EcoHealth 1, 246–254, 2004

DOI: 10.1007/s10393-004-0094-6

2004 EcoHealth Journal Consortium

Bottlenose Dolphins as Marine Ecosystem Sentinels:

Developing a Health Monitoring System

Randall S. Wells,1 Howard L. Rhinehart,2 Larry J. Hansen,3 Jay C. Sweeney,4 Forrest I. Townsend,5
Rae Stone,4 David R. Casper,6 Michael D. Scott,7 Aleta A. Hohn,8 and Teri K. Rowles9
1
Sarasota Dolphin Research Program, Chicago Zoological Society, c/o Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236
2
Mote Marine Laboratory, 1600 Ken Thompson Parkway, Sarasota, FL 34236
3
US Fish and Wildlife Service, Stockton, CA 95205
4
Dolphin Quest, 4467 Saratoga Avenue, San Diego, CA 92107
5
Bayside Hospital for Animals, 251 N.E. Racetrack Road, Fort Walton Beach, FL 32547
6
Long Marine Laboratory, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95060
7
Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, c/o Scripps Institute of Oceanography, La Jolla, CA 92037
8
National Marine Fisheries Service, Beaufort, NC 28516
9
National Marine Fisheries Services, 1315 East-West Highway, Silver Spring, MD 20910

Abstract: Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), as long-lived, long-term residents of bays, sounds, and
estuaries, can serve as important sentinels of the health of coastal marine ecosystems. As top-level predators on
a wide variety of fishes and squids, they concentrate contaminants through bioaccumulation and integrate
broadly across the ecosystem in terms of exposure to environmental impacts. A series of recent large-scale
bottlenose dolphin mortality events prompted an effort to develop a proactive approach to evaluating risks by
monitoring living dolphin populations rather than waiting for large numbers of carcasses to wash up on the
beach. A team of marine mammal veterinarians and biologists worked together to develop an objective,
quantitative, replicable means of scoring the health of dolphins, based on comparison of 19 clinically diagnostic
blood parameters to normal baseline values. Though the scoring system appears to roughly reflect dolphin
health, its general applicability is hampered by interlaboratory variability, a lack of independence between some
of the variables, and the possible effects of weighting variables. High score variance seems to indicate that the
approach may lack the sensitivity to identify trends over time at the population level. Potential solutions to this
problem include adding or replacing health parameters, incorporating only the most sensitive measures, and
supplementing these with additional measures of health, body condition, contaminant loads, or biomarkers of
contaminants or their effects that can also be replicated from site to site. Other quantitative approaches are also
being explored.

Key words: bottlenose dolphin, ecosystem health, sentinel species, risk assessment

INTRODUCTION

Published online: May 28, 2004 Bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), can serve as
Correspondence to: Randall S. Wells, e-mail: rwells@mote.org important barometers of the health of marine ecosystems.

