Can Traditional Indigenous Cultural Practices and Knowledge Assist in Adaptation to Rapid Climate Disruption and Help Salmon

Recovery in the Rivers of the Fraser-Columbia Plateau and Coastal Pacific Northwest?
Dennis Martinez
Indigenous Peoples Restoration Network (IPRN)\Society for Ecological Restoration International (SERI) Indigenous Peoples Biocultural Climate Change Assessment Initiative (IPCCA) Takelma Intertribal Project PNW Society of Wetland Scientists and Society for Ecological Restoration May 2-4, 2006 ________________________Vancouver, Washington_________________________ Revised September 19, 2011

Traditional Ecological Knowledge Conference

Humboldt State University September 22, 2011 Arcata, California

Salmon without Rivers, Jim Lichatowich

Fraser and Columbia River Basins (Source: Dorie Brownwell, Interrain Pacific) , pg 171

Salmon Nation, Ecotrust, ,pg 44

Salmon Nation, Ecotrust, ,pg 49

Contrasting Restoration Efforts on the Fraser and Columbia Rivers

The Fraser and Columbia are the two largest watersheds in the PNW, together draining 343,000 sq. miles. The Fraser is noted for its sockeye runs; the Columbia was noted for its chinook runs (historically producing more chinook, coho, and steelhead than any other river in the world) Restoration efforts on the Fraser emphasized scientific research on migration routes, etc. while refining counting methods, but science was given low priority on the Columbia, where dams were built and money was put into hatcheriesan example of American technooptimism
(Lichatowich, 1999)

Results of Salmonid Restoration Efforts on the Fraser and Columbia Rivers

Fraser River sockeye runs increased (from 3.3 million in 1949 to 22 million in 1990) Columbia River chinook crashed from historical runs of 8 to 10 million to 450,000 in 1993 Hatchery production on the Columbia was ineffective in making up for changing ocean conditions (beginning in 1976); hatchery fish are more vulnerable to unproductive ocean conditions Performance of salmon in the ocean is not independent of human manipulation of the fresh water phase of their lives
(Lichatowich, 1999)

Changing Ocean Conditions

Changes in ocean currents can reduce abundance of phytoplankton that support fish species that salmon prey on E.g., if springtime ocean currents change, the advantages of mixing of cold deeper waters with shallow warmer waters that provide cold water nutrients to phytoplankton will be lost and salmon health will deteriorate Global warming/El Nio events can shift fish runs to the north, as may have happened with the unusually high numbers of sockeye in 2010 returning to the Fraser River (Canadian northern route) and bypassing US southern route

The Missing Sockeye of 1994

14 million sockeye returned to the Fraser River in 1988 and 22 million in in 1990, but the 1994 run was nearly obliterated: 2 million sockeye (of 3.3 million estimated salmon) were lost and fisheries were closed down. Fishing quotas had been set at 80% and nearly caused zero reproduction Tribal poachers and logging were blamed. A complete ban on tribal fishing was proposed (although tribes accounted for < 5% of salmon taken annually). Sockeye runs in the late 90s and 2000s were well below the 1980s until 2010. Lesson: While Canadian fisheries practices were better managed more holistic with an ecosystem management approach and with science guiding the processchanges in ocean conditions were not well understood and still are not

Just Fish, Ed. Coward, 2000, pg 84

Salmon is an Eco-cultural Keystone Species

At least 12,000 (probably 10s of thousands) years of use by indigenous peoples of Pacific Northwest of thousands of salmon stocks Salmon Homecoming Ceremony celebrates social harmony between humans and salmonand all our relatives in the natural worldbetween Ocean and Forest, Upland Watershed and Riverine Aquatic Habitat Quexim (Lomatium nudicaule), in Indian stories and Salmon Homecoming Ceremonieswhere smoke was original salmon food symbolized the connection between Forest and Ocean Salmon was chosen as a focal speciesan indicator of ecosystem integrity and healthby the 1993 Clinton Northwest Forest Plan

