Chapter 13: European State Consolidation in the 17th and 18th Centuries

Introduction
Europe began to dominate the world Military and economic strength Only time period that this happened (ended in WWII) Shift in power away from Spain and Portugal to England and France Spain declined after Spanish War of Succession Causes HRE weak after Treaty of Westphalia (1648)

The Netherlands: Golden Age to Decline

The seven states became independent of Spain in 1672 The Netherlands had several naval battles with England King Henry XIV invaded the Netherlands William of Orange and the hereditary chief executive (stadtholder) rallied the Dutch against them Remained a Republic Each of the 7 states had a say Met in Estates General Holland had considerable influence Very different than most of Europe During military struggle, they would allow a powerful leader to take charge (such as William III from the House of Orange), but after the crisis, they would become a Republic again William died in 1702 Allowed religious tolerance Calvinist Reformed Church was the official church, but other religions were allowed Became a haven for Jews Urban Prosperity Very economically prosperous A huge percentage of Dutch lived in cities More than any other European nation There was a cheap, steady supply of grain Allowed farmers to produce more profitable products Fisherman sold tons of herring Exported textiles to other European countries Dutch had an amazing sea empire Replaced Portugal as the #1 East Asia spice trader Most advanced finance system at the time Economic Decline After William died, the provinces did not want another stadtholder (i.e. very powerful leader) Disunity led to decreased political influence Lost their sea dominance to England Domestic industries declined (politically disunity prevented action that could have halted this) Countries that the Dutch had shipped goods between now traded directly with each other The one good thing: The financial industry

Banks financed many European governments The Amsterdam Stock Exchange

Two Models of European Political Development

Different kinds of monarchies Chosen because of history Wars required a lot of money. The monarchs who could raise the funds without the help of the nobles could achieve political absolutism. The others had to rely on a monarchy Parliamentary monarchy England Under Elizabeth's rule, the monarchy became stronger The Stuarts envied France's political absolutism (Louise XIV) Political Absolutism France Strong until religious wars During Henry IV's rule (1589), the monarchy was weak Had a religious toleration policy The nobles rebelled against the king

Constitutional Crisis and the Settlement in Stuart England

James I Son of Mary Queen of Scotts Ruled Scotland as James VI from 1567-1603 1603: succeeded Elizabeth for the English throne Wanted to rule England as absolutely as possible Used impositions to raise money, rather than parliament Parliament only met when he told them to (not very often) Religious problems Puritans wanted to end big religious ceremonies Hampton Court conference (January 1604): James says that he will strengthen, rather than weaken, Anglican episcopacy. ended up moving to America (Plymouth Colony and Massachusetts Bay Colony) Failed to lessen penalties against Catholics Scandal Played favorites (duke of Buckingham) Some even thought that he was James' homosexual lover Foreign policy problems Tried to have his son, Charles marry a Spanish princess, but failed. In 1625, he later married Henrietta Marie, the Catholic daughter of Henry IV of France Made peace with Spain Refused to aid German Protestants at the beginning of the 30 years war In 1624, Parliament pressured him to declare war on Spain Charles I Wanted to go to war with Spain, but Parliament would not give him funds Created new taxes Made a forced loan Property owners had to pay this tax that would be paid back to them Those who refused were incarcerated

