Pulsed Plasma Thrusters (PPTs with Teflon propellant) 0.05 - 0.1 Isp1000 - 1200sec P from 0.

1 to 1 KW Very short ( s ) pulses, widely controllable pulse rate Excellent for precise maneuvering Solid fuel, very simple systems Very low efficiency Difficulty handling large propellant mass Some flight experience (VELA satellites), more coming

FUSION MECHANISMS
Different models have been suggested for the production of neutrons in the plasma focus. A brief investigation of these models can give insight into the mechanisms of the p-11B fusion reaction. The moving-boiler model suggests that the ion velocity is isotropic in the center of mass of the system, but this center of mass moves along the axis in the laboratory frame. This model gives a much higher ion temperature than the estimates based on other observations. Also, measurements have shown (Milanese, 1978) that neutron and electromagnetic radiation emissions from plasma focus devices are characterized by a marked anisotropy. The beam-target model suggests that at the collapse of the current sheath, an electric field is generated by the m = 0 sausage magnetohydrodynamic instability. The charged particles are accelerated by this intense electric field into high velocities and collide with stationary targets. However, the duration of neutron production, typically 100 nanoseconds, is too long for the attributed magnetohydrodynamic instability, and an unrealistically high ion current (greater than 106 A) must be assumed. W.H. Bostick and V. Nardi (Bostick, 1975) studied the fine structure inside the plasma columnar region during the stage of neutron production, and on the current sheath that forms this column. The fine structure can be depicted as a texture of numerous filaments with a diameter ranging from a few millimeters down to a half a millimeter, and can be observed in all regions of the current sheath before, during, and after the axial-collapse time. Their experimental data indicates that high-energy electrons and ions up to and above the nuclear reaction threshold are concentrated in localized regions of the current sheath during the neutron production time. The acceleration of ions to high energies inside localized plasma regions with linear dimensions of a fraction of a millimeter is well explained in terms of decay of the observed magnetic structure of the current sheath. The acceleration of ions by inductive fields during the structure decay accounts for the anisotropy of neutron and x-ray energy spectrum. Based on a multiplicity of experimental observations on the bremsstrahlung x-ray emission from localized sources, Bostick and Nardi estimated the peak value of the magnetic field intensity as Bmax ~ 2108 G (50%). They also evidenced the generation of electron and ion beams by focused discharges and obtained an ion energy spectrum using a timeofflight method (Bostick, 1978). All of the empirical evidence shows that the bulk of the fusion reactions occur in a multiplicity of localized regions with a density of >1020 cm-3 . Due to the varieties of different fusion models, a positive or negative conclusion can be formed depending on the representation. Among the models, the moving boiler model provides the strongest opposition to p-11B reaction. Since the ions and electrons are in thermal equilibrium, the bremsstrahlung radiation will ruin any possibility of breakeven. Fortunately, there is substantial evidence showing non-thermal processes occur inside the plasma focus discharges. To achieve break-even and ignition for a p-11B reaction, the electron temperature needs to be decreased while keeping ions at high temperature. The existence of electron filaments and ion clusters, as depicted in the fine structure model, provides such a possibility. Since the bulk ions and electrons are located in different regions, the heating mechanism can be greatly depressed. Therefore a much lower radiation level and electron temperature can be achieved.

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VASIMR (VARIABLE SPECIFIC IMPULSE MAGNETO-PLASMADYNAMIC ROCKET) VASIMR is a high power, electrothermal plasma rocket concept currently under development at its NASA Johnson Space Center in Houston by a team headed by astronaut Dr Franklin Chang Diaz [Musser and Alpert, 2000; Chang Diaz, 2000]. VASIMR technology borrows heavily from US fusion R&D, and especially from the vast experience in plasma heating by radio-frequency electromagnetic waves, or RF heating for short. A recent survey of the status of VASIMR can be found in [Negrotti, 2008]. Although VASIMR can be classified as a MPD thruster, it possesses some unique features worth setting it apart from MPD propulsion. No claim is made by NASA as to the power source of VASIMR, but Isp and thrust imply power so large that a nuclear source appears to be the only practicable solution. VASIMR is of great interest because it purposely meets the requirement of an ideal interplanetary propulsion system mentioned in Section 7.19, that is, higher thrust at low Isp or lower thrust and high Isp, so that the product of the two, the power, remains constant.

In its simplest scheme the VASIMR system consists of three major magnetic functional blocks, or cells, denoted as forward, central and aft; this configuration is called by plasma physicists an asymmetric mirror (see also Chapter 8). The forward cell handles the injection of propellant and ionizes it, turning it into plasma; the central cell acts as an amplifier to further heat the plasma using electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) to the desired energy input for the magnetic nozzle. The third, aft end-cell, is a hybrid two-stage magnetic nozzle that converts the thermal energy of the plasma into kinetic energy of axially directed flow, while ensuring plasma is kept away from the nozzle walls by a magnetic field. Without the aft end-cell, the plasma flow would tend to follow the magnetic field corkscrewing (spiraling) along the magnetic field lines, and the large tangential component of the plasma velocity would be wasted (only the axial component produces the momentum change we call thrust). With this configuration and strategy, the plasma is claimed to be controllable over a wide range of temperatures and densities. A schematic of the VASIMR system is reported in Figure 7.32. During VASIMR operation, neutral gas (typically hydrogen, but also deuterium) is injected at the forward end-cell and ionized. The plasma is radiofrequency (RF) heated within the central cell to the desired temperature and density. RF heating exploits ECR [Ilin et al., 2000; Takao et al., 2000]: electrons readily absorb the energy of radio waves tuned to the frequency of electrons spiraling around the magnetic force lines. The heated plasma is magnetically and gas-dynamically accelerated and exhausted from the aft end-cell. The key feature of VASIMR plasma rocket operation is its purported capability to vary, or modulate, the plasma exhaust while maintaining constant power.

