading skill is the first priority.
However, the EFL syllabus being made flexible, allows the EFL teachers to use topics that
interest their students as long as they derive from the same theme.

The Priority of Students Needs In Learning English As a Foreign Language

In learning English as a Foreign language generaly students try acquiring both receptive and
productive skills for communication. Receptive skill includes listening and reading which are
passive skills. On the other hand, productive skill includes speaking and writing which are
active skills.

Being a centralized system in education the government has decided the students needs
and its priority. The latest curriculum, the 1994 SMU curriculum has put reading as its
primary objectives and listening, speaking and writing as secondary.

Problems in The Teaching and Learning of English As a Foreign Language

There are two factors affecting students to learn English as a foreign language, the linguistic
factors and the non-linguistic factors. The linguistic factors among others is the fact that
English and Indonesian are two different languages. They have different system of sounds,
vocabulary, structure, and culture. Thus Indonesians learning English means learning a
different system of sounds, vocabulary, structure, and culture. It really takes a long time.
Linguistic factor also includes first language interference. This process is unavoidable
especially when adult students learn a foreign language. They can not really master the
language fully because of their fossilized errors especially in pronunciation and intonation.

There are at least 8 points that belong to the nonlinguistic factors. They are students,
teachers, objective, method, environment, evaluation, and time. The students must be
highly motivated and in small groups. The teacher must be a good model with good
qualification both in the language and methodology. The objective must be specific, not too
much so that it is attainable. There is no best method of teaching English as a foreign
language. All methods are good depending on the objective sought. Communicative
Approach is not appropriately used when the stated objective is the skill in reading college
textbooks written in English. Studying English in the Indonesian setting is hard work.

English is only spoken and used in the classroom. Outside the classroom few people speak
English. English exposure in Indonesian setting is quite rare. The Australians and Americans
coming here as tourists now speak Indonesian. Evaluation of any instructional program
should be based on the objective that we have stated earlier. If the objective ls too
ambitious the program is difficult to evaluate and we can not justify precisely whether it is
successful or failing.

Finally, the time for learning a foreign language should be enough. Four or five periods of 45
minutes is far from being sufficient. This is made worse when the class is crowded with less
motivated students.

CHARACTERISTICS OF STUDENTS

The Developmental Stages in The Acquisition of English As a Foreign Language

The acquisition of English as a foreign language is not necessarily the same as that as a
second language let alone as a first language. Students start studying English as a foreign
language at 12 (Yunior High School), three or four periods of 45 minutes a week. These
students have been fluent in their first language so this will interfere the acquisition of
English as a foreign language, the so called first language interfere. The first language
interference happens in all aspects of language-phonology, morphology, and syntax.

Since English is studied as the first foreign language and it is neither used as an official
language nor a medium of instruction at schools the process of acquisition runs very slowly.
Learning English should ideally start when you are still very young in a place conducive to
learning the language.

Characteristics of Good EFL Students

Students are the central element in the teaching and learning process. The teacher, on the
other hand, is a facilitator, assisting them in many ways to obtain the maximum result in
learning. For this matter it is important for us to know their positive characteristics. In this
way, we, the teachers, can manipulate these positive characteristics for their benefit.

These positive characteristics are among others motivation, personality (creative, active,
persevering), good learning strategies, and talented.

Characteristics of Bad EFL Students

There are many characteristics of bad EFL learners, among others are:
First, lack in motivation due to different reasons. The teacher should diagnose the less
motivated students to find the reasons of their behaviour before giving treatment.
Second, negative attitude toward English and the people who speak it is another problem.
Third, being introvert is another characteristic of bad EFL students. These students are
usually shy, passive, receptive, and permissive - all the qualities that are not conducive to
language learning.
Fourth, lack in perseverence is another problem. Students will have no great effort in
learning. They give up trying to learn so easily.
The teacher should try to modify all these bad qualities if successful learning is desired.

Learning Strategies in EFL

In the teaching and learning process the students employ various learning strategies while
the teacher employs various teaching strategies and learning strategies since the teacher
should also learn.

The more learning strategies the students have, the more they learn. So it is the duty of the
teacher to teach the students how to learn.

The recent trend is for the teacher to act as a facilitator. In this way the students will be
more active and creative.

Learners are grouped into `concrete, ànalytical, `communicative, and àuthority oriented.
The teachers duty is to modify the less favourable element into the more favourable so that
optimal learning will be made possible.

Teachers should teach the students how to learn and to activate English outside the
classroom. They should inform their students all the advantages of knowing English to
increase their motivation to learn it.

To learn English outside the classroom can be done in various ways. Listening to BBC, VOA,
ABC regularly can increase your listening skill. Watching British or American good films in
TV can enrich your vocabulary and structures. In fact, you can learn listening and passive
speaking in films. Meeting and talking to foreigners can increase your listening and speaking
skills.

Make it your hobby to visit a library and borrow English novels. There is no better way to
learn reading skill than to read. Reading English novels will also increase your vocabulary.
Select a novel which is not too easy and not too difficult so that you will get much
enjoyment in reading.

After reading a novel, make a short note about the novel. You will practice your writing skill.
Make it your hobby too to leave a note or memo to a roommate or a friend also in English.

INTRODUCTION
The Characteristics of Good EFL Teachers

In order to be a successful teacher, first of all you must be a good teacher since a bad
teacher will never be successful .
First, you should be a good model. Try to acquire English in such a way that you become as
a native speaker.
Second, you should know what to teach. Study the present EFL syllabus and instructional
materials which are written based on this syllabus.
Third, you should know how to teach English or you should know methodology. You should
be good at implementing various teaching skills such as opening the lesson, presenting the
materials, giving reinforcement, asking questlons and closing the lesson.
Fourth, your own personality should be taken into consideration. You should have a positive
attitude to what you are doing. You should be nice to look at, fair and patient and helpful to
your students.
And finally, you must willing to do self evaluation, to get feedback to improve your teaching.

The Effective Classroom Management

In the classroom the teacher has two different tasks, instructional and managerial task is
very important since it is a prerequisite to effective instruction. In other words, school
management affects instructlon. Bad management will cause poor instruction.

Ihere are five approaches to classroom management. They are Auhtoritarian Approach,
Permissive Approach, Behaviour-Modification Approach, and Group Process Approach. The
first two approaches should ideally be rejected since they are inhumane and unrealistic
respectively. The remaining three approaches should be combined to make the Pluralistic
Approach because none is perfect.

In teaching EFL the Pluralistic Approach can be done by first knowing your students, second
creating good classroom climate, third making good preparation and fourth collaborating
with colleagues especially other EFL teachers lnside or outside school. These four activities if
done properly can generate effective classroom management which affects classroom
instruction.

The Effective Classroom Interaction

Classroom interaction involves a teacher and his/her students.

When the Authoritarian system of classroom management was still prevailing, one way
interaction was popular. The teacher was dominatlng the classroom, leaving the students
mostly passive

When the students have gained more important roles, there hlas been a progress in the
kind of classroom interaction. One way interaction has become two-way interaction, where
the students have the same right as their teacher in asking questions and explaining things.

With the increasing need of SAL in TEFL, the classroom interaction is now directed more
toward the students with the teacher functioning as a facilitator.

Byrne has classified interaction in the EFL classroom into two different approaches. The first
approach which was often adopted by traditional teachers has typical characteristics : whole
class, teacher controlled, and accuracy activities.

The second approach which is adopted by progressive teachers has guite the opposite
characteristics than the first : pairs and groups, learner directed and fluency activities.

As a more progressive teacher you should be able to combine the two approaches into one-
a Balanced Approach because you will probably need to use both ways in turn depending on
what you teach.