 Quartered troops Petition of Right (1628) The king cannot quarter troops. He can't tax without Parliament's consent. He can't levy a forced loan. Parliament would only give Charles funds if he signed it He signed it, but later dissolved Parliament until 1640 Years of Personal Rule Conserving money Made peace with Spain and France (1629 & 1630) Thomas Wentworth (chief adviser) used every tax allowed by the law to raise money Religious problems with Scotland Tried to impose Anglican religion on Scotland Scots rebelled Tried to get Parliament's money, but Parliament refused until he addressed a bunch of issues Called the Short Par English army was defeated at the Battle of Newburn Parliament convened and was here to stay The Long Parliament and Civil War Long Parliament: 1640-1660 Passed numerous laws limiting King's power could not raise taxes without Parliament could not dissolve Parliament. Also, Parliament had to meet at least once every 3 years Divided religiously Puritans wanted to abolish Book of Common Prayer Religious conservatives did not want change When Charles wanted to raise army to squash Scottish rebellion, Parliament distrusted him and would not give him an army (October 1641) Parliament raised its own army King invaded Parliament in January 1642 and tried to arrest 5 opposition members (but they escaped) Parliament and King began to fight Cavaliers: supporters of the King Roundheads: supporters of Parliament Oliver Cromwell and the Puritan Republic Parliament allied with Scotland in 1643 Oliver Cromwell organized the Parliament army Parliament defeated Charles in 1645 Later beheaded him in 1650 Cromwell established a Puritan Republic Became a supreme leader Brutally took over Scotland and Ireland Disbanded Parliament when Parliament wanted to disband his 50k army. Charles II and the Restoration of the Monarchy Charles II returned to England to end the Puritan rule People loved this, because Puritan's were boring He was secretly Catholic Favored religious tolerance 1660-1665: Clarindon Code

Parliament passed many laws that excluded Catholics, Presbyterians, and Independents from the English Church Treaty of Dover Louis IX (France) made an alliance Charles II against the Netherlands (commercial competitor) When the time was right, Charles II would announce his Catholic conversion Louis IX would pay him a lot of money Declaration of Indulgence (1672) Suspend all laws against Catholics and non-Anglican Protestants Parliament forced him to repeal it They then passed the Test Act: All officials must swear against transubstantiation, something no true Catholic could do 1670: Titus Oates lied that the King's wife, using his physician, was going to murder Charles II so that James I could succeed the throne. Known as the Popish Plot Shaftesbury led the hunt Later exiled The chaos led to the death of many innocents The Whigs (some opposition in Parliament) tried (but failed) to remove James from the succession line. They were later executed for treason Charles was able to rule without Parliament Help from custom duties and Charles IX Filled Parliament with royal-friendly people The Glorious Revolution James II becomes King Gets rid of Test Act Issues a new Declaration of Indulgence Wanted religious tolerance Hardcore Protestants in Parliament are pissed Hoped that Mary (a Protestant daughter of James II) would succeed the throne He bore a son Invited William III of Orange and Mary II to invade England in 1688 They did with very little opposition Called the Glorious Revolution, a bloodless battle They became new monarchs Toleration Act (1689) All Protestants are free to practice religion Bill of Rights Catholics cannot become monarchs Power of Monarchs is limited Ex. Parliament must meet at least once every 3 years Act of Settlement (1701) The heir to the throne was the Protestant House of Hanover in Germany (if Anne, the current heir, died without issue) Elector became King George I Act of Union (1707) England and Scotland unite to become Great Britain The Age of Walpole

 James Edward Stuart (Catholic son of James II) challenged George I's throne He failed Sir Robert Walpole knew how to control the House of Commons and win the support of the governors Peace with other nations, religious freedom, freedom of speech Had lots of power from 1721-1742 Britain developed an amazing navy, but did not have a standing army The King and Parliament did little to interfere with local rulers, so they in turn were very willing to pay taxes England became very very powerful Everyone loved Walpole

Rise of Absolute Monarchy in France: The World of Louis XIV

Cardinal Richelieu helped to circumvent political powers granted to Protestants and nobles through the Edict of Nantes Wanted to increase royal power Cardinal Mazarin Also wanted to increase royal power King Louis XIV realized that heavy-handed policies would not work Nobles had minor rebellions (known as Fronde) Rather than destroying local politics, work through them Convince nobles and wealthy that they will keep their local social status, while centralizing power Years of Personal Rule After Marazin died, Louis XIV did not appoint a new chief minister. He began to rule on his own Louis XIV filled his counsels with families loyal to royalty and rising politicians (who would be dependent on him for their status) He did not take away the nobility's local powers Usually informally consulted with the parlement before making decisions Exception: Curtailed Paris parlement's power to register the King's laws Had to register the law before questioning it Versailles Louis XIV used propaganda against the nobles He could outspend them He created an enormous palace in Versailles Modeled after the sun king Cost a ton of money, but the political dividends were amazing Nobles could pay to live there Depleting their resources Becoming dependent on Louis XIV Nobles realized that Louis XIV would preserve the social structure, keeping them in control of local politics King by Divine Right Bishop Jacques-Bnigne Bossuet defended the divine right of kings If only God could judge the Popes, than only God could judge the King Louis said I am the state Louis XIV completely controlled national politics, but let the nobles control local politics System would stay in place until 1780s Louis's Early Wars Jean-Batiste Colbert had awesome economic policies that allowed Louis XIV to raise a big army

