PIC Part-A Student Version

PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL
Prepared and Compiled by Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu Taught by Prof. Smita Sadhu (SS)
Deptt. of Electrical Engg. Jadavpur University
2010
PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu
Syllabus
Part I Concepts of Modulating and Sequential Control. Structure of Modulating Control loops. Process Control terminology. Process Instrumentation diagrams. Controller Implementation: Electronic analog, Digital, Pneumatic Controllers. Self-tuning and Multifunction Controllers, Control Valves. Process Actuators: Electrical, Pneumatic, Hydraulic, Valve positioners. Industrial Instrumentation Systems: Components, structure, specification. Self tuning and Adaptive controllers. Supervisory control : Objectives and Implementation.
Part II
Concept of Processes and Units: Process statics, mass and enthalpy balance. Modelling of process dynamics, Modelling of Chemical processes. Single loop control of standard first order process plants. P-I-D control, Controller tuning, Ziegler-Nichlol's method, Frequency domain design. Feed-forward control, Multi-loop and Cascade control, Interaction and decoupling. Non-linear effects in plants and controllers. Simulation of process control systems. * Boiler Drum Level Control. * Discrete Controllers: Selection of sampling intervals, stability analysis. *
Books: 1. Principles and Practice of Automatic Process Control - Smith and Corripio 2. Principles of Process Control - Patranabis 3. Automatic Process Control - Eckmann 4. Process Control Systems - Shinskey 5. Process Systems Analysis and Control - Coughanowr & Koppel 6. Chemical Process Control - Stephanopoulos 7. Process control - Pollard
2010
PROCESS in Process Control

Domain of Interest
Chemical, thermal and biotechnical processes
Formal Definition:
A physico-chemical process involves physical or chemical change of matter, or conversion of energy
Importance:
Above types of processes produce products like fuels, plastics, cement, metals, adhesives, yarns for cloth, foods, beverages, medicines, All are important in our daily life.
A Chemical Plant
2010
CONTROL in Process Control

The regulation, manipulation (or modulation) of variables influencing a process in such a way as to obtain the desired quality and quantity of product in a safe and efficient manner. Controller modulates
Hence modulating control
steam flow through the actuator
Operator reads the temperature
Manual modulation and control

2010
Automatic control
About the Subject

Caveat !!
No single book may be good enough for this course
Solution:
Refresh your knowledge in Control System
Specially, times response, Bode Plot, Nyquist plot, stability margins
Consult the reference books Solve the exercises in the problem sheet Read lecture notes of current and previous years Apply your mind and common sense
2010
About the Subject II

History of introducing this subject Introduced in the late seventies Digital (electronic) control was then replacing traditional pneumatic analog control Expansion of petrochemical industries expanded job market. Shrinkage in traditional EE job market. Consulting engineering companies required engineers with these skill sets.
Some of factors have changed in the past decades, but the subject remains exciting.
2010
About the Subject III

Nature of the subject
Concerns control of chemical and bio-chemical processes Started by chemical engineers
Their own vocabulary. Obsession with fluids & valves.
Formalized later by Electrical Engineers & Shinskey Intensive use of elementary control engg. principles
Requires deep appreciation of freq. domain methods.
Mixture of theory and practice
2010
Nature of chemical processes

Flow of liquid and slurries Chemical and biochemical reaction Transfer of mass and enthalpy Multi Input- multi Output. Mathematical model may be unavailable, unreliable, complex, non-linear, etc. Typified by unit operations (connected through a network of pipes and valves).
Filtration Distillation (phase change) Fermentation Heat exchangers Boilers Chemical reactors A heat Exchanger
2010
Nature of chemical processes-II
A Distillation Column
2010
A Fractionating (Distillation ) Column for Petroleum

9
Nature of chemical processes-III

Stirrer Motor
(a)
A continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR)

(a) Schematic with temperature control loop (b) Photograph
(b)
Cooling Coils
10
2010
Objectives of Process Control (and justification of investment)

Ensure improved safety of the plant
by keeping process variables within safe boundaries. by keeping process variables within boundaries, requiring less safety margins. by keeping process variables within close tolerance Maintaining process variables at appropriate values for all the components of the plant. By controlling and neutralizing polluting effluents
Reduce capital cost
Ensure quality and consistency of the product

Ensure productivity & economy operation. Reduce abuse of environment.
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Means of attaining Process control objectives Ensuring predictable plant performance

by feedback
Ensuring plant controllability

Choosing final control elements (valves and actuators) Structure of control loop. (feedback, feedforward, cascade) Good pairing of input-outputs.
Ensuring appropriate operating conditions

choice of set points.
Ensuring Correct sequence of operation

Sequential Control (PLC)
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12
Components of A PROCESS CONTROL LOOP

FCE: Final Control Element CO: Controller Output PV: Process Variable SP: Set point
Load
Feedforward Element Feedforward
Disturbance
A physical quantity or property that can be measured and controlled
SP
Controller
CO
FCE/ Actuator
Valve
PV Process
An element which receives signals in one form and converts it to another form
Transducer/ Transmitter
Feedback signal
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13
Process Variable and SET POINT

Most feedback control loops attempt to maintain a process variable (e.g., temperature, pressure, pH, etc.) at a desired value. An input variable that sets the desired value of controlled variable is called the Set Point A Control loop is designed such that the process variable is nearly equal to the set point. The set point may be assigned
manually through local operation Manually but from a distance (remote control) supplied automatically by another controller (cascade control).
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Actuator & FCE