Historical Eco-cultural Richness of the PNW

Recent research suggests that the social and cultural richness of Pacific Northwest tribes was the result in part of sophisticated political and legal systems linked to sophisticated resource management and harvest technologies A stable food supply was ensured by the deliberate spread of salmon and enhanced complexity of habitats by First Nations peoplesincreasing salmon abundance, diversity, and distribution
(Nigel Haggan, UBC fisheries Centre, 2004)

Native People Cared for Salmonid Freshwater Habitat

Given the uncertainty of oceanic conditions, Native people had to work hard at maintaining quality salmon stream habitat
Spawning beds were cleaned and log jams removed following large storms Sandspits blocking late summer/fall chinook runs were opened Trees were felled to divert stream water into side channels creating backeddies for overwintering coho or to flush sediment from spawning beds Salmon spawn were transplanted in damp moss to streams with no or few salmon Salmon were flumed or carried around landslides or ice blockages (this happened most recently in 1914 following the huge slide on the Fraser River at Hells Gate canyonsaving sockeye runs)

Other conservation measures included:

Complex stone fishtraps for a wide range of marine species (including herring, eulachon, and perch) which were species and size specific (Herring was and still is farmed on submerged hemlock boughs) (Nigel Haggan, 2004) Use of weirs at river mouths to count and then control harvestable fish before allowing them upriver to their natal spawning streams and other tribes Regulation of fishing times, places, and gear based on a sophisticated understanding of salmon reproductive biology and genetics

Celilo Falls

Photo Courtesy Ecotrust, USA

Number: HP068625 Geographic Region: SQUAMISH-LILLOOET Title: Native fisherman with dip net, fishing for Salmon. Photographer/Artist: UNDETERMINED Date: 194-?

Pre-contact fishing technology

Intertidal Fish Trap at Evans Inlet, King Island, BC.
Photo Anthony Pomeroy
Department of Archaeology Simon Fraser University

Intertidal Beach trap near Bella Bella

Photo: Elroy White

Salmon Hook

Royal British Museum British Columbia Archives

Seining at Namu Creek

Royal British Museum\British Columbia Archives

Royal British Museum British Columbia Archives

Royal British Museum British Columbia Archives

Local Control Over Local Resources

These and other conservation measures were sustainably maintained by a land tenure system which divided fisheries and other marine resources (e.g. farmed clam beds) into units of local responsibility and harvesting rights by individuals, families, and clans nested within a larger, collective tribal authority structure through which experienced knowledge specialists had the last word on harvest regulation and rights during times of regional or seasonal shortages of particular runs Fishing at the mouths of rivers and streams allowed accurate fish counts, with quotas for use based on the relative abundance of different fish runs Trading between families of different salmon species ensured a diverse food supply and good nutrition (Nigel Haggan, 2004)

Adaptation to Climate Change

Adaptation to climate change will depend in large part in the futureas it did for millennia with aboriginal fisheries on a wide range of practical aquatic and terrestrial restoration and conservation measures which in sum enhance the genetic diversity of salmon by maintaining high enough population numbers of all 5 salmonid species to ensure genetic adaptability to warming oceans and rivers.
[Those practical activities will be discussed in detail in the 2nd half of this presentation]

Adapting the Indigenous ecosystem-based model to modern conditions in complementarity with Western science

Adopt a holistic fisheries ecosystem management strategyinstead of single species population modeling addressing restoration in both upland terrestrial (watershed) and riverine and estuarine-marine habitat Work toward a site-specific local (community-based) regulatory structurelocal responsibility for local resourcesnested within larger tribal, regional, and state \national structures, e.g. New England / Newfoundland lobster harvesters

Salmon Nation, Ecotrust, ,pg 78

Use fishing gear which is species and size specific Favor natural regeneration of wild salmon stocks over hatchery fish where possible Find a balanced number of transferable license quotas and buy-backs of licenses by governments (e.g. Canada) to encourage local access and control of local resources and achieve distributive social justice while reducing fishing pressure on salmon. No open access, but some constraints on transferable quotas needed to reduce social disruption.
(Coward et al, 2000; Berrill, 1997)