Finally there are four areas of EFL interaction according to Byrnes model. They are :

Accuracy activities controlled by the teacher and done wlth rhe whole class. e.g. drills.

Accuracy actlvities directed by the learners and done in pairs or occasionally in group. e.g.
mini-dialogue practice.

Based on The book title TEFL IV by Nurbahri



Hakikat Psikolinguistik

Subpokok bahasan di atas telah membahas topik awal yang sangat penting dalam bab
pengantar terhadap kajian psikolinguistik, yakni hakikat psikolinguistik. Pada pembahasan
tersebut, dikemukakan sejumlah definisi psikolinguistik yang diberikan para ahli. Meskipun
beragam, namun semua definisi secara umum merujuk kepada kajian bahasa dalam sudut
pandang psikolog.

Selain itu, untuk mempermudah Anda dalam memahami hakikat psikolinguistik, pada
bagian selanjutnya telah disajikan konsep-konsep yang berkait dengan psikolinguistik.
Pembahasan antara lain meliputi telaah singkat mengenai tata bahasa dan fungsinya dalam
pemahaman dan produksi kalimat; dikotomi performasi dan kompetensi; struktur dan
fungsi kalimat.

Struktur dan fungsi kalimat dibahas secara lebih terperinci, mengingat inilah pokok yang
akan menjadi kajian dalam keseluruhan rangkaian modul ini. Dalam pembahasan struktur
kalimat juga dibahas struktur lahir dan cara-cara penggabungannya. Kemudian, dalam
bidang fungsi kalimat, dibahas berbagai hal berkaitan dengan tindak tutur, isi proposisi dan
struktur tema dalam kalimat.

Nah, kini marilah kita melihat ruang lingkup dan signifikansi psikolinguistik pada sub-pokok
bahasan kedua.

Ruang lingkup dan Signifikasi Psikolinguistik dalam Pengajaran Bahasa

Pada pembahasan di atas, disajikan pendapat para ahli mengenai lingkup yang menjadi
ranah kajian psikolinguistik. Sama halnya dengan definisi, pada lingkup kajian pun,
dijumpai keragaman rumusan. Meskipun demikian, semuanya merujuk kepada hal yang
sama, yakni bagaimana manusia memahami bahasa, memproduksi bahasa dan bagaimana
mereka memperoleh kedua kemampuan tersebut.

Pemahaman dapat didefinisikan dalam dua sudut pandang: dalam arti sempit dan dalam
arti luas. Dalam arti sempit pemahaman berarti proses mental untuk menangkap bunyi-
bunyi yang diujarkan seorang penutur untuk membangun sebuah interpretasi mengenai apa
yang dia anggap dimaksudkan oleh si penutur, sedangkan dalam arti luas, hasil interpretasi
tersebut digunakan untuk melakukan tindakan-tindakan yang relevan.

Produksi sering diidentikkan dengan berbicara, meskipun produksi juga mencakup menulis.
Dalam berbicara, juga menulis, seorang penutur melakukan dua jenis kegiatan, yaitu
merencanakan dan melaksanakan yang meliputi tatar wacana, tatar kalimat, tatar
konstituen, program artikulasi dan artikulasi. Terakhir, pada bagian yang ketiga, dibahas
signifikasi dan sumbangan-sumbangan yang dapat dan telah diberikan psikolinguistik bagi
pengajaran bahasa. Dalam bagian ini dibahas dua aliran psikologi dan sejumlah pendekatan
yang dilandasi teori-teori pemerolehan bahasa.

2
Aliran-aliran Pemikiran dalam Psikolinguistik

Pada subpokok bahasan ini, kita telah membahas sejumlah konsep pendapat-pendapat para
teorisi mengenai bagaimana seseorang memahami dan merespons terhadap apa-apa yang
ada di alam semesta ini. Kita telah berbicara mengenai pandangan-pandangan kaum
mentalis dan kaum bahavioris, terutama dalam kaitan dengan keterhubungan antara
bahasa, ujaran dan pikiran. Menurut kaum mentalis, seorang manusia dipandang memiliki
sebuah akal (mind) yang berbeda dari badan (body) orang tersebut. Artinya bahwa badan
dan akal dianggap sebagai dua hal yang berinteraksi satu sama lain, yang salah sati di
antaranya mungkin menyebabkan atau mungkin mengontrol peristiwa-peristiwa yang
terjadi pada bagian lainnya. Dalam kaitan dengan perilaku secara keseluruhan, pandangan
ini berpendapat bahwa seseorang berperilaku seperti yang mereka lakukan itu bisa
merupakan hasil perilaku badan secara tersendiri, seperti bernapas atau bisa pula
merupakan hasil interaksi antara badan dan pikiran. Mentalisme dapat dibagi menjadi dua,
yakni empirisme dan rasionalisme.

Kedua pendapat ini pun memiliki pandangan-pandangan yang berbeda dalam memahami
persoalan gagasan-gagasan batin atau pengetahuan. Semua kaum mentalis bersepakat
mengenai adanya akal dan bahwa manusia memiliki pengetahuan dan gagasan di dalam
akalnya. Meskipun demikian, mereka tidak bersepakat dalam hal bagaimana gagasan-
gagasan tersebut bisa ada di dalam akal. Apakah gagasan-gagasan tersebut seluruhnya
diperoleh dari pengalaman (pendapat kaum empiris) atau gagasan-gagasan tersebut sudah
ada di dalam akal sejak lahir (gagasan kaum rasional). Bahkan di dalam kedua aliran ini
pun, terdapat perbedaan pendapat yang rinciannya akan kita bahas nanti.

Kemudian, diketengahkan pembahasan mengenai empirisme. Dalam kaitan ini telah dibahas
kenyataan bahwa kata empiris dan empirisme telah berkembang menjadi dua istilah yang
memiliki dua makna yang berbeda. Setelah itu, dibahas pula isu lain yang mengelompokkan
kaum empiris, yakni isu yang berkenaan dengan pertanyaan apakah gagasan-gagasan di
dalam akal manusia yang membentuk pengetahuan bersifat universal atau umum di
samping juga bersifat fisik.

Pada bagian selanjutnya, telah dibahas pendapat-pendapat kaum behavioris, antara lain
pendapat-pendapat John B. Watson, pendiri behaviorisme. Watson menganggap bahwa
kesadaran merupakan tahayul-tahayul radius yang tidak relevan terhadap studi psikologi.
Watson mengatakan bahwa keyakinan pada adanya kesadaran berkaitan dengan keyakinan
masa-masa nenek moyang mengenai tahayul. Magis-magis senantiasa hidup. Konsep-
konsep warisan masa praberadab ini telah membuat kebangkitan dan pertumbuhan
psikologis ilmiah menjadi sangat sulit. Kriteria Watson dalam menentukan apakah sesuatu
itu ada atau tidak ada adalah berdasarkan apakah hal tersebut dapat diamati atau tidak
dapat diamati.