They are long-lived, long-term coastal residents in tropical
and temperate regions throughout the world (Wells and
Scott, 1999; Reynolds et al., 2000). Long-term research on
such a species allows one to document the history of
exposure to ecosystem perturbations and their effects. They
are top-level predators on a wide variety of fishes and
squids, and thus concentrate contaminants through bio-
accumulation and integrate broadly across the ecosystem in
terms of exposure to environmental impacts. Dolphin
health and population status not only reflect the effects of
natural and anthropogenic stressors on the species, but they
serve as sentinels of the health and status of lower trophic
levels in the marine ecosystem.
Over the last 17 years, another reason to monitor bot-
tlenose dolphin health and population status has emerged
due to the occurrence of large-scale dolphin mortality
events. During 1987–1988, it was estimated that half of the
putative coastal migratory stock of bottlenose dolphins died
along the mid-Atlantic coast of the U.S. (Scott et al., 1988),
leading to a designation of this stock as ‘‘depleted.’’ Other
unusual dolphin mortality events occurred in the northern
Gulf of Mexico in 1990, 1992, and 2000, in which hundreds
of bottlenose dolphins died (Hansen, 1992). A variety of
factors, such as environmental contaminants, natural bio-
toxins (Geraci, 1989), and morbillivirus (Duignan et al.,
1996; Lipscomb et al., 1996), have been suggested as prob-
able agents responsible for the mortalities. In each of these
cases, conclusive determination of the cause of death was
hampered by a shortage of fresh carcasses to allow all desired
tests to be performed. Evaluation of the impacts of the
mortalities was hampered by inadequate background
information on dolphin stock structure, abundance, life
history, and vital rates prior to the mortalities. The lesson
reinforced by each subsequent investigation is that a pro-
active approach to evaluating risks by monitoring living
dolphin populations would be preferable to waiting for large
numbers of carcasses to wash up on the beach.
The authors have been developing methods for
assessing the population status and health of coastal bot-
tlenose dolphins, not only to monitor the risks to the
populations themselves, but also to be able to use them as
sentinels of the health of marine ecosystems. Much of this
work has occurred in Sarasota Bay, Florida, where research
on the resident dolphin community has been ongoing since
1970, and where four generations of identifiable individuals
of known gender, age, and genetic relationships are cur-
rently under study (Irvine and Wells, 1972; Irvine et al.,
1981; Scott et al., 1990a; Wells, 1991). Population moni-
Bottlenose Dolphins as Ecosystem Sentinels 247
toring efforts benefit from the fact that at least 60% of
inshore dolphins on the west coast of Florida are individ-
ually identifiable from dorsal fin features, facilitating direct
counts and mark-recapture estimates (Wells, 2002; Wells
and Scott, 1990; Wells et al., 1996a, 1996b, 1997). Using
photographic identification techniques (Scott et al., 1990b;
Würsig and Jefferson, 1990) it is possible to define indi-
vidual ranges (e.g., relative to contaminant sources) and
measure female reproductive success as well as monitor
population-level trends in abundance, losses, and other
vital rates (Wells and Scott, 1990). In addition, the shallow
waters of much of the habitat of inshore bottlenose dol-
phins facilitate safe capture and release operations, in which
dolphins can be examined by veterinarians and sampled for
subsequent health-related analyses. This article focuses on
the information for health assessment that can be derived
from directly examining and sampling dolphins.
APPROACH
Dolphins are captured for examination and sampling by
encircling them with a 500 m · 4 m seine net in shallow
waters where handlers can safely stand and support dol-
phins as necessary. One at a time, each dolphin is trans-
ferred to foam pads on the shaded deck of a boat, where it
is weighed and a standard series of length and girth mea-
surements is collected. Adult females are first given an
ultrasound examination for pregnancy before a decision is
made to bring them aboard the vessel. Throughout the
examination, behavior and respiratory patterns are closely
monitored, and water is sponged over the animals. Blubber
depth is measured ultrasonically at standard sites.
Abdominal and thoracic organs are evaluated via ultra-
sound examination. Core body temperature is measured
through a colonic probe. Blood samples (up to 320 ml) are
collected through venipuncture from a vessel in the fluke.
Blood samples are: 1) analyzed for standard chemistry,
hematology, and reproductive hormones; 2) used for
immunological studies; 3) applied to genetic studies
including paternity analyses; 4) examined for circulating
levels of environmental contaminants; and 5) stored for
retrospective investigations of disease processes. Urine is
obtained through sterile catheterization. Milk is expressed
into a custom suction collection system for compositional
analyses and measurements of environmental contami-
nants. Samples for evaluation of the presence or absence of
a suite of microorganisms are collected from the blowhole,
248 Randall S. Wells et al.
feces, and genital tracts. Small blubber wedges (4-cm long ·
3-cm wide · up to 1.5-cm deep) are obtained under local
anesthesia from a standard location below the dorsal fin,
for contaminant analyses. Most of the Sarasota Bay resi-
dents are of known age through observation, but a tooth is
collected under local anesthesia from individuals of un-
known age for sectioning and counting of growth layer
groups (Hohn et al., 1989). A full examination and sam-
pling program typically requires about 1 hour, and then the
dolphin is returned to the water and released. More than
180 individuals have been examined in Sarasota Bay to
date. Similar sampling was conducted by the National
Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) in Matagorda Bay, Texas
in 1992 (n = 36 dolphins) and near Beaufort, North Car-
olina in 1995 (n = 31 dolphins) (Hansen and Wells, 1996).
The bottlenose dolphin health assessment program ini-
tiated 17 years ago continues to evolve. Blood sampling for
health assessment was begun in Sarasota Bay in 1987 in order
to develop medical histories and track cases involving the
well-known Sarasota Bay residents, and to develop a baseline
for comparison with dolphins at other sites and held in
zoological park settings. With the advent of large-scale dol-
phin mortalities in the late 1980s and early 1990s, the vet-
erinary team developed a health evaluation system, assigning
a grade to each dolphin based on a clinical assessment. This
system was first applied in response to the Matagorda Bay
mortality event in 1992. Building upon this concept, a
NMFS-sponsored workshop was held in Sarasota in October
1993 to attempt to apply information on health parameters
for free-ranging bottlenose dolphins to the development of a
method for evaluating the health of dolphin populations.
The specific goals of the workshop were as follows:
1. Develop and refine a ‘‘grading system’’ for the health of
individual animals examined and sampled during the
annual Sarasota bottlenose dolphin capture–release
project, based on consideration of the full range of
health and condition parameters measured. The grading
system should be based on defensible, objective criteria;
2. Develop and refine a system to extrapolate the individ-
ual animal grades to a seasonal grade for the population
as a whole based on the animals sampled during a given
season;
3. Identify the indicators of greatest value in assessing the
overall health of an individual or population; and
4. Relate trends in population health grades to trends in
population parameters such as mortality or loss rates,
natality, and fecundity.
Table 1. Data Sources for Development of Health Assessment
Protocol of Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Sarasota
Bay, Florida
Collected from Sarasota
Data Bay dolphins since
Blood chemistry and hematology 1987
Microbiology 1990
Results of physical examinations 1984
Sex, age, morphometrics, life history 1984
Body condition: weight, 1986
girth, blubber depth
Diagnostic ultrasound examination 1990
Results of necropsies performed 1985
by Mote Marine Laboratory
Population vital rates 1980
Behavior: ranging and social patterns 1970
Blubber biopsy wedges 1997
Blood/milk for contaminant analyses 1988
Urinalysis 1993
The workshop participants, including marine mammal
veterinarians, an epidemiologist, and biologists specializing
in life history, behavioral ecology, physiological ecology,
and microbiology considered and integrated the following
kinds of data in their evaluation of the health of the indi-
vidual dolphins and the Sarasota Bay dolphin community
(Table 1). Records for each individual dolphin were com-
piled, sorted, summarized, and distributed to a set of
experienced marine mammal veterinarians in advance of
the workshop (Rhinehart et al., 1991, 1992). The veteri-
narians graded each of the dolphins based on all of the
available information from each capture. The grading sys-
tem evaluated each animal as if it were a captive dolphin
with access to regular veterinary attention.
At the workshop, the biologists worked with the vet-
erinarians to evaluate their grading system, and to identify
the most informative health parameters of those that have
been or could be measured regularly and reliably in the
field. The authors evaluated a variety of potential assess-
ment parameters, including 56 blood hematology and
chemistry measures, weight, girths, blubber depths, and the
presence or absence of 80 microorganisms. These param-
eters were evaluated relative to the sex, age, and repro-
ductive condition of each individual, and the type of
sample (serum vs. plasma) and the analytical laboratory
used (Specialty Veterinary Laboratory Services [SVLS],