Utilize both Western science and traditional ecological knowledge (TEK). Local knowledge provides important information on stock structure, spawning grounds, juvenile habitat, and seasonal and directional fish movements. Scrap maximum sustainable yield model in favor of whole ecosystem\multispecies management (Iceland and Norway are already doing so)feasible in relatively simple cold ocean systems No to No Net Loss salmon recoveryuse historically reconstructed baseline models instead of just going with current population numbers as a baseline, e.g. target salmon numbers lost to habitat destruction and dams instead of comparing cost of hatcheries vs. income from fishing as a metric of sustainability

Ecosystem Management at the Watershed Level and Climate Change Adaptation

1. Broad Goals Maintain or restore key aquatic and riparian habitat structure, composition, and processes (e.g. hydrologic function) affecting all organismsnot just fish (e.g. invertebrate species richness: 196 terrestrial vertebrate species, besides fish, utilize streamside macroinvertebrates) Maintain or restore key upland forest structure, composition, and function with a broad range of lightshade conditions where possible by approaching historical tree stocking rates, landscape configuration, and composition to the extent possible given changed landscape scale environmental conditions

2.

Ecocultural Restoration
The process of recovering as much as is recoverable of the key historic precontact ecosystem structure, composition, processes, and function, along with traditional, time-tested, ecologically appropriate and sustainable Indigenous cultural practices that helped shape ecosystems, while simultaneously building-in resilience to future rapid climate disruptions and other environmental changes in order to maintain ecological integrity in a way that ensures the survival of both Indigenous ecosystems and cultures

Mimicking Native American Fire Regimes in their Intensity, Frequency, Seasonality, Selectivity, and Landscape Scale Pattern The 100s of plant species utilized by First Nations required a watershed level fire regime based on periodic, low-intensity burns done rotationally at a frequency of from one to 10 or 15 years depending on the resource targeted and its phenologyapplied to a wide variety of plant communities rich in cultural resources, including forest herbaceous understories, montane meadows, prairie-savanna, wetlands, shrub-steppe, and riparian zones
(Turner, 2005)

Forgotten Fires, Omer C. Stewart, edited by Henry T. Lewis and M. Kat Anderson, 2002

Burning Beargrass Patch

Erosion Mitigation Measures

Minimize erosion by substituting mechanical thinning for fire in erodible soils (e.g. granitic soils) near streams Dont thin or burn on steep (over 60%) slopes near streamsbalance those kinds of closed areas with adjoining opens and gaps on less steep and erodible slopes for overall watershed structural heterogeneity Phase out roads and recontour slopes\restore natural drainage patterns by using outsloped roads instead of inboard ditches and culverts to restore historic hydrology

Aim High
Avoid shifting baselines by referring climate adaptation and mitigation goals to historical conditions (Hardison and Williams, Tulalip Tribe, 2005; Haggan, 2004) as an initial guide for restorationthat will be modified by todays changed conditions but will also set a restoration trajectory that recovers the historical range of variability of forest landscape heterogeneity for sufficient microsite variability to ensure genetic variability (a diverse gene pool) for adaptation of populations and subspecies to rapid climate destabilization and change
For Tribes: Assisted regeneration instead of assisted migration

Global Warming Induced Changed Weather and Oceanic Conditions in the Pacific Northwest
Current Ecohydrologic Conditions
Winter season reduced by roughly 2 months Longer warm fall rains and shorter spring snowmelt More precipitation falls as rain than snow, reducing snowpack Snow melts more rapidly and earlier in spring, resulting in higher peak flows Increased flows increase erosion and floods that deliver higher sediment loads, nutrient loads, and contaminants in downstream receiving waters, causing scouring and sedimentation; reduces infiltration and capacity of wetlands and riparian vegetation to filter nutrients and toxins in runoff
(Hardison and Williams, 2004)