 Wanted to secure his borders and maybe control Europe His ambitions scared the shit out of the other European nations War of Devolution Louis said that his first wife was the rightful queen of the Netherlands He invaded the Netherlands, but the triple alliance (England, Sweden, and the United Provinces) pushed him back Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668) Gave Louis some extra land Treaty of Dover led to an invasion of the Netherlands in 1672 Prince of Orange allied with HRE, Spain, Lorraine, and Brandenburg Ended with the Peace of Nijmwesgen Louis's Repressive Religious Policies Believed that political unity and stability required religious conformity Suppression of the Jansenists France had historically guarded their Gallican Liberties (freedom from influence of the Pope) Jesuits had a ton of power in France, after Henry IV converted to Catholicism The Jansenists followed the teachings of St. Augustine Original sin is so corrupted that nothing can save us Still firmly Roman Catholic Similar to Calvinists Jansenists resisted royal authority Many had participated in the Fronde Pope declared that the Jansenist religion was heretical Louis XIV said that the papal bull should be enforced Because he turned his back on the Gallican Liberties, the Church began to hate Louis XIV Revocation of the Edict of Nantes French Catholic Church had already encouraged persecution of Huguenots Louis XIV adopted a strict religious policy Huguenots cannot have public offices or be printers or doctors He revokes the Edict of Nantes Protestant schools are closed Protestants must convert to Catholicism Become slaves if they don't Protestant babies are baptized Troops are quartered in Huguenot homes A lot of skilled Protestants leave France to join resistance against Louis XIV People saw Louis XIV as a fanatic who must be stopped France = no religious tolerance Louis's Later Wars The League of Augsburg and the Nine Years' War Louis took over Strasbourg League of Augsburg: England, Sweden, the United Provinces, Spain, and the major German states Had support of Hapsburg emperor, Leopard I Peace of Ryswick ended war, secured Holland's borders Prevented Louis from expanding into Germany War of Spanish Succession

Charles II, of Spain, died in 1700 Left all of his inheritance to Louis's grandson, Philip of Anjou (later to become Philip V of Spain) England, Holland, and the HRE form the Grand Alliance Secure Flanders as a neutral barrier between Holland and France Habsburg had a claim to a piece of Spain Louis recognizes Stuart claim to the English throne France fought the war with bad generals and inadequate finance England had great weapons and tactics John Churchill beat Louis in every major battle France made peace with England at Utrecht in 1713 Philip V remained King of Spain Different people got some land from Spain Louis recognized the House of Hanover's right to the English throne France after Louis XIV Although France lost a lot of money in the War of Succession, the other European countries were down as well Louis XIV's great-grandson, Louis XV became king at 5 years old. His uncle, Duke of Orlans became regent Had a history of scandals Looked for the monarchy John Law and the Mississippi Bubble Duke of Orlans made John Law the financial manager Believed that creating paper money would stimulate the economy Created the Mississippi Company which would monopolize trade with Louisiana Sell stock in exchange for government bonds 1719: Speculation made the stock price sour Some investors used their profit to buy paper money and then exchange it for gold The bank ran out of gold in 1720 The Mississippi Bubble had burst John Law fled the country and the government (who had supported him) was disgraced The French people now distrusted paper money and speculation Renewed Authority of the Parlements Duke of Orlans decided to give nobility power again They used Parlement to resist the King Paris Parlement could now allow or disallow laws Cardinal Fleury tried to keep the monarch in power, establish peace, and a good economy Similar to Walpole of England Failed to avoid colonial wars

