lular systems
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MC - 2008
2.1
coax cable
optical transmission
100 m 3 MHz
1m 300 MHz
10 mm 30 GHz
100 m 3 THz
1 m 300 THz
VLF
LF
MF
HF
VHF
UHF
SHF
EHF
infrared
MC - 2008
visible light UV
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2.2
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MC - 2008
Frequencies and regulations ITU-R holds auctions for new frequencies, manages frequency
bands worldwide (WRC, World Radio Conferences) Europe
GSM 880-915, 925960, 1710-1785, 1805-1880 UMTS 1920-1980, 2110-2170 CT1+ 885-887, 930932 CT2 864-868 DECT 1880-1900 802.11b/g 24122472 27, 128, 418, 433, 868
USA
AMPS, TDMA, CDMA, GSM 824849, 869-894 TDMA, CDMA, GSM, UMTS 1850-1910, 1930-1990 PACS 1850-1910, 1930-1990 PACS-UB 1910-1930 802.11b/g 24122462 315, 915
Japan
PDC, FOMA 810-888, 893-958 PDC 1429-1453, 1477-1501 FOMA 1920-1980, 2110-2170 PHS 1895-1918 JCT 245-380
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2.4
Signals I
physical representation of data function of time and location signal parameters: parameters representing the value of
data classification
continuous time/discrete time continuous values/discrete values analog signal = continuous time and continuous values digital signal = discrete time and discrete values
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2.5
0 t
0 t
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2.6
Q = M sin
I= M cos
f [Hz]
2.7
coupling of wires to space for radio transmission Isotropic radiator: equal radiation in all directions (three dimensional) - only a theoretical reference antenna Real antennas always have directive effects (vertically and/or horizontally) Radiation pattern: measurement of radiation around an antenna
y z y x z x
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2.8
simple dipole
compared to the power of an isotropic radiator (with the same average power)
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2.9
directed antenna
sectorized antenna
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MC - 2008
2.10
Antennas: diversity
Antenna diversity
switched diversity, selection diversity
receiver chooses antenna with largest output
diversity combining
combine output power to produce gain cophasing needed to avoid cancellation
/2 /4 /2 /4 /2 /2
+ ground plane
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2.11
Transmission range
communication possible low error rate
Detection range
detection of the signal possible no communication possible
sender transmission distance detection interference
Interference range
signal may not be detected signal adds to the background noise
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2.12
Signal propagation Propagation in free space always like light (straight line) Receiving power proportional to 1/d in vacuum much more in
real environments (d = distance between sender and receiver) Receiving power additionally influenced by fading (frequency dependent) shadowing reflection at large obstacles refraction depending on the density of a medium scattering at small obstacles diffraction at edges
shadowing
reflection
refraction
scattering
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diffraction
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2.13
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MC - 2008
2.14
Multipath propagation
2.15
Effects of mobility
Additional changes in
distance to sender obstacles further away slow changes in the average power received (long term fading)
power
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2.16
Multiplexing
Multiplexing in 4 dimensions
space (si) time (t) frequency (f) code (c)
channels ki k1 c t c t k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
s1
of a shared medium
c
s2
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MC - 2008
2.17
Frequency multiplex
k6
Disadvantages
waste of bandwidth if the traffic is distributed unevenly inflexible
t
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de MC - 2008
2.18
Time multiplex
Advantages
only one carrier in the medium at any time throughput high even for many users
c k1 k2 k3 k4 k5 k6
Disadvantages
precise synchronization necessary
t
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de MC - 2008
2.19
Combination of both methods A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain
amount of time Example: GSM
Advantages
better protection against tapping protection against frequency selective interference
c
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
2.20
Code multiplex
k1
k2
k3
k4
k5
k6
Disadvantages
varying user data rates more complex signal regeneration
t
2.21
Analog modulation
shifts center frequency of baseband signal up to the radio carrier
Motivation
smaller antennas (e.g., /4) Frequency Division Multiplexing medium characteristics
Basic schemes
Amplitude Modulation (AM) Frequency Modulation (FM) Phase Modulation (PM)
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2.22
digital modulation
analog modulation
radio transmitter
radio carrier
synchronization decision
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2.23
Digital modulation
Modulation of digital signals known as Shift Keying 1 0 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK):
very simple low bandwidth requirements very susceptible to interference
1 0
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2.24
between the carrier frequencies special pre-computation avoids sudden phase shifts MSK (Minimum Shift Keying)
bit separated into even and odd bits, the duration of each bit is doubled depending on the bit values (even, odd) the higher or lower frequency, original or inverted is chosen the frequency of one carrier is twice the frequency of the other Equivalent to offset QPSK
even higher bandwidth efficiency using a Gaussian lowpass filter GMSK (Gaussian MSK), used in GSM
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2.25
Example of MSK
1 data even bits odd bits 0 1 1 0 1 0 bit even odd signal value 0101 0011 hnnh - - ++
low frequency
high frequency
2.26
10
11
2 bits coded as one symbol symbol determines shift of sine wave needs less bandwidth compared to BPSK more complex
00 A
01
t 11 10 00 01
relative, not absolute phase shift: DQPSK - Differential QPSK (IS-136, PHS)
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2.27
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MC - 2008
2.28
Hierarchical Modulation
10 I
00 000010 010101
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2.29
fading can wipe out narrow band signals for duration of the interference Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using a special code
protection against narrow band interference
power interference spread signal power detection at receiver signal spread interference f
Side effects:
2.30
f dP/df v) f
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MC - 2008
2.31
2 3 4
6 frequency
narrowband channels
guard space
spread spectrum
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller
frequency
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MC - 2008
2.32
Advantages
reduces frequency selective fading in cellular networks
base stations can use the same frequency range several base stations can detect and recover the signal soft handover
tb
Disadvantages
precise power control necessary
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller www.jochenschiller.de
2.33
correlator received signal lowpass filtered signal products X sampled sums decision
data
demodulator
integrator
radio carrier
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MC - 2008
2.34
Advantages
Disadvantages
2.35
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2.36
transmitter
frequency synthesizer
hopping sequence
data
hopping sequence
frequency synthesizer
receiver
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MC - 2008
2.37
Mobile stations communicate only via the base station Advantages of cell structures
higher capacity, higher number of users less transmission power needed more robust, decentralized base station deals with interference, transmission area etc. locally
Problems
fixed network needed for the base stations handover (changing from one cell to another) necessary interference with other cells
2.38
Frequency planning I
f5 f1
2.39
Frequency planning II
f3 f1 f2 f3 f3 f1 f2 f3 f3 f1 f2 f3
f2 f3 f1
f2 f3 f1
3 cell cluster
f2 f4 f3 f6
f5 f1 f2
f3 f6 f7 f5
f2 f4 f3
f7 f5 f1 f2
7 cell cluster
f2 f2 f2 f1 f f1 f f1 f h h 3 3 3 h1 2 h1 2 g2 h3 g2 h3 g2 g1 g1 g1 g3 g3 g3
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MC - 2008
2.40
Cell breathing
CDM systems: cell size depends on current load Additional traffic appears as noise to other users If the noise level is too high users drop out of cells
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MC - 2008
2.41