Process variables in Chemical processes are most often manipulated and controlled by modulating some flow The flow is modulated by control valves Valves are therefore called the Final Control Element (FCE)
2010
A pneumatically actuated Valve
15
Valves
A plug or Globe Valve
Manually operated Butterfly Valve

2010
Diaphragm valve
16
Actuator & FCE-II

In order that valves may be manipulated by a controller, valve actuators or valve motors are required. Valve motors can be
pneumatic or Electric
Valve positioners are special actuating systems with feedback of valve position
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17
Loads and Disturbances

A process or a plant is designed to supply or sustain load
A generator should supply adequate current A boiler should supply adequate flow of steam (load is part of duty , not disturbance)
A Disturbance is external influence but not a load, that somehow influence the variable to be controlled
Often the disturbances change with time. Speed change in the prime mover is a disturbance to a dc generator Pressure fluctuation of inlet steam is a disturbance to a turbine
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18
Loads and disturbances in simple processes

Process 1. Flow through pipe 2. Heat exchanger Schematic diagram PV Flow rate Load Down stream pressure Disturbance Up stream pressure/ fouling Steam temp/steam flow
Process Process fluid o/p fluid flow temp
3. Level control
Level
Outlet flow rate
Inlet flow pressure
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Transmitter
A Control Loop requires that Process Variable and some loads, be measured and the values transmitted to the controller for appropriate action. A Transmitter
Measures the variable with a sensor, Converts the sensor signal to a standard level which may be used (remotely) by an indicating instrument, a controller or a recorder.
A temperature transmitter without the temperature sensor
The sensing element, may or may not be physically inside the transmitter.
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10
Transmitter-II
Standard output signal of Transmitters
DC Current Loop (most common) 4 20 mA 0 20 mA DC Voltage 0 10V 05 V 1 5 V Pneumatic (nearly obsolete) 0.2 1.0 Atmospheric
pressure
Transmitters are generally specified with Full Scale (range) Transmitter reading is usually expressed as percentage or per unit of full scale. Example:
With a range of 1250 C and 40% reading, the current output for a 420mA transmitter would be 4+0.4*16=10.4 ma, corresponding to 1250*0.4=500 C
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21
Transmitter-III
Preferred Standard transmitter output:
4-20mA (current loop, suppressed zero)
Advantages of current loop signals

No danger from short circuit No voltage drop concerns, low cable cost
Advantage of suppressed zero

Detection of circuit break (open loop) Possibility of supplying current to the transmitter (two wire transmitter)
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11
Transmitter-IV
Transducer Current Loop Signal To Controller DC Power Source
Transmitter
A Four Wire Transmitter
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23
Transmitter-V Transmitter-V
DC Power Source Transducer
Transmitter
Transmitter draws a constant 4 ma current for own powering
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Current Loop Signal To Controller
A Two Wire Transmitter
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Transmitter-VI
A Two Wire Transmitter with Sensor and Controller
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25
Signal out
Transmitter-VII
Power In Pressure Taps
A Rosemount Flow Transmitter connected to a tube Local section. Indicator Note:

(i)Local Indicator (ii) pressure tappings (iii) connecting flanges
Flow Pipe
Connecting Flanges
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2010
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Process Instrumentation Diagram

Also called Piping and Instrumentation Diagram
Valve
Flow
Actuator CO SP FC
FT
FT: Flow Transmitter FC: Flow Controller
PV
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Example (PI Diagram)

Identify transmitters, controllers and FCE in the diagram below
What is this, BTW?
Flow Indicating Controller
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14
Recap-Control Loop
We have studied essential aspects of a control loop
Loop Structure Set point, Process Variable Valve, Actuator, Final Control Element and Valve positioners Transmitter Process Instrumentation diagram
Coming up:
Controller, Control Law, Feedback and Feed forward
2010 29
Controller
Error = SP-PV Transmitter output should match the controller inputs physically
Type (say current loop) Range Bias FF
Controller output and actuator input also should match physically Signal is one sided, i.e. no reversal of signals
Bias is often used to generate some CO with no error
SP CO
Controller
PV
Maximum CO voltage capability limits the electrical load Control Law

The defining function that generates CO from all inputs
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15
Industrial Controllers
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31
Control Laws: Feedback & feed forward

Control law defines how the controller output (CO) is generated.
In feedback, CO= f1 (PV, SP) In feed-forward, CO= f2 (LOAD) In combined, CO= f3 (PV, SP, LOAD)
Feed Forward SP Controller CO Feed back
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Load PV
Plant & Actuator
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Control Laws:-II Feedback approach:

Adjust CO such that PV SP notwithstanding load and disturbance
slow but good adjustment capability Can tolerate inaccurate plant description (robustness)
Feed forward approach:

Adjust CO to nullify the effect of load on PV
fast but not accurate when plant description is approximate Used as an auxiliary to feedback
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Controllability
(in the sense of process control)
Do not confuse with state controllability
A process to be controlled must be controllable The term controllability has a special meaning in process control context.
This is sometimes called input-output controllability
In the simplest SISO case there is only one process variable of interest. For process controllability in the simple case:
There must exist an input variable (usually a flow), which may be manipulated independently. The process variable should change in response to change in the input variable. For a step change in input, the output should either settle at a constant value or keep on increasing (type one higher type)
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17
Fly-ball governor- The First Feedback Controller
James Watts Drawing
A more modern version (1930) Principle

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Controllability-II
(in the sense of process control)
For multi-output systems, there would be more than one (say m number of) process variables of interest. For input-output controllability of multi-output case
There must be at least m number of input variables which can be independently manipulated. It would be possible to form m number of input output pairs,
each with an unique input (that is input variables cannot be repeated) and each of which is controllable.
Note that
There may be more than one scheme of pairing Some pairing scheme can be better than the other.

