I.

PERIODIC TABLE

II. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

II. THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

IV. PERIODIC TRENDS

 ATOMIC RADIUS
 IONIZATION ENERGY
 ELECTRON AFFINITY

 ELECTRONEGATIVITY

V. GROUPS & PERIODS IN PERIODIC TABLE

VI. THE REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

VII. THE NOBLE GASES AND THE TRANSITION METALS

I. PERIODIC TABLE
The periodic table of the chemical elements is a tabular method of displaying the chemical
elements. Although precursors to this table exist, its invention is generally credited to Russian chemist
Dmitri Mendeleev in 1869. Mendeleev intended the table to illustrate recurring ("periodic") trends in
the properties of the elements. The layout of the table has been refined and extended over time, as new
elements have been discovered, and new theoretical models have been developed to explain chemical
behavior.
The periodic table is now ubiquitous within the academic discipline of chemistry, providing an
extremely useful framework to classify, systematize and compare all the many different forms of
chemical behavior. The table has also found wide application in physics, biology, engineering, and
industry. The current standard table contains 117 confirmed elements as of October 16, 2006 (while
element 118 has been synthesized, element 117 has not).

II. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

In Ancient Greece, the influential Greek philosopher Aristotle proposed that there were four
main elements: air, fire, earth and water. All of these elements could be reacted to create another one;
e.g., earth and fire combined to form lava. However, this theory was dismissed when the real chemical
elements started being discovered. Scientists needed an easily accessible, well organized database with
which information about the elements could be recorded and accessed. This was to be known as the
periodic table.
The original table was created before the discovery of
subatomic particles or the formulation of current quantum Some triads
mechanical theories of atomic structure. If one orders the elements Element Molar mass Density
by atomic mass, and then plots certain other properties against (g/mol) (g/cm³)
atomic mass, one sees an undulation or periodicity to these
properties as a function of atomic mass. The first to recognize these chlorine 35.453 0.0032
regularities was the German chemist Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner bromine 79.904 3.1028
who, in 1829, noticed a number of triads of similar elements: iodine 126.90447 4.933
In 1829 Döbereiner proposed the Law of Triads: The middle
element in the triad had atomic weight that was the average of the calcium 40.078 1.55
other two members. The densities of some triads followed a similar
strontium 87.62 2.54
pattern. Soon other scientists found chemical relationships extended
beyond triads. Fluorine was added to Cl/Br/I group; sulfur, oxygen, barium 137.327 3.594
selenium and tellurium were grouped into a family; nitrogen,
phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth were classified as another group.

This was followed by the English

chemist John Newlands, who noticed in
1865 that when placed in order of
increasing atomic weight, elements of
similar physical and chemical properties
recurred at intervals of eight, which he
likened to the octaves of music, though his
law of octaves was ridiculed by his
contemporaries.
 However, while successful for some elements, Newlands' law of octaves failed for two reasons:

1. It was not valid for elements that had atomic masses higher than Ca.
2. When further elements were discovered, such as the noble gases (He, Ne, Ar), they could not
be accommodated in his table.

Finally, in 1869 the Russian chemistry professor Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and four months
later the German Julius Lothar Meyer independently developed the first periodic table, arranging the
elements by mass. However, Mendeleev plotted a few elements out of strict mass sequence in order to
make a better match to the properties of their neighbors in the table, corrected mistakes in the values of
several atomic masses, and predicted the
existence and properties of a few new
elements in the empty cells of his table.
Mendeleev was later vindicated by the
discovery of the electronic structure of the
elements in the late 19th and early 20th
century.

Earlier attempts to list the elements

to show the relationships between them (for
example by Newlands) had usually involved
putting them in order of atomic mass.
Mendeleev's key insight in devising the
periodic table was to lay out the elements to
illustrate recurring ("periodic") chemical
properties (even if this meant some of them
were not in mass order), and to leave gaps for "missing" elements. Mendeleev used his table to predict
the properties of these "missing elements", and many of them were indeed discovered and fit the
predictions well.

With the development of theories of atomic structure (for instance by Henry Moseley) it
became apparent that Mendeleev had listed the elements in order of increasing atomic number (i.e.
the net amount of positive charge on the atomic nucleus). This sequence is nearly identical to that
resulting from ascending atomic mass.In order to illustrate recurring properties, Mendeleev began new
rows in his table so that elements with similar properties fell into the same vertical columns
("groups").