Earlier snow melts are causing water to be available up to ~ 2 months before the normal times of salmon arrival Ocean acidification is reducing available calcium for shellfish and juvenile bone development of some fish species

Temperature Alterations

Loss of forest cover from clearcut logging has resulted in less stream shading and faster spring runoff; removal of large logs has resulted in poor stream structurewith few or no deep pools for summer cooling Warm water induces whirly disease in salmon and increases their susceptibility to other aquatic diseases
(Hardison and Williams, 2004)

Loss of groupings of tall old-growth trees has reduced humidity in forests with increased drying of forest understories, overstocked smaller trees and ladder fuels resulting in increased fire hazard

Species Range Shifts

As oceans warm, salmon have no place to go but north, e.g. sockeye salmon may move to the Bering Sea.
(Haggan, 2004)

The extremely rapid rate of climate change could trap terrestrial species which may have a wide ecological amplitude but have genetically fixed times for reproduction and feeding resulting in population declines and loss of tribal resources. (Hardison and Williams, 2004) Evolutionary opportunities will increase for invasive generalist species and decrease for more conservative species

Balancing Carbon Sequestration with Restoration of Biodiversity and Fire Hazard Reduction
Use variable density thinning model (Lindenmayer and Franklin, 2002) to create structural and compositional heterogeneity Thin to release permanent old-growth softwoods and hardwoodsfor reducing fire hazard and for future understory moisture retention and carbon sequestration both in trees and in soil organic matter/legacy charcoal, enhanced by forest openings which support rich perennial herbaceous and fern understories Structure longterm timber harvest rotations (120 years or longer) and future permanent old-growth trees in groupings which provide a wide range of light-shade conditions appropriate to the forest typefor biodiversity, species composition, and gene pool restoration (facilitated by enough spacing between tree groupings to allow good gene flow)

Restoring Forest Hydrologic Function to Benefit Salmonid Aquatic Habitat

Remove sufficient number of smaller treesespecially invasive shade tolerant conifers in interior coastal mountainsto reduce evapotranspiration and increase groundwater quantity Restore beavers for groundwater recharge and increased fish diversity, abundance, health and juvenile survival Increase soil infiltration capacity by creating openings and gapsand maintaining montane meadowswhich support long-lived herbaceous perennials such as native bunchgrasses with extensive root systems which can loosen compacted soils in the appropriate plant communities. Native grasslands are a good underground carbon sink. Greater water quantity translates into greater water quality for salmonids

Stem-exclusion stand with stocking rate of > 3700\ ha (1500\ac). Virtually no understory herbaceous vegetation. Douglas-fir still dominant but grand fir future potential dominant. Thinning prescription favored Douglas-fir \hardwood over grand fir.

Thinning prescription integrated restoration of forest health with fuels reduction to lower fire hazard. To prepare for later broadcast burning: Ladder fuels removed Lower branches removed > 50% light achieved by favoring tree group spacing of varying sizes Slash piling to be burned later or left for wildlife Duff raked away from sensitive leave trees like pine to avoid killing feeder roots Thinnings from 3.5 to 10 (top-end) salvaged with portable Economizer Mill

Flame lengths under one meter

Native grass seeds Sitka brome, Columbia brome, and California brome (Bromus carianatus) sowed in ashes of burn piles and broadcast burns. Heavy seeding rate of 40lbs/acre (16 lbs/ha)

Early spring native grass growth from fall-sowed seed in broadcast burn areas.

Early fall native grass growth in same location. Merging over 6 years of original patches.

Before Thinning

After thinning in same location

Nearly 1-meter high native grasses adjacent to area in previous photo

Traditional Salmon Roast Makes Happy People

Photo courtesy of Craig Jacobson\Ecotrust USA

Will we see this size of salmon again?

Photo courtesy of Nigel Haggan