GROUP 182

Adeline Halim Kesuma

Bonifatio Hartono
Maulahikmah Galinium
Selvia Ettine
Tania Puspita
General Overview
† Performance of I/O (B.51)
† CD (B.52)
† HardDisk (B.53)
Input/Output
† the collection of interfaces that different
functional units (sub-systems) of an
information processing system use to
communicate with each other, or the
signals (information) sent through those
interfaces.
† I/O devices are used by a person (or
other system) to communicate with a
computer.
Performance
† I/O is major factor in system
performance

„ Demands CPU to execute device driver,

kernel I/O code
„ Context switches due to interrupts
„ Data copying
„ Network traffic especially stressful
Intercomputer
Communication

*Operating systems concepts by Schilberschatz

Device Driver
† A device driver, or a software
driver is a specific type of computer
software, typically developed to allow
interaction with hardware devices.
Daemon
† a daemon is a computer program
that runs in the background
† Typically daemons have names that
end with the letter "d"; for example,
syslogd is the daemon which handles
the system log.
Context Switch
† A context switch is the computing
process of storing and restoring the
state (context) of a CPU such that
multiple processes can share a single
CPU resource.
† The context switch is an essential
feature of a multitasking operating
system.
 Intercomputer
Communication

*Operating systems concepts by Schilberschatz

Model I/O
I/O device consists of layer:
Application
Kernel
Device-driver
Device-controller
Device
Compact Disc

* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD
Compact Disc
† A Compact Disc (CD) is an optical disc
used to store digital data
† The CD, available on the market in late
1982, remains the standard physical
medium for commercial audio recordings
as of 2006.
Compact Disk Physical
Details
† made from a 1.2 mm thick disc of
very pure polycarbonate plastic.
† A thin layer of Super Purity
Aluminium (or rarely gold, used for its
data longevity, such as in some
limited-edition audiophile CDs) is
applied to the surface to make it
reflective, which is protected by a film
of lacquer.
Compact Disc shapes and
diameters
† Standard CDs are available in two
sizes:
„ 120 mm in diameter, with a 74 or 80-
minute audio capacity and a 650 or
700 MB data capacity
„ 80 mm discs ("Mini CDs") were originally
designed for CD singles and can hold up
to 21 minutes of music or 184 MB of
data.
CD Data Format
† a block of 8-bit data transformed into
a 14-bit symbol using an error-
correction method (Hamming code)
† A frame is made of 42 symbols(14
bits/symbol)
† A sector is made of 96 frames
CD Data format

*Foundation of computer science by forouzan.

CD Main physical
parameters
The main parameters of the CD are as follows:
† Scanning velocity: 1.2–1.4 m/s (constant
linear velocity)
† Track pitch: 1.6 µm.

† Disc diameter 120 mm.

† Disc thickness: 1.2 mm.

† Inner radius program area: 25 mm.

† Outer radius program area: 58 mm.

† Center spindle hole diameter: 15 mm

CD drives Speeds

Speed Data Rate (bps) Approx (Kbps)

1x 153,600 150
2x 307,200 300
4x 614,400 600
6x 921,600 900
8x 1,228,800 1200
12x 1,843,200 1800
16x 2,457,600 2400
24x 3,688,400 3600
32x 4,915,200 4800
40x 6,144,000 6000
Types of CD’s
† CD- Audio
† CD-ROM
† CD-R
† CD-RW
CD-Audio
† Standard CD format for storing audio
soundtracks.
† Developed in 1980 by Sony and
Phillips
† Based on the Red book Standard
CD-ROM
† A Version of the CD
† Is a Compact Disc Read Only
Memory that contains data
accessible by a computer.
† Used to distribute computer software
CD-ROM Physical Details
† CD-ROM discs are identical in
appearance to audio CDs
† Data is stored and retrieved in a very
similar manner with CDs
† Can only be used with a computer
equipped with a CD-ROM drive.
† Based on the yellow book standard
Creation and use of CD-
ROM/CD-Audio

*Foundation of computer science by forouzan.

CD-ROM Reading
† Is read using a low-power laser beam
coming from the computer drive.
CD-R
† Compact Disc-Recordable is a
variation of the Compact Disc digital
audio disc.
† CD-R is a write once, read-only
medium
† CD-R cannot be erased and re-
recorded.
CD-R Physical
characteristics
† A standard CD-R is a 1.2 mm thick
disc made of polycarbonate with a
120 mm or 80 mm diameter.
† Based on the orange book standard
Making a CD-R

*Foundation of computer science by forouzan.