Santa Cruz, CA vs. SmithKline-Beecham, locations
throughout the US). From this list, we selected a set of the
most indicative parameters that allowed us to develop a
quantitative measure of the health of each individual. A
mean annual health score for the population as a whole was
calculated. The scores provided a set of tentative baseline
values for comparison with other populations.
HEALTH ASSESSMENT SCORING SYSTEM
The workshop participants developed a dolphin health
assessment scoring system. The ontogeny of the system
involved several steps. In its initial form, the concept of an
‘‘expert system’’ in which health grades were assigned
subjectively by the members of a team of marine mammal
veterinarians was explored. The need for a replicable,
objective system led to the integration of the clinical
experience approach with a mathematical approach. As a
result, an algorithm using a weighted scoring for values of a
selected set of 19 blood parameters was derived (Table 2).
The 19 blood parameters were selected on the basis of their
stand-alone value as indicators of dolphin health and po-
tential facility of replicable measurement across field sites.
‘‘Normal’’ baseline ranges were established for each
parameter, based on the clinical experience of the veteri-
narians and on the values obtained from the free-ranging
Sarasota dolphins. Values presented in the ‘‘0 Points’’
column of Table 2 were considered ‘‘normal.’’ Each
parameter was scored on the basis of its deviation from
‘‘normal’’ range. Scores were weighted according to the
relative medical importance of the particular parameter, as
assigned by the veterinarians. Each animal then received a
grade that was based on the sum of the point scores for
each of the parameters. The four possible grades included:
A (0–4 points)—The dolphin is apparently in good health,
with no obvious medical problems or need for follow-up
medical attention.
B (5–9 points)—The dolphin would benefit from a follow-
up veterinary examination.
C (10–19 points)—The dolphin would benefit from
medical treatment.
D (>20 points)—The dolphin has a serious medical
problem that requires treatment.
Several parameters were considered to be duplicative
and therefore interchangeable if necessary. For example,
Bottlenose Dolphins as Ecosystem Sentinels 249
only one of alanine amino transferase (ALT), gamma
glutamyl transferase (GGT), and aspartate aminotransfer-
ase (AST) was used for any given score (the highest value of
the three was used), but in the absence of any two of these,
the other was acceptable for scoring. The higher of the
values for hemoglobin and hematocrit was selected. Simi-
larly, the total leukocyte count (WBC) would have dupli-
cated scoring of the leukocyte differential, so only the
differential was scored.
The reproductive condition, age class, and analytical
laboratory affected some variables. Hemoglobin and
hematocrit were scored differently for lactating vs. non-
lactating females. Alkaline phosphatase (AP) was scored
differently for calves/juveniles, subadults, and adults.
Comparisons of health scores between age classes within
genders found a significant difference (P < 0.01) only be-
tween adult and subadult females, with subadults exhibit-
ing better health (mean = 3.0, SD = 2.70, n = 25 vs. adult
female mean = 5.6, SD = 4.64, n = 38).
Consistent differences between the two laboratories
used prior to the workshop (SVLS and SmithKline-Bee-
cham) led to different scoring for albumin, globulin, and
bilirubin. SmithKline-Beecham was selected as our stan-
dard laboratory due to widespread availability of linked
laboratories throughout the U.S. However, after 1995
SmithKline-Beecham no longer performed analyses on
veterinary samples. Subsequent analyses were performed by
a variety of laboratories (University of Miami, Sea World,
Cornell University) in an attempt to find one that was both
easily accessible and would perform reliably all 19 of the
analyses required by the scoring system. For example, some
laboratories would not perform analyses for iron or
erythrocyte sedimentation rate. As a result, the data pre-
sented here reflect only the 1990–1995 period during which
a consistent laboratory (SmithKline-Beecham) performed
all 19 analyses.
EVALUATION OF THE HEALTH SCORING
SYSTEM
The 1990–1995 dataset yielded 145 health scores from 80
different dolphins. These were collected during seven
sampling sessions: June of 1990 (n = 20), 1991 (n = 29),
1992 (n = 27), 1993 (n = 17), 1994 (n = 24), and 1995 (n =
13), and during February of 1993 (n = 6) and 1994 (n = z9).
In total, 130 scores were from summer samplings and 15
were from winter samplings. Sampled dolphins included
250 Randall S. Wells et al.