Selain itu telah pula diketengahkan pendapat behaviorisme epifenomenal. Sebagian besar
bahavioris setelah Watson menganut materislisme, yakni yang doktrin dasarnya adalah
bahwa hanya ada satu hal di dalam semesta ini yaitu materi. Pendapat ini merupakan
pendapat yang sangat ekstrim. Mereka merumuskan posisi mereka bahwa pada umumnya
tidak ada penolakan terhadap keberadaan akal. Meskipun demikian, dalam praktiknya
mereka tidak berbeda dari Watson, sebab tidak ada seorang pun pendukungnya yang
mendukung studi mengenai akal. Banyak di antara mereka mengambil pandangan
epifenomenal yang menyatakan bahwa akal ada, tetapi hanya merupakan salah satu
refleksi dari proses-proses badaniah yang tidak mempengaruhi peristiwa-peristiwa di dalam
badan. Sebagian behavioris lain mengambil pandangan reduksionis. Mereka memberikan
kemungkinan kepada akal untuk tegak berdiri, seperti badan, tetapi mereka meyakini apa
pun yang terjadi di akal akal juga terjadi di dalam badan. Pendapat ini berbeda dengan
epifenomenal yang berpendapat bahwa badan merupakan realitas utama. Dengan
mengambil posisi ini seseorang meyakini bahwa untuk mengetahui akal harus melalui studi
mengenai badan maka tidak ada keperluan untuk mempalajari akal. Dengan demikian, sisi
akal menjadi ciut dan tinggallah badan.

Dalam subpokok bahasan kedua ini telah dibahas hal-hal berikut: daya-daya akal dan alat
pemerolehan bahasa, isi dan operasi alat pemerolehan bahasa, dan argumen-argumen
Chomsky bagi alat pemeroleh bahasa. Dalam kaitan dengan daya akal dan APB, Chomsky
menyatakan bahwa manusia dilahirkan dengan akal yang berisi pengetahuan batin yang
berkait dengan sejumlah bidang yang berbeda-beda. Salah satu sari pengetahuan tersebut
berkait dengan bahasa. Chomsky menyebut pengetahuan batin yang berkait dengan bahasa
ini sebagai language acquisition device atau yang lebih populer sebagai LAD, yang dalam
modul disebut sebagai alat pemeroleh bahasa atau APB. Chomsky berpendapat bahwa
daya-daya dalam bidang yang berbeda yang disebut di atas, relatif mandiri satu sama lain.
Artinya tidak saling berkait. Bahkan dalam kaitan dengan pemerolehan bahasa, Chomsky
berpendapat bahwa bagi pemerolehan bahasa, pengetahuan batin saja sudah cukup dan
pengetahuan matematis serta pengetahuan logika tidak diperlukan dalam kegiatan ini.

Dalam hubungannya dengan isi dan operasi APB, Chomsky membagi isi APB menjadi tiga
kelompok, yakni gagasan substantif; gagasan formal, dan gagasan-gagasan yang oleh
Steinberg disebut sebagai gagasan-gagasan konstruktif.

Masing-masing dari ketiga jenis gagasan ini akan dirinci disertai contoh-contoh seperlunya.
Gagasan-gagasan substantif adalah gagasan-gagasan yang muncul dalam sejumlah relasi
atau dijalankan oleh sejumlah operasi, misalnya ciri-ciri fonetis, ciri-ciri sintaktik, dan ciri-
ciri semantik.

Pada bagian akhir subpokok bahasan diketengahkan argumen-argumen yang dikemukakan
Chomsky dalam mempertahankan APB yang tertuang dalam bentuk empat argumen, yakni
(1) keunikan tata bahasa, (2) data masukan yang tidak sempurna, (3) ketidakselarasan
intelegensi, dan (4) kemudahan dan kecepatan pemerolehan bahasa anak.

Keterkaitan antara bahasa, Pikiran dan Ujaran

Pembahasan pada sub pokok bahasan di atas meliputi keterkaitan antara bahasa, pikiran
dan uraian. Pembahasan difokuskan pada anggapan-anggapan kaum behavioris mengenai
keterkaitan antara bahasa dengan pikiran, yang kemudian diikuti oleh argumen-argumen
yang menentang anggapan tersebut. Namun, untuk kepentingan modul ini, hanya dua
anggapan yang paling penting yang disajikan. Dua anggapan lainnya hanya disarikan dan
disajikan secara singkat pada bagian akhir pembahasan. Anggapan-anggapan bahwa:(1)
bahasa merupakan landasan bagi pikiran, (2) bahasa merupakan landasan utama bagi
pikiran, (3) bahasa mempengaruhi pandangan, persepsi, dan pemahaman manusia
mengenai dunia di sekelilingnya serta mengenai budaya tempat ia hidup memiliki argumen
argumen yang kurang kuat. Bukti-bukti bahwa anak-anak yang belum bisa berbicara telah
mampu memahami ujaran orang yang berbicara kepadanya, kenyataan bahwa orang tuli
dapat memberi respons yang memadai terhadap orang yang berinteraksi dengannya, dan
kenyataan bahwa multibahasawan hanya memiliki satu keyakinan dan pandangan hidup,
serta kenyataan bahwa orang-orang yang memiliki bahasa yang sama memiliki persepsi
yang berbeda mengukuhkan kelemahan argumen tersebut.

Proses pemahaman dan Produksi Bahasa

Pada subpokok bahasan ini telah dibahas proses produksi dan pemahaman bahasa. Pada
bagian terdahulu dikemukakan kelemahan model-model sintaksis yang dianut oleh Chomsky
dan kawan-kawannya. Kemudian, pembahasan diakhiri dengan alternatif orientasi
penjelasan yang berdasarkan analisis semantik. Setelah itu disajikan alasan-alasan serta
contoh analisis yang berdasarkan semantik dalam produksi bahasa. Terakhir disajikan
sebuah ilustrasi proses produksi bahasa lengkap dengan definisi tahap-tahap proses yang
terlibat.

Pada bagian kedua disajikan penjelasan mengenai pemahaman bahasa. Pada bagian ini pun
diajukan alternatif penjelasan berdasarkan sudut pandang proses analisis semantik. Alasan-
alasan serta contoh-contoh proses pemahaman dikemukakan pada bagian selanjutnya.
Terakhir barulah dikemukakan satu ilustrasi analisis berdasarkan semantik terhadap sebuah
kalimat sederhana.

Namun, perlu diingat bahwa model yang dikemukakan masih sangat sederhana dan baru
pada tahap awal perkembangannya. Para psikolinguis masih harus berusaha keras untuk
mendapatkan model yang eksplisit untuk menjelaskan proses produksi dan pemahaman
bahasa.

PEMEROLEHAN BAHASA

Hakikat, Permasalahan dan Tahap-tahap Pemerolehan Bahasa Pertama

Dalam subpokok bahasan ini telah dibahas sejumlah topik dasar mengenai pemerolehan
bahasa. Pertama, definisi bahasa telah disajikan pada awal subpokok bahasan. Definisi yang
dikemukakan oleh Ellis dan definisi yang dikemukakan oleh Krashen yang mewakili dua
definisi yang berbeda telah dengan tepat dibahas pada awal pembahasan. Dengan
demikian, hakikat pemerolehan yang berbeda dengan belajar telah Anda pahami sejak
awal.

Pada bagian selanjutnya, permasalahan yang lazim dijumpai pada saat seseorang mengkaji
kegiatan pemerolehan bahasa dan penelitian dalam bidang ini telah pula dibahas dengan
memadai. Permasalahan-permasalahan tersebut meliputi masalah kesinambungan/ketidak-
sinambungan perkembangan, kebatinian/kelahiriahan bahasa, dan kesenjangan antara
pemahaman dengan produksi bahasa.

Bagian akhir subpokok bahasan ini digunakan untuk memaparkan urutan perkembangan
pemerolehan bahasa, cara analisisnya serta interpretasinya. Pembahasan dimulai dengan
paparan mengenai ujaran awal, ujaran satu kata, kemudian ujaran dua kata dan kombinasi
tiga kata serta cara memahami dan menganalisisnya.

Kini bersiap-siaplah untuk mengerjakan tes formatif 1 untuk menguji hasil belajar Anda
pada subpokok bahasan ini.