Henry Moseley (1887-1915) subjected known elements to x-rays. He was able to derive the
relationship between x-ray frequency and number of protons. When Moseley arranged the elements
according to increasing atomic numbers and not atomic masses, some of the inconsistencies associated
with Mendeleev's table were eliminated. The modern periodic table is based on Moseley's Periodic
Law (atomic numbers). At age 28, Moseley was killed in action during World War I and as a direct
result Britain adopted the policy of exempting scientists from fighting in wars. Shown below is a
periodic table from 1930:

III. THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE

IV. PERIODIC TRENDS

The properties of the elements exhibit trends. These trends can be predicted using the periodic table
and can be explained and understood by analyzing the electron configurations of the elements. Elements
tend to gain or lose valence electrons to achieve stable octet formation. Stable octets are seen in the inert
gases, or noble gases, of Group VIII of the periodic table. In addition to this activity, there are two other
important trends. First, electrons are added one at a time moving from left to right across a period. As this
happens, the electrons of the outermost shell experience increasingly strong nuclear attraction, so the
electrons become closer to the nucleus and more tightly bound to it. Second, moving down a column in the
periodic table, the outermost electrons become less tightly bound to the nucleus. This happens because the
number of filled principal energy levels (which shield the outermost electrons from attraction to the nucleus)
increases downward within each group. These trends explain the periodicity observed in the elemental
properties of atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity.
Moving Left --> Right
 Atomic Radius Decreases
 Ionization Energy Increases
 Electronegativity Increases
Moving Top --> Bottom
 Atomic Radius Increases
 Ionization Energy Decreases
 Electronegativity Decreases

 ATOMIC RADIUS
The atomic radius of an element is half of the
distance between the centers of two atoms of that
element that are just touching each other. Generally, the
atomic radius decreases across a period from left to
right and increases down a given group. The atoms with
the largest atomic radii are located in Group I and at the
bottom of groups.
Moving from left to right across a period, electrons are added one at a time to the outer energy
shell. Electrons within a shell cannot shield each other from the attraction to protons. Since the number of
protons is also increasing, the effective nuclear charge increases across a period. This causes the atomic
radius to decrease.
Moving down a group in the periodic table, the number of electrons and filled electron shells
increases, but the number of valence electrons remains the same. The outermost electrons in a group are
exposed to the same effective nuclear charge, but electrons are found farther from the nucleus as the
number of filled energy shells increases. Therefore, the atomic radii increase.

 IONIZATION ENERGY
The ionization energy, or ionization potential, is
the energy required to completely remove an electron
from a gaseous atom or ion. The closer and more tightly
bound an electron is to the nucleus, the more difficult it
will be to remove, and the higher its ionization energy
will be. The first ionization energy is the energy required
to remove one electron from the parent atom. The
second ionization energy is the energy required to
remove a second valence electron from the univalent ion
to form the divalent ion, and so on. Successive
ionization energies increase. The second ionization
energy is always greater than the first ionization energy.
Ionization energies increase moving from left to right
across a period (decreasing atomic radius). Ionization

energy decreases moving down a group

(increasing atomic radius). Group I elements have
low ionization energies because the loss of an
electron forms a stable octet.

 ELECTRON AFFINITY
Electron affinity reflects the ability of an
atom to accept an electron. It is the energy
change that occurs when an electron is added to a
gaseous atom. Atoms with stronger effective
nuclear charge have greater electron affinity.
Some generalizations can be made about the
electron affinities of certain groups in the periodic
table. The Group IIA elements, the alkaline earths,
have low electron affinity values. These elements
are relatively stable because they have filled s subshells. Group VIIA elements, the halogens, have high
electron affinities because the addition of an electron to an atom results in a completely filled shell. Group
VIII elements, noble gases, have electron affinities near zero, since each atom possesses a stable octet and
will not accept an electron readily. Elements of other groups have low electron affinities.

E LECTRONEGATIVITY
Electronegativity is a measure of the
attraction of an atom for the electrons in a chemical
bond. The higher the electronegativity of an atom,
the greater its attraction for bonding electrons.
Electronegativity is related to ionization
energy. Electrons with low ionization energies
have low electronegativities because their nuclei
do not exert a strong attractive force on electrons.
Elements with high ionization energies have high
electronegativities due to the strong pull
exerted on electrons by the nucleus. In a group, the
electronegativity decreases as atomic
number increases, as a result of increased
distance between the valence electron and
nucleus (greater atomic radius). An example of
an electropositive (i.e., low electronegativity) element is cesium; an example of a highly electronegative
element is fluorine.

V. GROUPS & PERIODS IN PERIODIC TABLE

A group, also known as a family, is a vertical column in the periodic table of the chemical
elements. There are 18 groups in the standard periodic table.

 Group 1 (IA,IA): the alkali metals or hydrogen family/lithium family

 Group 2 (IIA,IIA): the alkaline earth metals or beryllium family
 Group 3 (IIIA,IIIB): the scandium family
 Group 4 (IVA,IVB): the titanium family
 Group 5 (VA,VB): the vanadium family
 Group 6 (VIA,VIB): the chromium family
 Group 7 (VIIA,VIIB): the manganese family
 Group 8 (VIII, VIIIB): the iron family
 Group 9 (VIII, VIIIB): the cobalt family
 Group 10 (VIII, VIIIB): the nickel family
 Group 11 (IB,IB): the coinage metals (not an IUPAC-recommended name) or copper family
 Group 12 (IIB,IIB): the zinc family
 Group 13 (IIIB,IIIA): the boron family
 Group 14 (IVB,IVA): the carbon family
 Group 15 (VB,VA): the pnictogens (not an IUPAC-recommended name) or nitrogen family
 Group 16 (VIB,VIA): the chalcogens or oxygen family
 Group 17 (VIIB,VIIA): the halogens or fluorine family
 Group 18 (Group 0): the noble gases or helium family/neon family