2010
Response of a process variable to its input pair should be more significant than the response to unpaired input. This is called diagonal dominance.
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18
Modelling Elementary Processes
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Modelling of elementary process

Flow through Orifice, Venturi and Pipe Flow through Control Valve Dye injection Heat transfer in an oven Liquid level System Linearization Lessons learnt from Modelling
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Flow Through Orifice

p1 p2
P=p1-p2
D1
Used for small to medium flow measurement D2
q = cd (/4) D22 [ 2(p1 - p2) / (1 - d4) ]1/2 Where q=volumetric flow, cd is a constant D2 = orifice, venturi or nozzle inside diameter D1 = upstream and downstream pipe diameter d = D2 / D1 diameter ratio, =density p1 , p2= upstream and downstream pressures
2010
q=cf(P)
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Venturi Tube
Used for measurement of medium (100 litres/minute) to large flow
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40
20
Common Flow equation

q=cf(P)
This common flow equation may be used for orifice, venturi and long pipe sections The flow rate q is volumetric Flow is assumed to be turbulent The flow coefficient cf is strongly dependent on density and geometry
and mildly on Reynolds number (1%-2%)
The flow coefficient cf is strongly dependent on the units chosen for flow and pressure When pressure is expressed as head, density effect gets cancelled. For mass flow rate, q is to be multiplied by density
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Common Flow equation-II

q = c f P ~ ~ q = q + q ; P = P + P
q = c f P + P c f P
~ ~ = c f ( 1 + P / P 1) P q 1 P ~ ~ q 2 P
The flow equation is strongly nonlinear For linear, small signal approximation, local slope may be used. (2% change in pressure drop => 1% change in flow)
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Control Valve Characteristics

q = c f ( ) P
Flow through valve also obeys the general flow equation P indicates pressure drop across the valve The flow coefficient cf() becomes a function of valve opening Let the valve opening be expressed by a variable , where
=1 indicates full opening =0 indicates that the valve is fully closed The flow equation is valid within the interval 0.05 < <1.0 (say)
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Control Valve Characteristics-II
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Control Valve Characteristics-III

q = c f ( ) P ~ ~ ~ q = q + q ; P = P + P ; = + ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ q = c f ( ) P ; q = c f ( + ) P + P c f ( ) P
q = (
){c f ( ) P } + ( ){c f ( ) P }P P
Small signal linear equations can be derived as above ~ ~ ~ The operating point (q , P , ) should be known
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Control Valve Characteristics-IV

A control valve is used in a piping circuit with different types of load The flow is determined by the pump characteristics, valve opening and flow characteristics of the piping and the load. For efficient flow control in a piping circuit
a control valve is generally connected in series when a constant pressure pump is used a control valve is generally connected in parallel or shunt when a constant flow pump is used Exercise: Draw diagrams and with analogy from electric circuits, explain the above
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Control Valve Characteristics-V

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 a c e b d f
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
a=quick opening b=linear c=square root d,e =equal percentage f=hyperbolic
F/Fmax
X/Xmax
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Dye injection
q2
1 0 .8 0 .6 0 .4 0 .2 0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 1 .2 1 .4 1 .6 1 .8 2
Dye q2
Input
v
q1
Colourless Fluid flow rate
Ideal response Actual response
q1+q2
0 .8 0 .6 0 .4 0 .2 0 0 .2 0 .4 0 .6 0 .8 1 1 .2 1 .4 1 .6 1 .8 2
v : Average velocity of fluid L : Length of pipe section Delay=L/v
T=L/v (Delay)
Percentage composition =(q2/(q1+q2))*100 (q2/q1)*100 = y (say)
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24
Dye injection-II
Step Response
q2
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
Blue: input
Red: ideal response Green: actual response

1
Percentage composition =(q2/(q1+q2))*100 (q2/q1)*100 = y (say)

0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2
time T=L/v
2010 (Delay)
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Dye injection-III
Dye injection is used routinely for colouring subsidized kerosene to be sold in Fair Price Shops. Processes similar to dye injection are fairly common The delay in response for the dye injection and similar systems is called transport delay. Transport delay is a common phenomenon in chemical processes which involve pipelines and fluid transportation.
2010
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25
Heat transfer in an oven

m: heated mass c: specific heat A: External surface area H watts
: Temperature above ambient Heat dissipated A h