A magnetic field is generated by the transverse current therby heating up the gas and the ions are heated up by the magnetic and electric fields they themselves created. Magnetoplasmadynamics ( a combination of thermodynamics and electromagnetic theory) is required to predict thrust . In order to enable building a practical plasma thruster lots of experimentations and theorizations were considered. Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster was a laboratory built device which is considered ideal for interplanetary missions It has operational drawback linked with the high currents in this type of engine..

A plasma thruster based on hall effect was built by Russia It fits in the family of magnetoplasma-dynamic devices Hall effect This can be understood by considering the collisions between the electrons,ions and neutral gas molecules. The ions and electrons in the free space shown follow spiral tracks with diameters which are dependant on their charge- to- mass ratio., the electrons moving in tight spirals and the ions moving in wider spirals. The motion generates the plasma flow is the fact that the net current in the axial direction being zero since the electrons and ions move in the same direction. However, the spiral motion will be interrupted during the collisions between an electron or ion with a gas molecule and since these collisions occur very frequently there will be little motion along the channel therby causing a predominant drift along the E vector. On the other hand the spiral motion continues uninterrupted if the collisions are infrequent and the predominant drift will be along the axis of the channel. The frequency of the collisions is determined by the hall parameter. It is the ratio of the gyro (cyclotron) frequency of the particle in the magnetic field to the particle collision frequency.

The axial drift occurs because the collisions are infrequent for large
values of this ratio and vice versa.

A neutral plasma flow will arise if there is no net current in the axial direction. This happens if the electrons and ions are affected equally.

 However , electrons and ions will behave differently due to the large differences in their charge-to-mass ratio.

The electrons drift freely under certain density conditions in the axial direction
with their small gyro radius, while the ions, undergo many more collisions per cycle,and are constrained to drift along the electric field.

Hall current (a net axial electron current) is thus generated.

The plasma in a hall thruster is accelerated by this current and the field it sets up. Out of the two possible configurations the simplest is discussed below.

In this figure, we can see that

Considering the axial electric and a transverse magnetic field .

The hall parameter is significantly greater than unity if the gyro-frequency of the electrons is sufficienty large resulting in the electron drift in a direction orthogonal to both fields as the hall current j shown in figure. The acceleration of the plasma is caused when this current again interacts with the magnetic field to produce an axial force.

These effects form an internally self consistent system of forces and fields and result in a high-velocity exhaust stream.

 The Russian hall thruster was successful adapting a co-axial geometry. Advantage: Electrons never interact with the walls since the hall current can form a closed loop.

Principle is similar to the previous figure with the exception of co-axial geometry. A symmetric magnetic field of a few hundred gauss is generated by the iron poles energized by field windings. It happens to be radial across the annular discharge cell. Insulation is achieved using alumina or boron nitride and the cell is fully lined.

The propellent is allowed to enter through the fine holes and is distributed uniformly
around the base of the cell. The discharge between the annular anode and the cathode electrode gun partially ionizes the propellent. A circular hall current is set up at the exit of the cell due to the hall effect which ensures that the electrons acted on by the crossed electric and magnetic fields.

The interaction of the Hall current and radial mag. field generates an outward
force.The exhaust stream is generated by this force which is transmitted to ions and neutral atoms by collision.

The magnetoplasmadynamics is complicated; it is simpler to think of this device as

an electrostatic accelerator in which the outer grid is replaces by the electrons circulating in the Hall current.

 Ions are considered to be accelerated by the electric field developed between

the anode annulus at the base of the cell.and Hall current ring (-vely charged)

The Russian SPT 140 5KW thruster develops an

exhaust velocity of 22.5 km/s discharge potential of 450 V thrust of 250 mN Efficiency is 57%

A good number of high thrust plasma propulsion systems use electrodes of one type
or another to generate the current in the gas that provides the ions and hence the thrust. However, they are not good for high power systems as thay always erode in the discharge. In order to overcome this problem efforts are put in by the use of microwaves to provide for the internal energy source therby increasing the power input. The simplest such device is similar to electrothermal thruster: Microwaves are used to heat the gas in a chamber connected to a deLaval nozzle, which converts the hot gas into an exhaust stream. The chamber is a microwave cavity designed to set up standing electromagnetic waves that heat the gas by accelerating electrons. These electrons ionize the propellant, allowing higher microwave induced currents to flow in the gas and heat it to propellant temperatures. Some laboratory thrusters of this type have been made