Table 2. Baseline Blood Values, and Points Scored If Outside of the Baseline Values of Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in
Sarasota Bay, Floridaa

Points

Parameterb Units 0 2 5 10
1 Sodium mEq/L 140–159 160–165 135–139, >165 <135
2 Potassium mEq/L 2.0–4.4 4.5–4.9 ‡5.0
3 Phosphorus mg/dl <7.0 ‡7.0 (if adult)
4a Albumin (SVLS) g/dl ‡3.5 <3.5
4b Albumin (SmithKline) g/dl ‡3.0 <3.0
5a Globulin (SVLS) g/dl 2.0–3.5 1.5–1.9 <1.5
5b Globulin (SmithKline) g/dl ‡3.0 2.5–2.9 <2.5
6a Bilirubin (SVLS) mg/dl 0.1–0.9 ‡1.0
6b Bilirubin (SmithKline) mg/dl 0.1–0.4 0.5–0.9 ‡1.0
7 Alkaline phosphatase—AP U/L
7a Calf/juvenile (0–4.9 years) U/L ‡150 <150
7b Subadult (5–11.9 years) U/L ‡100 <100
7c Adult (12 + years) U/L ‡50 <50
8a Alanine aminotransferase—ALT (or GGT or AST) U/L <40 40–49 50–99 ‡100
8b Aspartate aminotransferase—AST (or GGT or ALT) U/L <300 300–399 400–999 ‡1000
8c Gamma glutamyl transferase—GGT (or ALT or AST) U/L <30 30–49 ‡50
9 Blood urea nitrogen—BUN mg/dl <70 70–90 >90
10 Creatinine mg/dl <2.6 2.6–2.9 ‡3.0
11a Hemoglobin—Hb (or hematocrit) g/dl ‡13 12.0–12.9 <12.0
11b Lactating female g/dl ‡12.8 11.8–12.7 <11.8
11c Hematocrit—HCT (or hemoglobin) % ‡40 38–39 <38
11d Lactating female % ‡39 37–38 <37
12 Mature neutrophils—Segs /mm3 2000–5999 6000–6499 6500–9999 ‡10,000
13 Band neutrophils—Bands /mm3 <500 500–999 ‡1000
14 Lymphocytes—Lymphs /mm3 ‡1000 800–999 <800
15 Monocytes—Monos /mm3 <400 ‡400
16 Eosinophils—Eos /mm3 <5000 ‡5000
17 Plateletsc /mm3 ‡75,000 50–74,999 <50,000
18 Ironc lg/dl ‡100 80–99 <80
19 Erythrocyte sedimentation rate—ESRc mm/hour <50 ‡50