Insulation Charge
2010
In steady state, Heat dissipated=Heat input
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Heat transfer in an oven-
Equations:
Consider heat balance equations
I / P = H .t ( J ) O / P = A h.t ( J ) Heat absorption = m.c.
t = time h = Heat transfer coefficient watt / m 2 oC [though actually it is f ( , n )] = temperature difference between oven and surroundings = change in temperature difference
For simplicity, heat transfer is assumed to be proportional to temperature H .t = m.c. + A h.t or , H = m.c. d + A h dt d hA H + = or , dt mc mc
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Transfer function
d hA H & + + = H / hA = dt mc mc mc where = is the time const; ss = H ss / hA hA (s ) ss 1 = or H (s ) H ss 1 + s
ss
H Hss t
2010
t
53
non-dominant poles
If one carries out an experiment on a real oven, the response could be a bit different. This is because some effects have been neglected in the simple model. For example:
The oven itself would have its own time constant, which can be much more than the time constant of the charge. The temperature measuring device may have its own time constant
When the above effects are modelled properly, one would get a higher order transfer function. Sometimes one time constant may be significantly larger that the other. This time constant is called dominant and the others non-dominant.
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non-dominant poles-II
H (s )
(s )
1 H ss (1 + s 1 )(1 + s 2 )(1 + s 3 ) ss
ss
A 3rd order model with two nondominant time constants

Step Response 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 Amplitude 0.5 0.4
t 1st order response
Effect of nondominant poles appears as a delay
0.3 0.2 0.1 0
0.5
1.5 Time (sec)
2.5
3rd order response

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Liquid Level Process-A

Cylindrical Tank, Linear Output Flow Equation
A: Area of cross-section of container Q1: Inlet flow rate Q2: Outlet flow rate H: Height of fluid
Q1
Q2 depends on the pressure at the bottomwhich is proportional to the height of the liquid column
In this special case, outlet flow Is assumed to be linear with H.

2010
Q2
Q2 H ; Q2 = C f H (say)
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Liquid Level Process-A-II

Differential Equation
Q1t = Q2 t + AH dH dH + Q2 = Q1 A + C f H = Q1 dt dt dH + (C f H ) / A = Q1 / A dt A
In steady state
~ ~ ~ Q2 = Q2 = Q1 ; H = H ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Q1 = Q2 = C f H H = (Q1 / C f )
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Liquid Level Process-A-III

Transfer Function
Q dh (A/Cf ) + H = 1 Cf dt Q dh +H = 1 Cf dt
Time constant = time required to fill the tank to the steady state height !!
~ ~ [ where = A / C f = AH / Q1 ] ~ ~ H (s ) Q1 1 1 ( H / Q1 ) = = = . Q1 (s ) C f 1 + s A 1 + s 1 + s
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Liquid Level Process-B

Cylindrical Tank, non- Linear Output Flow Equation
A: Area of cross-section of container
Q1
Q1: Inlet flow rate Q2: Outlet flow rate H: Height of fluid
This time outlet flow rate Is assumed to be proportional to square root of H Closer to empirical result. Pressure square of flow rate
Q2
Q2 H ; Q2 = C f H (say)
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Liquid Level Process-B-II

Q1t = Q2 t + AH dH + Q2 = Q1 dt dH + C f H = Q1 A dt A
In steady state
~ ~ ~ Q2 = Q2 = Q1 ; H = H ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Q1 = Q2 = C f H H = (Q1 / C f ) 2 ~ ~ C f = Q1 / H
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Liquid Level Process-B-III

For small changes about steady state
~ Q1 = Q1 + q1 ~ Q2 = Q2 + q2 ~ H = H +h dH dh = dt dt
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Liquid Level Process-B-IV

Hence the process equations are:
or , or , or , or , or , or ,
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A A
dH ~ ~ + C f ( H + h) g = Q1 + q1 dt
dh h ~ ~ + C f H 1 + ~ g = Q1 + q1 dt H dh h ~ ~ A + C f Hg 1 + ~ = Q1 + q1 dt 2H A dh h g ~ ~ + C f Hg + C f ~ = Q1 + q1 dt 2 H dh h g A + Cf ~ = q1 dt 2 H ~ dh Q1 A + ~ h = q1 dt 2 H
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Liquid Level Process-B-V

~ q1 dh Q1 ~ ~ dh ~ q1 + ~ h = (2 AH / Q1 ) + h = 2 H ~ dt A dt 2 AH Q1 dh ~q + h = 2 H ~1 dt Q1 ~ ~ [ where, = 2 AH / Q1 ] ~ h (s ) 2 H 1 = ~ . or , q1 (s ) Q1 1 + s or ,
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Liquid Level Process-C

Horizontal Cylindrical Tank, non- Linear Output Flow Equation
A: Area of free liquid surface Q1: Inlet flow rate
Q1
R H L
Q2: Outlet flow rate H: Height of fluid R: Radius Cylinder
Q2 H ; Q2 = C f H (say)
Q2
A = 2bL = 2 R 2 ( R H ) 2 L = 2 2 RH H 2 L
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Liquid Level Process-C-II

In steady state ~ ~ ~ Q2 = Q2 = Q1 ; H = H ; ~ ~ ~ Q1 = Q2 = C f H ~ ~ H = (Q1 / C f ) 2 ~ ~ C f = Q1 / H ~ ~ ~ A = A = 2 L 2 RH H 2
Considering small change ~ Q1 = Q1 + q1 ~ Q2 = Q2 + q2 ~ H = H +h dH dh = dt dt
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Liquid Level Process-C-III

~ Q1t = Q2 t + A H ~ dH ~ dh + Q2 = Q1 A + C f H = Q1 A dt dt ~ dh ~ dh ~ ~ ~ A + C f H + h = Q1 A + C f H ( 1 + h / H = Q1 dt dt ~ ~ dh ~ ~ dh Q1 ~ ~ A + Q1 ( 1 + h / H = Q1 + q1 A + ~ h = q1 dt 2 H dt ~ ~~ dh 2H 2 HA + h = ~ 1 q1 ; where = ~ dt Q1 Q
Derive Transfer function from above