Pemerolehan Bahasa Kedua

Dalam subpokok bahasan ini telah dibahas sejumlah model dalam teori pemerolehan
bahasa kedua. Pembahasan telah meliputi model-model Akulturasi, Akomodasi, Wacana,
Keragaman Kemampuan, dan Monitor. Model-model yang disebutkan lebih dulu hanya
dibahas secara selintas, sedangkan model monitor dibahas secara mendalam.

Model Monitor, yang didasarkan atas lima hipotesis yang dikemukakan Krashen
(Pemerolehan-belajar, Urutan Alamiah, Input, Monitor, dan Saringan Afektif) dianggap
memiliki keunggulan yang lebih dibandingkan dengan model-model lainnya. Meskipun
demikian, tidak berarti bahwa model ini tidak memiliki kelemahan. Sejumlah kritik telah
dikemukakan para ahli mengenai hal tersebut.

Pada bagian akhir subpokok bahasan ini telah pula diketengahkan sebelas hipotesis
mengenai pemerolehan bahasa kedua. Modul ini telah menggunakan buku Rod Ellis secara
esktensif karena itu, untuk memperdalam pengetahuan Anda, akan sangat baik Anda juga
turut membaca buku tersebut. Kini selamat mengerjakan tes formatifnya.

BAHASA SEBAGAI SISTEM KOGNITIF DAN PENDEKATAN KOGNITIF TERHADAP BAHASA

Hakikat Bahasa sebagai Sistem Kognitif serta Model Kognitif sebagai Perspektif dalam
Psikolinguistik

Pada subpokok bahasan di atas telah dibahas dua bagian besar yang diharapkan dapat
memberikan gambaran kepada Anda mengenai bahasa sebagai sistem kognitif, pendekatan
kognitif dan bahasa sebagai sistem komunikasi.

Pada bagian awal telah disajikan paparan mengenai definisi kognitif dan model kognitif
sebagai pendekatan dalam psikolinguistik. Di dalam paparan tersebut, Anda menemukan
penjelasan mengenai kelebihan-kelebihan bahasa atas kemampuan lain manusia dalam
menopang kehidupan manusia. Kemampuan manusia dalam memahami dan menyimak
ribuan bahkan jutaan kata dalam kehidupannya serta hakikat kemampuan tersebut akan
disinggung secara garis besar pada pembukaan sub pokok bahasan ini.

Kemudian, juga akan dibahas bagaimana bahasa memainkan peranannya dalam komunikasi
dengan manusia lain. Paparan ini akan meliputi ciri-ciri utama bahasa manusia seperti yang
tercermin dalam definisi-definisi bahasa. Hakikat bahasa sebagai sistem vokal,
kemanasukaan bahasa, dan fungsi komunikatifnya telah diuraikan agak mendalam dalam
bagian ini. Bahasa sebagai sebuah sistem terstruktur memulai pembahasan, kemudian
diikuti oleh pembahasan bahasa sebagai lambang bunyi. Pada bagian tersebut dibahas,
bahwa bahasa bukanlah bunyi yang sembarangan dan caka, melainkan terstruktur secara
rapi sehingga bunyi-bunyi yang tidak terangkai menurut sistem fonologis sebuah bahasa
umumnya sulit untuk dikenali oleh penutur asli bahasa tersebut. Pada bagian selanjutnya
pembahasan dikembangkan pada pembahasan mengenai, iapasa sebagai lambangnya bunyi
vokal. Dalam pembahasan ini di bahas bahwa hanya bunyi-bunyi tertentu saja yang
tergolong pada bunyi bahasa. Kemudian, pembahasan diakhiri dengan membahas bahasa
sebagai sistem komunikasi berdasarkan keterikatan antara ciri-ciri generik tindak
komunikasi, ciri-ciri konteks komunikasi dan pemilihan ragam bahasa yang cocok untuk
tindak komunikasi bahasa tersebut.

Proses Pemahaman dan Produksi Bahasa

Pada subpokok bahasan kedua, Anda telah mendapatkan penjelasan mengenai kreativitas
bahasa dan kaidah-kaidah yang mengaturnya. Pada satu sisi, bahasa memiliki sifat kreatif
dan lentur, di sisi lain bahasa juga memiliki kaidah-kaidah yang membatasi kreativitas dan
kelenturan tersebut. Sudah bisa Anda duga bahwa paparan dalam bagian ini akan sangat
menarik bagi Anda. Secara garis besar, paparan ini meliputi ciri-ciri bahasa manusia yang
berkaitan dengan ciri kreativitas bahasa, seperti ketidakterikatan pada rangsangan luar
maupun rangsangan dalam, keterikatan ungkapan bahasa manusia dengan situasi
penggunaannya, dan kemampuan sebuah bahasa dalam menghasilkan kosakata baru dalam
upaya mewadahi temuan-temuan baru dalam konteks budaya tempat bahasa tersebut
digunakan.

Selanjutnya sub pokok bahasan ini berkaitan dengan kaidah-kaidah yang mengatur
pembentukan ungkapan-ungkapan kebahasaan. Dalam perjalanan Anda membaca nanti,
Anda akan mulai memahami mengapa meskipun manusia memproses jutaan kata-kata dan
ungkapan-ungkapan baru, keasingan ungkapan-ungkapan baru ini tidak terasa dan tidak
tersadari.

Pada bagian kedua dari sub pokok bahasan ini, telah dibahas relevansi teori kognitif dan
teori perkembangan kognitif dengan pengajaran bahasa. pembahasan akan dimulai dengan
upaya-upaya awal ke arah penggunaan teori kognitif Piaget ke dalam pengajaran bahasa
serta penilaian mengenai ketetapannya. Kemudian, diikuti oleh pendekatan Taylor dan
Taylor yang mengemukakan pendekatan proses komputer dalam menjelaskan proses
kognitif manusia serta keterkaitannya dengan belajar bahasa.

KETERKAITAN PSIKOLINGUISTIK DENGAN PENGAJARAN BAHASA

Model-model keterkaitan antara bahasa, kognitif dan Sosial dan Peranan Pengajaran

Pada subpokok bahasan ini telah dibahas dua hal penting sekaitan dengan pembahasan
mengenai pemerolehan bahasa kedua, yakni pembahasan mengenai keterkaitan antara
kognitif, bahasan dan sosial dan peranan pengajaran formal dalam kegiatan pemerolehan
bahasa. Melalui pembahasan tersebut, sub pokok bahasan ini telah berhasil menegaskan
kembali fungsi kemampuan kognitif, fungsi kemampuan berbahasa dan fungsi seseorang.
Dengan demikian, apa yang telah Anda pelajari pada Modul 5 dapat Anda lihat kaitannya
dengan pengajaran bahasa yang akan segera Anda pelajari pada sub pokok bahasan
berikut. Mari kita ringkaskan kembali pada yang Anda telah pelajari pada sub pokok
bahasan ini.

Pada bagian awal telah disajikan tiga model keterkaitan antara faktor-faktor bahasa,
kognitif dan sosial. Sekaitan dengan itu, telah diketengahkan tiga model utama, yakni:
model reduksionis, model interaksionis dan model terpadu. Ketiga model ini menjadi
landasan penelitian dan pemahaman peranan dan keterkaitan faktor kognitif, faktor bahasa,
dan faktor sosial dalam komunikasi bahasa. Kelebihan dan kelemahan masing-masing
model juga telah dibahas secara umum dalam bagian ini.

Pada bagian selanjutnya, telah dibahas mengenai peranan pengajaran formal dalam proses
pemerolehan bahasa. Pendapat-pendapat para ahli dalam bidang ini dikemukakan dan
dibahas. Kemudian juga disajikan berbagai hasil kajian dalam bidang ini. Pendapat-
pendapat tersebut terangkum dalam tiga aliran utama: aliran lintascara, aliran non-
lintascara, dan aliran keragaman.