VI. THE REPRESENTATIVE ELEMENTS

Remember from the earlier review of electron configurations that H, Li and Na all
ended with s1. If you look at the rest of the elements in that group you will see that the
similarity continues on down the periodic table. All of the elements in group Ia end in s1 for
their electron configuration. What is different about them is which level of s1 they end
with.
Notice also that this periodic table only shows the last part of the electron
configuration. The reason for this is that the chemical properties of an element are
determined by the outermost electron structure. So this periodic table was prepared with
just those outermost electron configurations written on it.

Ia IIa IIIa B C N O F
2s22p1 2s22p2 2s22p3 2s22p4 2s22p5

H 1s1 Be 2s2 B 2s22p1 Al Si P S Cl

3s23p1 3s23p2 3s23p3 3s23p4 3s23p5

Li 2s1 Mg 3s2 Al 3s23p1 Ga Ge As Se Br

2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4
4s 4p 4s 4p 4s 4p 4s 4p 4s24p5

Na 3s1 Ca 4s2 Ga 4s24p1 In Sn Sb Te I

5s25p1 5s25p2 5s25p3 5s25p4 5s25p5

K 4s1 Sr 5s2 In 5s25p1 Tl Pb Bi Po At

6s26p1 6s26p2 6s26p3 6s26p4 6s26p5

Rb 5s1 Ba 6s2 Tl 6s26p1

Cs 6s1 Ra 7s2
Fr 7s1

VII. THE NOBLE GASES AND THE TRANSITION METALS

The noble gases are the elements in group 18 (also sometimes Group 0 IUPAC Style, or Group 8) of
the periodic table. It is also called helium family or neon family. Chemically, they are very stable due
to having the maximum number of valence electrons their outer shell can hold. A thorough explanation
requires an understanding of electronic configuration, with references to quantum mechanics. Noble
gases rarely react with other elements since they are already stable. Under normal conditions, they
occur as odorless, colorless, monatomic gases. Each of them has its melting and boiling point close
together, so that only a small
Property Noble gas temperature range exists for
each noble gas in which it is a
Element number 2 10 18 36 54 86 liquid. Noble gases have
numerous important applications
in lighting, welding and space
Element name Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon
technology. The seven noble
gasses are: helium, neon, argon,
Density (g/dm³) 0.1786 0.9002 1.7818 3.708 5.851 9.97 krypton, xenon, radon, and
ununoctium.
Atomic radius (nm) 0.050 0.070 0.094 0.109 0.130 -
Chemical Properties
Boiling point (°C) -268.83 -245.92 -185.81 -151.7 -106.6 -62
The noble gases are
Melting point (°C) -272 -248.52 -189.6 -157 -111.5 -71 virtually non-reactive. There are
a few instances when
compounds of noble gases have formed under extreme conditions of high temperature and high
pressure.

The noble gas elements emit different colours when they conduct an electric current and for this
reason they are used in so-called "neon" signs. The colours produced are:

1. He -- cream or pale orange

2. Ne -- orange-red
3. Ar and Xe -- blue

Transition metal (sometimes also called a transition element) has two possible meanings
It commonly refers to any element in the d-block of the periodic table, including zinc, cadmium and
mercury. This corresponds to groups 3 to 12 on the periodic table. IUPAC defines a transition metal as
"an element whose atom has an incomplete d sub-shell, or which can give rise to cations with an
incomplete d sub-shell." By this definition, zinc, cadmium, and mercury are excluded from the
transition metals, as they have a d10 configuration. Only a few transient species of these elements that
leave ions with a partly filled d subshell have been formed, and mercury(I) only occurs as Hg22+, which
does not strictly form a lone ion with a partly filled subshell, and hence these three elements are
inconsistent with the latter definition. They do form ions with a 2+ oxidation state, but these retain the
4d10 configuration. Element 112 may also be excluded although its oxidation properties are unlikely to
be observed due to its radioactive nature. This definition corresponds to groups 3 to 11 on the periodic
table.
PROPERTIES
Transition elements tend to have high tensile strength, density and melting and boiling points.
As with many properties of transition metals, this is due to d orbital electrons' ability to delocalise
within the metal lattice. In metallic substances, the more electrons shared between nuclei, the stronger
the metal.
There are several common characteristic properties of transition elements:

 They often form colored compounds.

 They can have a variety of different oxidation states.
 At least one of their compounds has an incomplete d-electron subshell.
 They are often good catalysts.
 They are silvery-blue at room temperature (except copper and gold).
 They are solids at room temperature (except mercury).
 They form complex ions (aqua ions included).
 They are often paramagnetic.