2010
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Liquid Level Process-D

Conical Tank, non- Linear Output Flow Q1
Q1: Inlet flow rate Q2: Outlet flow rate
D A
H: Height of fluidA: Area of free liquid
surface=R2; R: Radius (D/B)=(2R/H)
A = R 2 = ( DH / 2 B) 2 = {( / 4)( D / B) 2 }H 2 = H 2 (say)
Q2 H ; Q2 = C f H (say)
2010 67
Liquid Level Process-D-II

In steady state ~ ~ ~ Q2 = Q2 = Q1 ; H = H ; ~ ~ ~ Q1 = Q2 = C f H ~ ~ H = (Q1 / C f ) 2 ~ ~ C f = Q1 / H ~ ~ A = A = H 2
Considering small change ~ Q1 = Q1 + q1 ~ Q2 = Q2 + q2 ~ H = H +h dH dh = dt dt
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Liquid Level Process-D-III

~ Q1t = Q2 t + A H ~ dH ~ dh A + Q2 = Q1 A + C f H = Q1 dt dt ~ dh ~ dh ~ ~ ~ A + C f H + h = Q1 A + C f H ( 1 + h / H = Q1 dt dt ~ ~ dh ~ ~ dh Q1 ~ ~ A + Q1 ( 1 + h / H = Q1 + q1 A + ~ h = q1 dt dt 2 H ~ ~~ ~ dh 2 H1 2 HA 2 ( H )3 + h = ~ q1 ; where = ~ = ~ dt Q1 Q1 Q
Derive Transfer function from above

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Linearization
dY dY ~ ~ = f (Y ,V ) ; in steady state, = 0 ; Y = Y ;V = V dt dt ~ ~ f (Y ,V ) = 0 Considering a small perturbation about the nominal point, ~ ~ Y = Y + y ;V = V + v dY dy f ~ ~ 0 f = = f (Y ,V ) + ( |Y =Y ;V =V~ ) y + ( | ~ ~ )v ~ dt dt Y V Y =Y ;V =V
(Taylor series expansion)
Non linear first order differential equations can be linearized at equilibrium points (steady state values)
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Linearization-II
In steady state ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Q2 = Q2 = Q1 ; H = H ; Q1 = Q2 = C f H ~ ~ ~ ~ H = (Q1 / C f ) 2 C f = Q1 / H
dH = (Q1 Q2 ) / A = (Q1 C f H ) / A dt dh = [{ (Q1 / A)}q1 + { ((Q1 / A) C f H / A)}h] |Q , H ~ ~ 1 Q1 dt H
General Case
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Linearization-III
~ ~ For Process D : A = H 2
dh q1 ~ ~ (Q1 /( H 2 ) C f H /( H 2 )}h] |Q , H = ~ +{ 1 dt A H q1 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ = ~ 2 + {2Q1 H 3 C f ( H 3 / 2 )h} |Q , H 1 H H ~ q1 1 ~ ~ 3 Q1 3 / 2 = ~ 2 {2Q1 H ~ ~ ~ }h H H H2 H ~ q1 Q1 = ~2 ~3 h 2H H
Compare with previous result

2010
~ 2 ( H ) 3 = ~ Q1
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Lessons learnt from Modelling

Simple chemical processes may be modelled with the help of underlying physics. Many chemical processes are described by nonlinear differential equations.
The nonlinear equations can be linearized about operating points.
Many chemical processes may exhibit delayed response. The delays could be due to
Transport of fluid over long pipes Contribution of smaller non-dominant time constants (more about it later)
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Step Response of Process Plants
2010
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Step response of process plants

Step Res pons e 1 Amplitude 0.5 0
Self Limiting 1st order

0 0.5 Time (s ec ) Step Res pons e 1 1.5
1 Amplitude 0.5 0
0.5 Time (s ec )
1.5
Step Res pons e 1 Amplitude 0.5 0
Also known as Type 0 system

0 0.5 Time (s ec ) Step Res pons e 1 1.5
1 Amplitude 0.5 0
Self Limiting higher order

0 0.5 Time (s ec ) 1 1.5
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Step response of process plants-II

Self Limiting Oscillatory with overshoot
(n ) 2 G(s) = 2 s + 2 n s + (n ) 2
Self Limiting Oscillatory with overshoot and Undershoot
Non-minimum phase zero causes undershoot
G(s) =
2010
(n ) 2 1 Ts / 2 2 1 + Ts / 2 s + 2n s + (n ) 2
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Step response of process plants-III

Non-Self Limiting (Type-1): Ramp
G ( s) =
K s (1 + s )
Non-Self Limiting (Type-2): Parabola
G(s) =
K s 2 (1 + s )
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2010
Step response of process plants-IV
e sT G(s) = (1 + s )
Self Limiting with transport delay
2010
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Response of non-oscillatory higher order processes

Step Response Amplitude
Amplitude Step Response 1 0.5 0
1 0.5 0
1/(0.1s+1)2
0 0.5 Time (sec) Step Response 1 1.5
0.5 Time (sec)
1.5
1/(0.1s+1)6
Step Response 1 Amplitude 0.5 0
1 Amplitude 0.5 0
1/(0.1s+1)3
1/(0.1s+1)7
1 Amplitude 0.5 0
1/(0.1s+1)4
Amplitude
0.5 0
1/(0.1s+1)8
1 Amplitude 0.5
1/(0.1s+1)5
0.5 Time (sec) 1 1.5
Amplitude
0.5 0
1/(0.1s+1)9
0 0.5 Time (sec) 1 1.5
0 2010 0
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Frequency Response
Revisit
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Frequency Response Intro