Aliran pertama, yakni aliran lintascara, berpendapat bahwa belajar dapat berkembang
menjadi pemerolehan, dan sebaliknya pemerolehan dapat kemudian dilanjutkan dengan
belajar. Di lain pihak, aliran non-lintascara berpendapat bahwa pemerolehan tidak dapat
berkembang menjadi belajar, dan begitu pun sebaliknya. Pemerolehan dan belajar
merupakan dua hal yang berbeda. Terakhir, aliran keragaman beranggapan bahwa
pembelajar memiliki pendekatan yang berbeda-beda sesuai dengan latar belakang mereka
masing-masing dan sesuai dengan jenis dan karakteristik bahan ajar yang dipelajari:
Meskipun demikian, ketiga aliran ini beranggapan bahwa pengajaran formal hanya dapat
membantu mempercepat pemerolehan dan bukan menentukan hasil pemerolehan.

Cakupan Semantik

CAKUPAN SEMANTIK

Hakikat Belajar dan Pembelajaran

Dari uraian di atas; kita dapat menyimpulkan bahwa makna bahasa, khususnya makna
kata, terpengaruh oleh berbagai konteks. Makna kata dapat dibangun dalam kaitannya
dengan benda atau objek di luar bahasa. Dalam konsepsi ini, kata berperan sebagai label
atau pemberi nama pada benda-benda atau objek-objek yang berada di alam semesta.
Makna kata juga dapat dibentuk oleh konsepsi atau pembentukan konsepsi yang terjadi
dalam pikiran pengguna bahasa. Proses pembentukannya berkait dengan pengetahuan atau
persepsi penggunaan bahasa tersebut terhadap fenomena, benda atau peristiwa yang
terjadi di luar bahasa. Dalam konteks ini, misalnya penggunaan bahasa akan tidak sama
dalam menafsirkan makna kata demokrasi karena persepsi dan konsepsi mereka berbeda
terhadap kata itu. Selain kedua konsepsi itu, makna kata juga dapat dibentuk oleh kaitan
antara stimulus, kata dengan respons yang terjadi dalam suatu peristiwa ujaran.
Beranjak dari ketiga konsepsi ini maka kajian semantik pada dasarnya sangat bergantung
pada dua kecenderungan. Pertama, makna bahasa dipengaruhi oleh konteks di luar bahasa,
benda, objek dan peristiwa yang ada di alam semesta. Kedua, kajian makna bahasa
ditentukan oleh konteks bahasa, yakni oleh aturan kebahasaan suatu bahasa.

Penamaan

Uraian di atas menunjukkan bahwa beberapa konsep dasar dalam semantik penting untuk
dipahami. Contoh, pengertian sense berbeda dari pengertian reference. Pertama, merujuk
kepada hubungan antar kata dalam suatu sistem bahasa dilihat dari kaitan maknanya.
Sedangkan yang kedua merujuk kepada hubungan antara kata dengan benda, objek atau
peristiwa di luar bahasa dalam pembentukan makna kata.
Begitu pula dengan pengertian tentang kalimat, ujaran dan proposisi perlu dipahami dalam
kajian antik. Dalam keseharian, kerap tidak kita bedakan atau kalimat dengan ujaran.
Kalimat sebagaimana kita pahami satuan tata bahasa yang sekurang-kurangnya terdiri dari
subjek dan predikat. Sedangkan ujaran dapat terdiri dari satu kata, frase atau kalimat yang
diujarkan oleh seorang penutur yang ditandai oleh adanya unsur fonologis, yakni
kesenyapan. dalam semantik kedua konsep ini memperlihatkan sosok kajian makna yang
berbeda. Makna ujaran, misalnya lebih banyak dibahas dalam semantik tindak tutur. Peran
konteks pembicaraan dalam mengungkapkan makna ujaran sangat penting. Sementara
kajian makna kalimat lazimnya lebih memusatkan pada konteks tatabahasa dan unsur lain
yang dapat dicakup dalam tata bahasa dalam bahasa Inggris, misalnya unsur waktu dapat
digramatikakan yang terwujud dalam perbedaan bentuk kata kerja.
Mengingat pentingnya konsep-konsep itu, Anda sebagai pembelajar semantik hendaknya
mencermati batasan dan penerapan konsep itu dalam kajian makna bahasa.

PERAN KONTEKS DALAM PEMAKNAAN BAHASA
Relativitas Bahasa, Pemaknaan Bahasa

Dari perbincangan kita dalam bagian modul di atas terlihat bahwa bahasa sangat erat
kaitannya dengan budaya. Keduanya ibarat dua muka dari satu mata uang. Sebagaimana
diyakini oleh sebagian ahli bahasa, language is a part of culture.
Pandangan seperti ini, ternyata berimbas pula pada kajian makna bahasa. Para pakar di
bidang semantik cenderung terbagi ke dalam 2 kubu dalam melihat masalah ini. Pertama,
kelompok yang menyatakan bahwa kajian makna bahasa seharusnya terlepas dari konteks
(dalam cakupan yang luas adalah budaya) mengingat begitu banyak unsur konteks yang
tidak dapat diwadahi oleh kaidah semantik. Pandangan ini tentu lebih cenderung dianut oleh
pakar yang memusatkan kajiannya pada semantik bahasa (Linguistic Semantics). Para
pakar dalam bidang ini lebih cenderung mengkaji makna bahasa hanya dari sisi peran kata
dan kaitan antara kata dalam sebuah kalimat dalam membentuk makna bahasa. Kalaupun
ada unsur konteks yang dimasukkan ke dalam kajiannya hanya sebatas unsur-unsur dari
bahasa, seperti waktu yang dapat digramatikalkan. Dengan demikian, kajiannya cenderung
mengurangi konteks penggunaan bahasa.
Kedua, kelompok yang menegaskan bahwa konteks tidak dapat dipisahkan dari kajian
makna bahasa. Oleh karena itu, kajian makna bahasa yang dilakukan kelompok ini
memperhitungkan konteks penggunaan bahasa. Kecenderungan ini, misalnya tampak dalam
kajian Pragmatik (Pragmatics).
Berdasarkan kedua kecenderungan ini kita tentu dapat menentukan ke arah mana kajian
makna bahasa yang kita lakukan. Mengingat kajian makna bahasa tidak hanya mencakup
makna kata dan makna kalimat saja melainkan juga makna ujaran, tentu lebih bijak bagi
kita apabila kajian makna bahasa mempertimbangkan kedua kecenderungan itu.

Peran Konteks Situasi, Pemaknaan Bahasa, Budaya dan Majas

Kajian makna bahasa sebagaimana disitir oleh Firth dan Malinowski sulit dipisahkan dari
konteks penggunaan bahasa. Mereka, antara lain beranggapan bahwa bahasa merupakan
wujud dari tindakan penggunaan bahasa yang bergantung pada situasi penggunaan bahasa.
Dalam memerinci ketergantungan makna bahasa pada konteks situasi berbahasa, para
pakar antara lain menyarankan agar ciri-ciri yang melekat pada situasi harus teridentifikasi.
Ciri yang menyangkut penutur dan pendengar, tempat bertutur serta objek yang
dibicarakan, misalnya merupakan unsur-unsur situasi berbahasa. Kajian yang menekankan
pada unsur ini lazimnya tercakup dalam pragmatik.
Kajian lain yang menekankan pada konteks situasi tampak dalam kajian makna bahasa
yang kemukakan oleh kaum behaviorist. Bloomfield, misalnya menyatakan bahwa makna
bahasa sangat bergantung pada hal ini. Pemaknaan terhadap ujaran sangat ditentukan oleh
persepsi pengguna bahasa akan situasi berbahasa yang dihadapinya.
Ciri-ciri situasi berbahasa ini tentu idealnya dapat diwujudkan melalui unsur-unsur
kebahasaan. Salah satu contoh upaya penggambaran konteks berbahasa dalam kajian
makna adalah lewat penggunaan kata ganti atau yang lazim dikenal dengan deiksis.
Deiksis, antara lain menggambarkan unsur-unsur peristiwa berbahasa, seperti aspek waktu,
ruang, dan objek berikut peristiwa yang dirujuk dalam penggunaan bahasa.
Tentu saja tidak semua unsur yang melekat pada situasi berbahasa dapat diwujudkan
melalui unsur bahasa, kata atau kalimat. Untuk itu, peran nirlinguistik, aspek-aspek di luar
bahasa perlu diperhitungkan dalam kajian makna bahasa.