CD-R Reading
† Can be read by a CD-ROM or a CD-R
drive also using a low-power laser
beam
CD-RW

† Compact Disc Re-Writeable

† A type of CD disk that enables you to write
onto it in multiple sessions.
† The first CD-RW drives became available in
mid-1997.
† Based on the orange book standard
Making a CD-RW

*Foundation of computer science by forouzan.

CD-RW Reading
† Uses the same type of low-power
laser beam as CD-R and CD-ROM
Hard Disk
† A hard disk drive is a digitally encoded
non-volatile storage device which
stores data on rapidly rotating platters
with magnetic surfaces.
Hard Disk Drive Evolution

*www.storagereview.com
HDD Anatomy I
The main parts of a hard disk are:
• Platters

• Spindle and Spindle Motor

• Read/Write Heads

• Head Actuator
HDD Anatomy II

*www.storagereview.com
HDD Anatomy: Platters
† The platters are the actual disks inside the
drive that store the magnetized data.
† They are composed of two substances:
„ A substrate material that forms the bulk of
the platter and gives it structure and
rigidity
„ A magnetic media coating which actually
holds the magnetic impulses that represent
the data
† Each platter is magnetized on each side.
HDD Anatomy: Platters
(Tracks and Sectors)
† Tracks are concentric circles placed on the
surface of each platter on which all
information stored on a hard disk is
recorded.
† Each track is broken into smaller units called
sectors.

*www.storagereview.com
HDD Anatomy: Platters
(Cylinders)
† A cylinder is the
set of all tracks
that all the
heads are
currently located
at.

*www.storagereview.com
HDD Anatomy: Spindle and
Spindle Motor
† The platters are clamped to a spindle
that rotates all the platters in unison.
† The spindle motor is built right into
the spindle or mounted directly below
it.
† The motor spins at a constant set rate
ranging from 3,600 to 10,000 RPM.
† The motor is attached to a feedback
loop to ensure that it spins at
precisely the speed it is supposed to.
HDD Anatomy: Read/Write
Heads
† The read/write heads are the interface
between the magnetic physical media on
which the data is stored and other electronic
components of the hard disk (and the PC).
† The heads convert bits to magnetic pulses
and store them on the platters, and then
reversing the process when the data needs
to be read back.
† Only one head can be active at one time.
† There is one head per platter side.
HDD Anatomy: Head
Actuator Assembly
† The heads are
mounted on head
sliders, which are
suspended over the
surface of the disk
at the ends of the
head arms.
† The head arms are
all mechanically
fused into a single
structure that is
moved around the
surface of the disk
by the actuator.
*www.storagereview.com
Data Access
† Data is accessed by moving the heads
from the inner to the outer part of the
disk, driven by the head actuator.
† There are several interface standards
for passing data between a hard disk
and a computer. The most common
are IDE and SCSI.
Hard Disk Performance
Specification: Seek Time
† The seek time of a hard disk measures
the amount of time required for the
read/write heads to move between
tracks over the surfaces of the
platters.
† 3 types of seek time specification:
average, track to track, full stroke.
Hard Disk Performance
Specification: Settle Time
† The settle time specification
(sometimes called settling time) refers
to the amount of time required, after
the actuator has moved the head
assembly during a seek, for the heads
to stabilize sufficiently for the data to
begin to be read.
Hard Disk Performance
Specification: Command
Overhead Time
† Command overhead refers to the time
that elapses from when a command is
given to the hard disk until something
actually starts happening to fulfill the
command.
Hard Disk Performance
Specification: Latency
† Latency is defined as the time it takes
to position the proper sector under the
read/write head.
† The faster the disk is spinning, the
quicker the correct sector will rotate
under the heads, and the lower
latency will be.
Hard Disk Performance
Specification: Access Time
† Access time in general is the time a
hard disk takes to locate a single piece
of information and make it available
for processing.
† Access Time = Command Overhead
Time + Seek Time + Settle Time +
Latency
Questions & Answers
from “Monkey Book”
Overview
† INPUT/OUTPUT (B.51)
- Improve efficiency of I/O
- Model I/O
† CD (B.52)
- Differences among CD’s
- CD-ROM Speed
† HardDisk I (B.53)
- Time Latency
B.51. INPUT/OUTPUT
a. Briefly explain at least 6 principles to
improve the efficiency of I/O!
Several principles to improve the
efficiency of I/O:
† Reduce the number of context switches
† Reduce the number of times that must be
copied in memory while passing between
device and application
† Reduce the frequency of interrupts by using
large transfers, smart controllers and polling
(if busy waiting can be minimized)
B.51. INPUT/OUTPUT(Cont’d)