Frequency response method is a very convenient tool for analyzing linear systems , because
Frequency response can be experimentally obtained Can be easily sketched from Transfer Function Stability margins and approximate speed of response can be easily obtained from OPEN LOOP frequency response
In this course we would frequently use Bode Plot and occasionally Nyquist plot.
Bode: Magnitude, Phase against freq Nyquist: Phasor plot in complex plane
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Frequency Response Intro-II

In Bode Plot
Frequency axis is logarithmic Magnitude may be plotted, either in absolute value and using a logarithmic scale Or in Decibel value using linear scale
100 100
We would often use the asymptotic plot for a qualitative analysis

Slopes and corners would be important consideration
Meaning of unit slope in decibel scale:

20dB/decade
Meaning of unit slope in absolute value scale: 100

One decade per decade If frequency is changed (n=) 10 times, the magnitude would change (n=) 10 times Example: unit negative slope, frequency increased 7.4 times, magnitude would be (1/7.4 times)
100 82
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41
Frequency Response Intro-III

Meaning of double positive slope in absolute value scale:
Increase frequency n times, the magnitude would become n-square times.
Meaning of double negative slope in absolute value scale:

If frequency is increased by n times, the magnitude would become (1/nsquare)times Example: M=100 @ 20 r/s, at 30 r/s, the magnitude would be 100 X (20/30)2 = 44.44 Example: M=100 @ 20 r/s, the magnitude would be 250 at 20 X ((100/250) = 12.65 r/s
250
Double negative slope
100 20 12.65
44.44 30
2010
83
Gain at unity Freq = K

10 Magnitude (abs)
2
Bode plot of Integrator

G ( j ) = K K = 90 deg j
Unit negative slope Gain Cross over at K (r/s) Phase constant at - 90 deg
10
10
10 -89 Phase (deg)
-1
-90
-91 0 10
10 10 Frequency (rad/sec)
10
2010
84
42
Double Integrator
Gain at unity Freq = K
G ( j ) =
2
K K = 2 180 deg 2 ( j )
Bode Diagram
Double negative slope Gain Cross over at K (r/s)
10
10 Magnitude (abs)
10
10
-1
What is the Phase plot??
10
-2
10
10 Frequency (rad/sec)
10
2010
85
Magnitude plot of first order system

G2 ( j ) =
K
10
1
K K = 2 1 + j 1 + ( )
Bode Diag ram
Corner frequency 1/
Asymptotic plot
Magnitude (abs)
Unit negative slope

10
0
Actual plot
gcf = (1 / ) K 2 1 K /
10
0
10
10
Fr equenc y (r ad/s ec )
2010
86
43
Phase lag of first order term

K 1 G2 ( j ) = 1 + j = tan For << 1 / , G2 ( j ) For = 1 / , G2 ( j ) = 45o For >> 1 / , G2 ( j )
45 degree phase lag occurs at the corner point Max phase lag is 90 degree
Bode Diagram
-30 Phase (deg) -60
2010
-90
PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal 100 Prof. Smita Sadhu &
10
87
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
More General TF
Unit negative slope
10 Magnitude (abs)
2
G (s ) =
K (1 + s ) s(1 + .02 s)
Unit negative slope Gain Cross over at K (r/s)
10
10
1st corner @ 1 r/s
10 Phase (deg)
-1
Zero slope
-45
-90 -1 10
2nd corner @ 50 r/s

10
0
10
2010
88
44
More General TF-2

Unit negative slope
G (s ) =
60
K (1 + 0.02s ) s(1 + .1s )
Unit negative slope
40
Magnitude (dB)
1st
corner @ 1 r/s
20
Double negative slope
-20
2nd corner @ 50 r/s
-40
-60 0 10
10
10
2010
89
Standard Process Model
2010
90
45
Standard type zero process model

Process Gain Delay
K1e sT G p (s ) = 1 + s
Time Constant
Usually chemical processes are not oscillatory by nature Many plants exhibit 1st order-like self regulating response Have transport delay or higher order fast poles which can be approximated as delay Some text books call the delay as lag !! Separate model required for non- self regulating plants
2010
91
Step Response of Standard Type Zero Process Model

y (t ) = K1 (1 e ( t T ) / )u (t T )
Step Response
G p (s ) =
K1
K1e sT 1 + s
0.8
Amplitude
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.5
T
2010
1 Time (sec)
1.5
92
46
Fitting empirical step response in the standard process model

At t1=T+0.3 y=K(1-e-0.3)=0.26K 1.2 K 1
Process Reaction Curve
u
0.8
u
t
At t2=T+ y=K(1-e-1)=0.67K
0.67K
y y
0.6
0.4
K=
0.26K
0.2
y u
We may determine and T from t1 and t2 t1 t2

0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 time 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
-0.2
0.05
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93
Step Response of Standard Type Zero Process Model
Step Response
Gp (s) =
Ke sT 1 + s
0.8
Amplitude
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.5
T
2010
1 Time (sec)
1.5
94
47
Unit step response for