SEMANTIK LEKSIKAL, HUBUNGAN MAKNA, MEDAN MAKNA DAN KOMPONEN MAKNA
Semantik Leksikal

Makna bahasa sebagaimana terungkap dalam uraian di atas dipengaruhi sekurang-
kurangnya oleh hubungan antara bahasa dengan (1) objek atau (2) peristiwa di luar bahasa
atau oleh hubungan di antara unsur bahasa dalam suatu sistem bahasa. Kajian makna
bahasa yang lebih memusatkan pada peran unsur bahasa atau kata dalam kaitannya
dengan kata lain dalam suatu bahasa lazim disebut sebagai semantik leksikal.
Kajian makna dalam semantik leksikal lebih mendasarkan pada peran makna kata dan
hubungan makna yang terjadi antarkata dalam suatu bahasa. Hubungan makna antar kata
baik yang bersifat sintagmatik dan paradigmatik kerap digunakan untuk menjawab
permasalahan makna kata. Kajian makna kata dalam konteks ini pada gilirannya tentu
dapat menjawab permasalahan makna kalimat. Sebab sebagaimana kerap dikemukakan
oleh ahli semantik bahwa makna kalimat bergantung pada makna kata yang tercakup dalam
kalimat tempat kata itu terangkai. Peran kajian makna kata berdasarkan hubungan makna
ini terasa penting mengingat tidak semua makna kata dapat dijelaskan oleh keterkaitannya
dengan objek yang digambarkan oleh kata itu. Makna kata-kata yang bersifat abstrak,
misalnya hanya mungkin dapat dijelaskan maknanya oleh hubungan makna antarkata
dalam suatu bahasa.

Medan Makna dan Komponen Makna

Makna bahasa terutama makna kata dapat kita petakan menurut komponennya. Pandangan
seperti ini, tampak dalam teori medan makna yang menyatakan bahwa kosakata dalam
suatu bahasa terbentuk dalam kelompok-kelompok kata yang menunjuk kepada lingkup
makna tertentu, misalnya perkakas dapur atau nama-nama warna. Dalam suatu medan
makna, antara kata yang satu dengan kata lainnya menunjukkan hubungan makna yang
dapat dikelompokkan ke dalam 2 golongan. Pertama golongan kolokasi yang
menggambarkan hubungan sintagmatik antara kata-kata yang terdapat dalam suatu bidang
tertentu atau medan tertentu. Kedua golongan set yang cenderung menggambarkan
hubungan paradigmatik antarkata dalam suatu bidang tertentu.
Untuk menggambarkan hubungan antar kata dalam suatu bidang tertentu dapat
diungkapkan melalui komponen makna yang tercakup dalam kata-kata dalam suatu bidang
tertentu. Komponen makna menunjukkan bahwa setiap kata maknanya terbentuk dari
beberapa unsur atau komponen. Misalnya, kata-kata yang menggambarkan kekerabatan,
seperti àyah, "ibu, àdik. `kakak dapat kita lihat komponen maknanya dalam diagram
berikut.

Selain untuk menunjukkan hubungan makna antarkata, komponen makna juga berguna,
antara lain untuk perumusan makna dalam kamus dan untuk menentukan apakah kalimat
yang digunakan dapat diterima atau tidak secara semantik. Tentu saja untuk
mengungkapkan komponen makna tersebut perlu dilakukan melalui analisis yang lazim
dikenal sebagai analisis komponen makna. Analisis ini dalam kajian semantik leksikal tentu
cukup menonjol mengingat manfaatnya yang cukup beragam dalam mengkaji makna kata
dan hubungan makna antarkata dalam suatu bahasa.

Sinonimi, Antonimi dan Hiponii

Dalam unit ini kita telah mempelajari beberapa konsep yang berkaitan dengan:

sinonimi;

antonimi;

hiponimi.

Beberapa istilah yang perlu Anda ingat yang berkaitan dengan ketiga konsep di atas adalah
berikut ini.

Hubungan sinonimi sempurna dan tidak sempurna

Parafrase (paraphrasing).

Antonimi biner (binary antonymy).

Kebalikan (converses).

Antonimi bertingkat (gradable antonymy).

Kontradiksi (contradictory).

Hipernim/superordinat.

Plosemi

Dalam unit ini kita telah mempelajari 3 konsep penting dalam hubungan makna, yaitu

homonimi;

polisemi;

ambiguitas.

Istilah-istilah yang harus Anda ingat adalah:

homograf;

homofon;

structural ambiguity;

lexical ambiguity.

SEMANTIK DAN TATA BAHASA (SEMANTICS AND GRAMMAR)

Serbaneka tentang Tata Bahasa

Kita telah mempelajari beberapa konsep yang berkaitan dengan:

tatabahasa formal (formal grammar);

tatabahasa nosional (notional grammar);

kategori tata bahasa (grammatical categories);

tatabahasa dan leksikon (grammar and lexicon);

hubungan-hubungan gramatikal (grammatical relations).

Beberapa istilah yang perlu Anda ingat yang berkaitan dengan ketiga konsep di atas adalah:

gender, sex, tense, time;

countable and uncountable (mass) nouns;

surface structure vs deep structure;

deep subject/objects;

subjects, objects, agents, complements;

gramatikal gender;

enumeration;

interpretive and generative

Dalam unit ini kita telah mempelajari beberapa konsep yang berkaitan dengan hal-hal
berikut.

Komponen dan kalimat (components and sentence).

Tatabahasa kasus (case grammar).

Jenis kalimat dan modalitas (sentence types and modality).

Beberapa istilah yang perlu Anda ingat yang berkaitan dengan ketiga konsep di atas adalah
berikut ini.

Semantic components or semantic properties (komponen-komponen makna).

Projection rules (aturan-aturan pemroyeksian).

Amalgamation (penggabungan).

Paths (jalur).

Berbagai istilah yang ada hubungannya dengan tata bahasa kasus, seperti berikut.
a. Agent (pelaku/perantara).
b. Patient (yang dikenai pekerjaan).
c. Instrument (alat untuk melakukan pekerjaan).
d. Cause (penyebab terjadinya sebuah pekerjaan);
e. Experience (yang mengalami proses terjadinya sebuah pekerjaan).
f. benxefactive (yang mendapatkan keberuntungan dari akibat adanya pekerjaan).
g. Locative (tempat terjadinya sebuah pekerjaan).
h. Temporal (waktu terjadinya sebuah pekerjaan).

Declarative and statement.

Interrogative and question.

Imperative and command.

Mood and modality: emphatic, period, quotative, report, and indefinite and question

Epistemic and deontic.

MAKNA UJARAN

Bahasa Lisan dan Tulisan, Topik dan Komentar, Tindak Tutur, Tindak Lokusi dan Perlokusi

berikut.