† Increase concurrency by using DMA-

knowledgeable controllers or channels to
offload simple data copying from the CPU
† Move processing primitives into hardware,
to allow their operation in device controllers
concurrent with the CPU and bus operation.
† Balance CPU, memory subsystem, bus, and
I/O performance, because an overload in
any one area will cause idleness in others.
B.51.
INPUT/OUTPUT(Cont’d)
b. It is known that an I/O device consists
of layers, which are: Application,
Kernel, device-driver, device-controller,
and device.
Please explain how choosing these
layers effect the development of a new
application.
Discuss these aspects: The
development time, efficiency,
development cost, abstraction, and
flexibility.
B.51.
INPUT/OUTPUT(Cont’d)

*Operating systems concepts by Schilberschatz

B.51.
INPUT/OUTPUT(Cont’d)

† I/O algorithm is implemented at application level

because application code is the most flexible.
Furthermore, by developing code at the application level,
we avoid the need to reboot or reload device-drivers
after every change to the code. Application level
implementation can be inefficient, because of the
overhead of context switches and because the
application cannot take advantage of internal kernel data
structures and kernel functionality. The most efficient is
the hardware. Besides that, the hardware also increase
development time, development cost and abstraction.
B.51. INPUT/OUTPUT(Cont’d)
† The highest performance may be
obtained by a specialized
implementation in hardware, either in
device or in the controller. The
disadvantages of a hardware
implementation include the difficulty
and expense of making further
improvements or of fixing bugs, the
increased development time and the
decreased flexibility.
B.52. CD-ROM
a. Please explain the differences between CD-Audio,
CD-ROM, CD-R, and CD-RW!
CD-Audio CD-ROM CD-R CD-RW

Year 1982 1984 Mid 1990’s Mid 1997

Diameter 120mm/80mm 120mm/80mm 120mm/80mm 120mm/80mm

Thick 1.2 mm 1.2 mm 1.2 mm 1.2 mm

Data type Audio only Data-audio Data-audio Data-audio

capability Write once by Write once by WORM Re-writeable

manufacture manufacture

The creation Using a master disc Using a master disc No master disc No Master Disc

Reading Low laser beam Low laser beam Low laser beam Low laser beam

Material to Polycarbonate resin Polycarbonate resin dye alloy of silver

simulate pits indium,
antimony, and
tellurium

Specification Red-book Yellow-book Orange-book Orange-book

B.52. CD-ROM (Cont’d)
b. The early CD-Audio (650 MB) has 74
minutes duration. Calculate the
transfer speed of a CD-ROM Reader
with the speed of “37 x”.

† The CD-ROM Reader duration: 74 minutes

/ 37 = 2 minutes
† The CD-ROM Reader transfer speed: 650
MB / 120 seconds = 5.417 MB/second
B.53. Hard Disk 1
† A Disk with these specifications is known:
† 100 Gbytes capacity (assumption 1Gbytes =
1000 Mbytes)
† There are 2 plates, with 2 surfaces each
† Amount of tracks = 2500 (revolution: 6000
RPM)
† At one time, there is one HEAD (on one
side) that is active
B.53. Hard Disk 1(Cont’d)
a. How much is the maximum
rotational latency delay of the
DISK?
† 6000 RPM = 100 RPS

† 1 revolution = 10 ms

† So, the maximum time latency of the

DISK is 10 ms.
B.53. Hard Disk 1(Cont’d)
b.How much is the average time
latency of the DISK?
† The average time latency of the DISK
= (10 ms + 0 ms) / 2 = 5 ms
B.53. Hard Disk 1(Cont’d)
c. What is the minimum time (without
latency and seek) needed to transfer 1
million (1000000) bytes data?
† There are two plates with two surfaces each,
so the capacity of one surface is 25 Gbytes.
† One track has the capacity of: 25 Gbytes /
2500 = 10 Mbytes.
† The time needed to complete one revolution is
10 ms.
† So, the minimum time needed to transfer one
million byte data is:
† (1 Mbytes / 10 Mbytes) × 10 ms = 1 ms
References
† http://www.storagereview.com/guide/guide_index.html
† All pictures in the hard disk section are courtesy of
www.storagereview.com
† http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD
† Foundation of computer science by forouzan.
† Operating systems concepts by Schilberschatz.
† Copyright © 2006 Group 182.
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