Step Response 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 Amplitude 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 System: sys Time (sec): 0.0964 Amplitude: 0.1 System: sys Time (sec): 0.511 Amplitude: 0.6
G p (s ) =
1 (1 + 0.5s )(1 + 0.05s )
1 e
0.0964T
= 0.1
or ,0.0964 T = 0.105 ........(1)

A small non dominant time constant can be approximated as a delay
1 e
0.511T
= 0.6
or ,0.511 T = 0.916 .......... ( 2) From(1) & (2),
= 0.511; T = 0.0427
0.5
1.5 Time (sec)
2.5
2010
95
Unit step response for

Two nondominant and small time constants
Step Response
G p (s ) =
(1 + 0.5s )(1 + 0.05s )2

(1 + 0.05)2
T 0.05 2 0.1
0.1T
= 0.5
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 Amplitude 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
System: sys Time (sec): 0.6 Amplitude: 0.628
1 e
Fairly good approximation of parameters!
System: sys Time (sec): 0.1 Amplitude: 0.0512
= 0.0512
or ,0.1 T = 0.0525 .......... (1) 1 e

0.6 T
= 0.628
or ,0.6 T = 0.988 .......... (2) From(1) & (2),

1 1.5 Time (sec) 2 2.5 3
0.5
= 0.535; T = 0.07
96
2010
48
Alternative method: Graphical method

Final steady Value
1.2
Tangent to the highest slope
Smoothen the plot first

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
T
-0.2 0 0.05
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 time 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
2010
97
Normalized model
If the steady state O/P with 100% input is also defined as 100% O/P, the gain K becomes unity. The normalized process model becomes:
e sT G p (s ) = 1 + s
2010
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49
Frequency response of plant

G p (s ) = Ke sT 1 + s and G2 (s ) = K 1 + s K G2 ( j ) = = 1 + j
Let G1 (s ) = e sT G1 ( j ) = e jT =?? G1 ( j ) = e jT =
??
= ??
K G2 ( j ) = 1 + j
??
2010
99
Magnitude contribution of delay

G1 ( j ) = e jT = cos T j sin T = 1
=1 for all frequencies

2010
100
50
Phase contribution of delay

G1 ( j ) = e jT = tan 1 sin T cos T = T
-T
2010
101
Bode plot for delay using linear scale for frequency

10
1
Bode Diagram
Magnitude (abs)
10
-T
10
-1
0 -90 Phase (deg) -180 -270 -360 -450 -540 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
2010
Frequency (rad/sec)
102
51
Magnitude contribution of first order term

G2 ( j ) =
K
10
1
K K = 2 1 + j 1 + ( )
Bode Diag ram
Corner at 1/
Asymptotic plot
Magnitude (abs)
Actual plot
10
0
2010
10
10
10
Fr equenc y (r ad/s Prof. Smita Sadhu PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal &ec )
103
Phase contribution of first order term

K 1 G2 ( j ) = 1 + j = tan For << 1 / , G2 ( j ) For = 1 / , G2 ( j ) = 45o For >> 1 / , G2 ( j )
Bode Diagram
-30 Phase (deg) -60
2010
-90
PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal 100 Prof. Smita Sadhu &
10
104
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
52
Frequency Response of Standard Type Zero Process Model

G1 ( s ) = e sT
1/
10
1
G2 ( s ) =
10
1
1 1 + s
Bode Diagram
Bode Diagram
Magnitude (abs)
Magnitude (abs) Phase (deg)

2 3
10
10
10
-1
10
-1
0 -90 Phase (deg) -180 -270 -360 -450 -540 1 10
Why is the shape like this?

-45
-90 10
0
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
2010
105

Bode Diagram 5
1/
0 Magnitude (dB) Phase (deg) -5 -10 -15 -20 0 -45 -90 -135 -180 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Frequency scale is linear for phase plot

Frequency (rad/sec)
2010
106
53

Bode Diagram 5 0 Magnitude (dB) -5 -10 -15 -20 0 -45 -90 -135 -180 -1 10
1/
Phase (deg)
10
10
2010
107
Comments
Ordinary first order system has 90 degree Phase Margin and infinite gain margin. Such plants are always stable in closed loop with constant gain. Standard process plant is not ordinary because of the delay Delay has got the capability of providing infinite phase lag Delayed 1st order plants are liable to become unstable in closed loop
2010
108
54
Effect of gain on magnitude plot

10
1
Bode Diagram
K=3 K=2
Magnitude (abs)
gcf2 gcf3
10
K=1
Unity gain
10
-1
10
-1
10
10
10
10
1/
2010
Frequency (rad/sec)
109
gcf decreases with gain

10
1
GM=1/|G(jwp)| PM=180deg+/G(jwg)
Bode Diagram
GM decreases with increase in gain
gcf=wg
Magnitude (abs)
0
10
Gain Margin
-1
Phase (deg)
PM increases with decrease in gain
10
0 -45 -90 -135 -180 10

0
pcf does not depend upon gain
Phase Margin
10
1
pcf=wp
10
2010
Frequency (rad/sec)
110
55
Nyquist plot
G1 ( s ) = e sT
G2 ( s ) = 1 1 + s
Resultant plot
2010
111
Pad Approximation for Delay
2010
112
56
Pad Approximation
The delay term is difficult to handle while computing closed loop response. French mathematician Henri Pad (1863-1953), formulated the "best" approximation of a given function by a rational function of specified order. Using the above method the Laplace transform exp(-sT) of delay, may be approximated by transfer functions of any given order. Normally, for manual computation 1st or second order approximations are used. For computer simulation 5th to 10th order approximations may be employed.
2010
113
Pad Approximation -II