Central and Eastern Europe

Central and Eastern Europe was much less modern than Western Europe Agricultural, estates with serfs No oversees empires, almost no oversees trade (except for supplying grain to Western Europe) Political authorities east of the Elbe River were weak Constant war 3 strong dynasties emerged Habsburgs consolidated power outside of Germany

 Hohenzollern of Prussia in North German politics Romanov of Russia Poland: Absence of Strong Central Authority In 1683, King John III Sobieski tried to rescue Vienna from the Turk siege Monarchs were elected Foreigners would usually win The legislative body, Sejm (diet), was only made of nobles Voting had to be unanimous Led to diet explosions because the diet would disband if one person refused to agree (ex. bribed by foreigner) Failed to successfully run the government Poland failed politically by the late eighteenth century The Habsburg Empire and the Pragmatic Sanction Habsburgs (HRE)'s power depended on cooperation between its various political bodies, rather than their military power Spain, their big supporter, had lost their armada Consolidated power within hereditary possessions outside HRE Crown of Saint Wenceslas Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia Crown of Saint Stephen Hungary, Croatia, and Transylvania Treaty of Rassat (1714) Habsburgs gain the Netherlands and Lombardy in northern Italy (from Spain) Extremely diverse land Many different languages and cultures Ex. Magyar nobles were Calvinist Could not get a single central counsel Leopard I did a good job Resisted Ottoman Empires advance Recognition of rule over Hungary in 1699 Gained much of the Balkan Peninsula and western Romania Mediterranean trade through the port of Trieste (Adriatic Sea) Joseph I continued Leopard's policies Charles VI succeeded Joseph, but did not have a male heir Did not want his empire to fall when he died Tried to get the Pragmatic Sanction accepted Maria Theresa, his daughter, would be the rightful heir Left her with little money or army 1740: Frederick II of Prussia invaded Silesia in Eastern Germany Prussia and the Hohenzollerns Hohenzollern family had ruled Brandenburg since 1417 inherited Cleves, Mark, Ravensburg, East Prussia, and Pomerania Most did not share a border with Brandenburg Frederick William (the Great Elector) made this land into a modern state Broke noble estates Established a national bureaucracy Collected taxes through military force 1655-1660: Poland and Sweden fought across his land, but he didn't have an army to stop them

 Taxes fell on the urban class and the peasants Co-opted potential opponents into his service Nobles (Junkers) could control their serfs if they were loyal to Frederick People who would be in parliament became local administrators Army became very loyal to Frederick Frederick I managed to become King Lived luxuriously and founded Halle University Gave his army to HRE in the War of Spanish Succession HRE recognized his right to be a king Frederick William I was a very effective monarch Organized the bureaucracy along military lines Army grew a lot Used his army as a symbol of power and unity, rather than aggressively Frederick the Great was a superb military mind

Russia Enters the European Political Arena

Russia was not an active power Had no usable sea routes Before 1673, didn't send permanent ambassadors to Western Europe The Romanov Dynasty Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) fucked up Russia Personality change halfway through made him a violent tyrannical ruler 1584 (when he died)-1613 was called the Period of uncertainty 1613: Nobles select Michael Romanov to be tzar the dynasty stayed in power until 1917 Brought stability to the country Problems: Country was weak and impoverished Nobility (boyars) still largely controlled the bureaucracy Threat of mutiny from guards of the Moscow garrison (streltsy) Peter the Great In 1682, Peter (10 years old) became co-ruler with Ivan V, his half-brother His sister, Sofia became Rejent, but the streltsy overthrew her He ruled by himself (since Ivan V was sick) 1696: Ivan V dies Wanted to trim the jealousy of the boyars and the greed of the streltsy He kinda imitates Louis of France in this respect (comparison = Fronde) In 1697, Peter visits Western Europe Studies their technology When he comes back to Russia, he copies a lot While he's away, the streltsy rebel Brutally puts down the rebellion 1000 public executions and tortures Makes Russia a military power New conscription rules Army reaches 300,000 men by the end of his reign Models structure off of Western European militaries Skilled at politics