Perbedaan antara bahasa lisan dan bahasa tulisan dilihat sari sejarah perkembangan
kebahasaan manusia, pemakaian bahasa dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, dan cara
penyampaian pesan/makna.

Hubungan antara topik (topic)dan komentar (comment) dalam ujaran

Teori tindak tutur (speech acts) dalam kaitannya dengan makna ujaran

Tindak lokusi, ilokusi, dan perlokusi (elocutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts)
dalam hubungannya dengan makna ujaran.

Kondisi Felisitas, Pra Anggapan, Implikatur Percakapan Semantik dan Pengajaran Bahasa

berikut.

Kondisi felisitas (felicity conditions) dan hubungannya dengan makna ujaran.

Peran praanggapan (presuppositions) dalam membentuk makna ujaran.

Peran implikatur percakapan (conversational implicature) dalam membentuk makna ujaran.

Peran semantik dalam pengajaran bahasa Inggris.

Sumber buku semantics karya Wahyu Sandayana



Classification is one of the patterns of exposition. There are some principles in writing
classification essays.

The principles of classification

One principle is applied at each level of classification

The member of the categories should not be overlap

It should be complete

Organizing the classification essay

Introductory paragraph

At least one developmental paragraphs for each category

Concluding paragraph

Strategies for coherence

The use of transitions

The use of articles

The use of key words

Classification Essays and Other Writing Strategies

Classification essays are a combination of two or more writing strategies. The most common
combinations are examples and comparison and contrast.

Transition words can be very helpful in developing classification essays. They can be used to
introduce examples, or to show the contrast between two or more categories.

A process analysis essay is the form of expository writing in which the writer explains a
process to the readers. The process that the writer presents consists of steps or procedures
that are arranged in chronological order. This order is the same as the order found in
narration.

The process analysis essay explains how to do something or how something is made. The
writer explains or describes the readers the steps or the procedures that should be followed
to recreate the similar result. Therefore, the writer has to present every step clearly so that
the readers do not make any mistakes in performing the tasks.

Organizing the Process Analysis

Process or process analysis is the form of expository writing in which the writer
demonstrates or instructs a process to the readers. For example, how to make gado-gado,
or how to make a pan cake. In process writing, the writer may only describes the process
but does not want or insist the readers to follow the instruction. This type of process is
called an explanatory process essay. However, when the writer wishes the readers to do
something, he instructs the readers to do it. This type of process is called an instructional
process. However, in both cases, a step-by-step analysis of the procedure is necessary.

There are three types of a cause and effect relationship that we ecounter in our everyday
life. These are a single cause that leads to a single effect, a single cause that results in
multiple effects, and multiple couses that lead to a single effect.

The Signal Words and Expressions Used in Cause and Effect Essay

Cause and effect relationship essays are usually indicated by the use of signal words or
expressions. The words or expressions that indicate causes are: due to, because, since, if,
owing to, as a result of, caused by, because of. While the words or expressions used to
indicate effects are: as a result, consequently, for this reason, so, therefore, thus, causes,
leads to.

Introduction to argumentative writing

State your opinion, belief, or point of view

List all possible reasons to support your opinion, belief, or point of view (logical or
emotional)

Think of your (possible) opponents point of view

Think of why your point of view is better than your opponents point of view

Organize the information (1-4 above) into a clear, concise essay

Think of the persuasion vocabulary terms you might want to use in your essay

Write the first draft of your argumentative essay

Ask your friend(s) to read your first draft and to give comments on it

Revise the first draft (Repeat step 8 if necessary)

An argumentative essay is an essay in which the writer presents his belief, his opinion, or
his position and supports his belief, opinion or position with reasons or evidence.

Types of Argumentative Essays

An argumentative essay writer may convince his position, belief, or opinion using logical
persuasion or emotional persuasion. With logical persuasion, the writer uses evidence that is
believable and has strong reasoning. With emotional persuasion, the writer uses dramatic
experiences of his own or from others that can deeply touch the readers feeling (of disgust,
anger, fear, compassion, excitement, or pity).

Stating Opposing Arguments

An argumentative essay may sound more convincing if the writer challenges the opposite
point of view. In his essay he may show good points from the opposite point of view,but he
also shows that his own point of view is better than the opposite point of view.

Faulty or Sound Logic

In an argumentative essay, the writer has to be very careful in using logical reasoning.
Some reasoning sounds logical but other reasoning sounds illogical.

Important Vocabulary

In writing argumentative essays it is good to use certain words or phrases to signal the
writers main idea.
Organizing Your Information on an Argumentative

When you are writing an argumentative essay, start first with thinking what your point of
view is, and imagine every possible reason to support your point of view. Second, imagine
the opposing point of view and think of every reason why people have that opposing point
of view. Third, think of why your reasons are stronger and that your point of view is
stronger than the opposing point of view. Fourth, try to organize the information you have
already thought about into a clear, concise essay. In writing the essay, try to use
persuasion vocabulary terms. Finally, after you have finished your first draft, ask your friend
to read and to give comments on your first draft. Then, based on your friends comments
you can start writing your final draft.

Writing the Draft

Writing argumentative essays is an important skill needed in our daily academic life. To
write a good argumentative essay, we must be able to present our belief or statement with
strong supporting reasons or evidence. The purpose of our argument in our essay is to
convince (not to win arguments). We can argue with other people based on logical or
emotional persuasion. With logical persuasion we are trying to use logical evidence (facts,
statistics, examples), with emotional persuasion we are trying to appeal to the readers
emotion (using disgust, anger, fear, compassion, excitement, or pity) to convince other
people that the position or the belief we are taking is right.

Sometimes, in our argument, we have to state the opposing argument but we have to
convince the readers that our argument is more sound/better than the opposing argument.
When we are trying to appeal to logic, we have to make sure that we are using sound (not
faulty) reasoning. Some common expressions used in argumentative essays are "In my
opinion, "From my point of view , "As I see it , "I think , I believe, "I feel, "I conclude,
etc. .

The steps in writing an argumentative essay are usually as follows

THE ESSAY

THE ESSAY

Elements of Essay

Main Parts of an Essay
An essay has three main parts: an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

The introductory paragraph attracts the readers attention and informs the reader what your
main topic of discussion will be. An introductory paragraph has two parts:

general statements

a thesis statement

The body of your essay discusses your major points, one by one. It contains as many
paragraphs as necessary to explain the controlling ideas in the thesis statement.

The concluding paragraph reminds your reader of what you have said. A concluding
paragraph consists of:

a summary of the main topics (major points); or

restatement of your thesis in different words

your final comment on the subject, based on the information you have provided.

Outlining

Before you begin to write, it is important to organize your thoughts and to plan your essay.
An outline is a tool to help you. In an outline, you write down the main points and subpoints
in the order in which you plan to write about them. With an outline in front of you, it should
be relatively easy to write an essay on a certain subject. You can also use your outline to
see if an essay is well organized and if the paragraphs discuss the thesis statement.

Remember, there are many ways to write outlines. It is not necessary to follow any strict
outline form. However, keep in your mind that if there is no 2, you do not use the numeral
1. Also, if there is no b, there is no a. Subgroups are indented to the right and, as you move
to the right, the ideas become more and more specific.

Examples in an Essay

In an example essay, you develop a topic with examples to illustrate the topic or prove the
thesis. There are two cautions that you should keep in mind if you use examples for
support. First, remember that in formal academic writing, such as research papers. theses,
and the like, examples are considered the weakest kind of support, so use them
infrequently. Second, be sure that your examples really prove your point.