Pade approximation may be appreciated from this
sT
=e
sT / 2
sT / 2
e sT / 2 = sT / 2 e
+ ... 2! 3! (sT / 2)2 + (sT / 2)3 + ... 1 + sT / 2 + 2! 3!
(sT / 2) 1 sT / 2 +
(sT / 2)
These terms are changed slightly to accommodate the effect of truncation of higher order terms
2010
114
57
First order Pad approximation

G1 (s ) = e sT 1 sT / 2 1 + sT / 2
Frequency response Unit step response Time Response of process plant with first order Pad appx. for delay
2010 115
Frequency response of First order Pad approx. for unit delay

Unity gain
10 Magnitude (abs)
1
Bode Diagram
10
10
-1
0 Phase (deg)
Max phase lag is -180 degree
-90
-180 10
-2
10
-1
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
2010
116
58
Unit step response of 1st order Pad approx. for delay

Step Response 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 Amplitude 0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1
100% Negative kick Caused by Non Minimum Phase term
0.5
1.5 Time (sec)
2.5
2010
117
Time Response of standard plant with 1st order Pad apprx. for delay
Step Response 1
G p (s ) =
K 1 sT / 2 1 + s 1 + sT / 2
0.8
0.6
Open Loop
0.4 Amplitude
0.2
-0.2
-0.4
Negative kick reduced due to plant time constant

0 0.5 1 1.5 Time (sec) 2 2.5 3
-0.6
2010
118
59
Second order Pad approximation

G1 (s ) = e
sT
1 sT / 2 + s 2T 2 / 12 1 + sT / 2 + s 2T 2 / 12
Frequency response Unit step response Time Response of process plant with second order Pad appx. for delay
2010 119
Frequency response of Second order Pad approx. for delay

10
1
Bode Diagram
Magnitude (abs)
10
10
-1
0 -90 Phase (deg) -180 -270 -360 10

-1
Max phase lag is -360 degree
10
10
2010
120
60
Unit step response of 2nd order Pad approx. for delay

positive kick
Step Response 1.2
0.8
0.6 Amplitude
0.4
0.2
-0.2
Smaller negative kick for 2nd order

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Time (sec) 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
-0.4
2010
121
Time Response of standard plant with 2nd order Pad appx. for delay
Step Response 1.2
Open Loop
0.8
Amplitude
0.6
0.4
0.2
Kicks substantially reduced due to the time constant
-0.2
3 Time (sec)
2010
122
61
Higher the order, better the approximation

Unit step response
1.5
Pure delay
0.5 First order Second order Third order Fourth order
-0.5
-1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1 time
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2010
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Higher the order, better the approximation

Frequency response
0 Phase (deg) -180 -360 -540 10
-2
Bode Diagram
First order
Phase (deg)
10
-1
10
10
10
Frequency (rad/sec) Bode Diagram 0 -180 -360 -540 10

-1
Second order
Phase keeps on increasing as the order becomes higher
10
10 Frequency (rad/sec) Bode Diagram
10
0 Phase (deg) -180 -360 -540 10

-1
Third order
10
10
0 Phase (deg)
Fourth order
2010
-180 -360 -540 10

1
0 PIC Lecture 2010 10-1 T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu Prof. 10
1242
10
Frequency (rad/sec)
62

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PROCESS INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

PROCESS in Process Control

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

CONTROL in Process Control

Operator reads the temperature

Manual modulation and control

About the Subject

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

About the Subject II

About the Subject III

Mixture of theory and practice

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

Nature of chemical processes

Nature of chemical processes-II

A Fractionating (Distillation ) Column for Petroleum

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

Nature of chemical processes-III

A continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR)

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

Objectives of Process Control (and justification of investment)

Reduce capital cost

Ensure quality and consistency of the product

Ensure productivity & economy operation. Reduce abuse of environment.

Means of attaining Process control objectives Ensuring predictable plant performance

Ensuring plant controllability

Ensuring appropriate operating conditions

Ensuring Correct sequence of operation

Components of A PROCESS CONTROL LOOP

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

Process Variable and SET POINT

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

Actuator & FCE

A pneumatically actuated Valve

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

A plug or Globe Valve

Manually operated Butterfly Valve

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

Actuator & FCE-II

Loads and Disturbances

Loads and disturbances in simple processes

Process Process fluid o/p fluid flow temp

Outlet flow rate

Inlet flow pressure

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

A temperature transmitter without the temperature sensor

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

Advantages of current loop signals

Advantage of suppressed zero

A Four Wire Transmitter

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

Current Loop Signal To Controller

A Two Wire Transmitter

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

A Two Wire Transmitter with Sensor and Controller

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

A Rosemount Flow Transmitter connected to a tube Local section. Indicator Note:

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

Process Instrumentation Diagram

FT: Flow Transmitter FC: Flow Controller

PIC Lecture 2010 Prof. T.K.Ghoshal & Prof. Smita Sadhu

Example (PI Diagram)

Percentage composition =(q2/(q1+q2))100 (q2/q1)100 = y (say)

Percentage composition =(q2/(q1+q2))100 (q2/q1)100 = y (say)