 Don't completely exclude anybody Developing a Navy 1690s: Construct navy to protect interests in Black Sea 1695-1696: Attack Ottoman empire Captures Azov on the Black Sea Learns how to build better ships from Europeans to fight in the Baltic Russian Expansion in the Baltic: The Great Northern War Sweden controlled the Baltic sea 1697: Charles XII becomes King of Sweden 1700: Peter launches an attack on Sweden Called The Great Northern War 1700: Peter is defeated at the battle of Narva 1709: Peter wins the battle of Poltava in Ukraine 1721: War ends with the Peace of Nystad Russia now controls Estonia, Livonia, and part of Finland Now had an ice-free port Founding St. Petersburg Constructed it in 1703 on the Gulf of Finland Boyars built town houses A scaled down Versailles The Case of Peter's Son Aleksei Aleksei lacked Peter's intelligence and ambition 1718: Rumors of a conspiracy between him and Charles VI (Habsburg emporer) Peter realized that his opponents could use this to destroy him He had been going after corruption He personally interrogated Aleksei and sentenced him to death Reforms of Peter the Great's Final Years Courts could resist him Made reforms to bring nobility and the Russian Orthodox Church under his control Administrative Colleges Colleges were modeled after Sweden bureaus of several people operating by written instruction Created colleges for taxes, foreign relations, war, and economics Made of nobility and people loyal to Peter Colleges received advice from foreigners Table of Ranks Social status was now based on position in the Bureaucracy or military Boyers had to gain power by serving the central state Achieving Secular Control of the Church 1721: no more patriarch (a single bishop) controlling the Church Replaced by Holy Synod several bishops controlled by a layman (procurator general) Govern church in accordance to the Tzar's secular wishes Peter did not choose a successor When he died in 1725, for 30 years, the soldiers and nobility determined who ruled Russia Had made Russia modern, but not stable

The Ottoman Empire

Ottoman Empire had been the strongest and most stable empire after the Roman Empire fell 1453: Conquered Constantinople, ending the Byzantine Empire Ottoman Empire was receding in the 18th century and many European countries wanted a piece Religious Toleration and the Ottoman Government After it administered Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem in 1516, it became the dominant Muslim power Millets: officially recognized religious communities Ottoman Empire used these to govern Dhimmis: non-Islamic people in the empire Second class citizens Poll tax, could not rise in military, could not have big houses Became economically successful Rather than giving powerful families power, the Sultan gave power to foreigners The foreigners would be loyal because they owed their life to the Sultan Devshirme Recruited elite troops from Christian communities in the Balkans Janissaries = most famous Better to be a favored slave than a free subject The Role of the Ulama Ulama were Islamic religious scholars Dominated schools and courts of law Sultan consulted with them about everything The Ulama resisted change and the Janissaries did not want to lose their privileged status Hurt the Ottoman empire because it could not adapt to a modernizing Europe The End of the Ottoman Expansion 1571: Lost Battle of Lepanto 1683: Failed to besiege Vienna Many thought that this was because of an overreaching government, but it was actually a deep symbol of future decline Grand viziar's power began to grow more authority lay in administrative and military bureaucracy Rivalries for power weakened the government The empire depended on goodwill of local rulers paid tribute, but did not submit to imperial authority Europe caught up During Middle Ages, Ottoman Empire was much more technologically advanced than Europe When Europeans began sailing around the Cape of Good Hope, the Ottomans lost their trade advantages to East Asia 1690s: Austria, Venice, Malta, Polan, Tuxcany, and Russia beat the Ottoman Empire Treaty of Carlowitz in 1699 Ottomans surrender significant territory these territories had provided a lot of revenue Russia began to duel with the Ottomans over the Black sea Ottoman Empire still viewed the Europeans as inferior Did not try to copy European technology Allowed very few foreigners to teach Ulama convinced the Sultan to close a technology school and a new printing press Islam began to be viewed as a backwards religion