How many examples we use in an example essay depends on the topic. Some topics require
numerous examples, whereas others can be effectively developed with three or four
extended examples (illustrations). Thesis statements that state or imply "most or "all may
need numerous examples for adequate support; thesis statements that are more moderate,
stating or implying "some or "a few, can often be supported with fewer. but more
developed, examples.

In addition, the examples you use to develop the thesis statement should be
`representative. This means that you should choose examples that will fairly support the
thesis, since an example is a "representative member of a class or category .

Finally, when an essay contains several examples and details, it is necessary to consider the
order of their presentation. Even though there is no set or prescribed pattem, there are
some common patterns that might be considered guidelines. You can organize the examples
according to importance, familiarity, and time.

Transition Signals in the Example Essay

You have Iearned from this unit that you can introduce examples by using one of the
following phrases:
For example, ..............( sentence ) ...................
For instance, ...............(sentence ) ...................
One
Another
An example of ..........(noun phrase ) .................
A second
A third
................( noun phrase) .........is an example of
such as ..........(noun phrase) ..............

THE COMPARISON AND CONTRAST ESSAY
Points of Comparison

When you compare two things, you point out their similarities. When you contrast two
things, you emphasize their differences. Here are some important points to remember when
writing about the similarities and differences between two items:

The items that you compare and/or contrast must be from the same general class. So, you
could compare a sports car with a station wagon, but you would not compare a car with a
boat.

When comparing and contrasting two things, people, countries, and so forth, it is best to
restrict the points of comparison. Therefore, you should be selective and choose the most
significant points for comparison that would support the central idea in your essay.

The thesis statement for a composition that compares and contrasts should tell the reader:

what two things or people are being compared and contrasted;

whether the composition will emphasize the similarities or the differences.

Patterns of Organization
You should have learned from this unit that there are at least two ways to organize a
comparison and contrast essay. You may use block organization or point-by-point
organization.

In block organization, you discuss the same points of comparison for two things or people.
The points are discussed in the same order under each section. Thus, you discuss all of the
points for one thing or one person in one block (which can be one or more paragraphs), and
all of the points for the other thing or the other person in another block (which can be one
or more paragraphs).

In point-by-point organization, you make a sentence-by-sentence comparison of the
features for the two things or people. Thus, you discuss a particular point of comparison
about one thing or one person and then immediately discuss the same point about the other
thing or person.

THE PARAGRAPH

THE PARAGRAPH

The Elements of a Paragraph
A paragraph is a group of related sentences which develops one main idea or one main
topic. A good paragraph has five basic elements: a topic, a topic sentence, supporting
sentences, unity and coherence, A topic is what the paragraph is about or what the
paragraph discusses. This topic is usually expressed in a topic sentence.

Thus, a topic sentence announces what you are going to write. A good topic sentence has a
focused controlling idea which limits or controls and announces the aspect of the topic you
are going to write, Supporting sentences develop what you state about your topic in the
controlling idea. A focused controlling idea in the topic sentence helps you produce
supporting sentences which are relevant with the controlling idea.

Supporting sentences that are all relevant with the controlling idea in the topic sentence
produce a unified paragraph. A unified paragraph discusses only one main idea stated in the
topic sentence, or more specifically in the controlling idea. Besides being unified, a good
paragraph should also be coherent. A paragraph is coherent if the movement from one
sentence to the next is logical and smooth. The following paragraph checklist help you check
your paragraph to see if your paragraph is already good.

Paragraph checklist
Topic sentence

Does your topic sentence have a controlling idea? ____

Is the controlling idea already focused? ____

Supporting sentences

Unity
Do all of the supporting sentences directly support ____
the controlling idea in the topic sentence? Coherence

Do you apply key noun repetition and pronouns appropriately?____

Do you use transition signals appropriately? ____

Are all of your sentences arranged logically? ____

The Narrative Paragraph

Narrative paragraph is a paragraph about a story or series of events organized by time
order. In other words, when you write a narrative paragraph, it means that you write a
story. And a good narrative paragraph has three important qualities. First, it tells a series of
events or actions. Second, the events are organized chronologically or by time sequence.
And the last, it shows the writers point or purpose.

Narration is more often about past story, but sometimes it is also about repeated present
story. In this module, the first is referred to as past narration and the second as present
narration. Past and present narration have several similarities and differ mainly in when the
story takes place. Therefore, in writing both present and past narration, you need to keep
yourself aware with your choice of verb tenses.

To achieve coherence in your narration, you should make use of appropriate time
expressions to show clearly to your readers the relationship among the events in your story.
Besides, your skill in choosing appropriate tenses is also very important for this purpose.

Last but not least, make yourself sure that you keep in your mind your point or purpose of
writing. It will help you achieve unity in your paragraph by telling you which ideas to include
and to exclude.

DESCRIPTIVE PARAGRAPH

Description of A Place
In descriptive writing, actually you are painting a picture with words. The topic sentence for
a descriptive paragraph should give the topic (the place you are describing) and the
controlling idea (the dominant impression, idea, or attitude). In descriptive writing,
therefore, you need to support the dominant impression with descriptive details. Descriptive
details are concrete and specific. They are word that appeals to one of our five senses -
sight, smell, touch, taste, or hearing. Always strive to make details specific as vague
descriptions suggest that your thought is vague and imprecise. Moreover, specific details
makes writing more interesting.

In descriptive writing it is often important for reader to be able to "see in their mind the
place being described. To help readers see the place, you must organize the supporting
details in your description according to space. In spatial organization, you first describe ion
part of the place, then move on to describe another part of the place, and so on. Thus, you
show the relationship of things to each other in space and guide the reader through space.

Description of a Person

In describing a person, you could describe the physical appearance, the behavior, or both.
At this point, the discussion is restricted to physical appearance, since for the most part the
principle of organization is spatial. You can describe a persons appearance in many ways.
You can describe the persons clothes, manner of walking, color and style of hair, facial
appearance, body shape, and expression. You can also describe the persons way of talking.
Just what you select depends on the topic and the purpose.

Remember, you are the painter with words so you want your description to be clear,
coherent - logically arranged. A strong controlling idea and more descriptive details make
the description more interesting. When describing a person, you are not obliged to describe
every single details about the persons appearance. Sometimes it is better to focus on one
or two outstanding features that convey something about the persons character. Such a
description gives the reader the general impression about the person.

THE EXPOSITORY PARAGRAPH

Specific Details as Support

In expository writing, the writer is trying to prove the point he is making by providing the
reader with supports. Good proof is factual detail.

Factual details are facts and information that explain the main idea and make it specific.
They provide answers to the questions who, what, why, when, where, and how. Factual
details make the main idea believable to the reader and thus provide effective support.
Therefore, a writer must test each detail to see whether or not it will prove the controlling
idea. Not only should support be specific; it should be relevant as well. Remember, all of the
details in a paragraph must support the controlling idea of the topic sentence and all the
sentences in the paragraph should relate to the controlling idea in order to make the
paragraph unified.

Examples and Illustrations as Support

When you use examples and illustrations to support your point (controlling idea):

Make sure that your examples or illustration really support your point.

Introduce them with appropriate transition signals. Three common transitions are for
example, for instance, and e.g. (from Latin exempli gratia, for example).

Organization of Examples and Details

These are the important points you should have learned from this unit:

When a paragraph contains several details and examples, it is necessary to consider the
order of their presentation. In the expository paragraph, there is no prescribed or set
pattern of organization to follow; the ordering depends upon the subject and often upon the
authors logic. However, there are some common patterns that might be considered
guidelines: order of importance, order of familiarity, and chronological order.

Each method of organization has special words and expressions

Resourse : The Book title Advanced Writing

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