SVLS, Specialty Veterinary Laboratory Services; SmithKline, SmithKline-Beecham.

a
Health grades are the sums of the scores for each parameter: A = 0–4; B = 5–9; C = 10–19; D = ‡20. Only first capture values were used if recaptured during a
single year.
b
Consider relative to age, body condition, and reproductive condition.
c
Parameters measured since 1990.

both genders (67 male vs. 63 female), and ages ranged from
1 to 49 years. Age classes were assigned on the basis of age
and/or reproductive status (adult = has given birth, has
reproductive hormone concentrations indicating maturity,
or >10 years old). Samples were classified as 52 from
juveniles and calves (27 male vs. 25 female) and 78 from
adults (40 male vs. 38 female). Population health score
means exhibited a high level of consistency from year to
year during the period of our study, but the variance sur-
rounding these annual means was high (Table 3).
Possible relationships between dolphin health scores
and mortality patterns, as one extreme of health, were
examined using three measures: 1) total number of Tursiops
strandings recovered by Mote Marine Laboratory, as an
indication of health conditions across a broad geographic
area; 2) losses of known Sarasota residents of all ages; and

Table 3. Summer Health Scores of the Bottlenose Dolphin
(Tursiops truncatus) Population in Sarasota Bay, Florida, 1990–
1995
Year Mean SE Ranges n
1990 4.9 1.08 0–17 20
1991 4.0 0.85 0–20 29
1992 5.3 0.97 0–16 27
1993 5.5 1.12 0–19 17
1994 6.5 1.45 0–32 24
1995 4.5 1.27 0–12 13
3) losses of known Sarasota residents of >1 year of age (the
category most directly comparable to the set of animals
sampled for the health assessment scoring). No correlation
was found between the total number of strandings and
health scores for any given year. Positive correlations were
obtained between annual health scores and losses of known
Sarasota dolphins when 19 blood parameters were con-
sidered, but the correlations were not statistically signifi-
cant. When only 16 blood parameters were considered
(reflecting limitations provided by some laboratories), no
correlation was found. These results suggest that the health
index might benefit from further refinement through the
inclusion of additional parameters.
Significant seasonal variations in health scores were
identified for Sarasota Bay dolphins, and these matched the
seasonal patterns for mortality and physiological measures.
The mean summer population 19-parameter health score for
the period 1990–1995 (mean = 5.5, SD = 5.89, n = 65) was
significantly (P < 0.01) greater than the mean winter health
score for the same period (mean = 3.3, SD = 2.02, n = 15),
scoring each individual only once. The season of highest
health scores (=poorest health), spring/summer, corre-
sponds to the period of highest mortality of Sarasota Bay
dolphins as indicated from recovery of carcasses of known
residents (Fig. 1). Similarly, higher metabolic rates were
measured for Sarasota Bay dolphins during summer than in
winter (Costa et al., 1995), suggesting the occurrence of
thermal stress during summer associated with difficulties in
dumping heat that might contribute to health challenges.
The summer period of poorer health follows a seasonal de-
crease in blubber thickness. The possibility that this decrease
may involve the mobilization of stored contaminants, with
potential health consequences, warrants further attention.
The validity of the scoring system approach was further
supported anecdotally by several case histories. For example,
Bottlenose Dolphins as Ecosystem Sentinels 251
Figure 1. Seasonal distribution of bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops
truncatus) strandings investigated by Mote Marine Laboratory in
the Sarasota Bay area during 1990-1995. Residents are known from
long-term research based on individual identification (n = 17
residents).
FB19, an adult female, maintained a ‘‘B’’ grade during five
samplings from 1988 through 1991. She declined to a ‘‘C’’ in
June 1993, and died, at 50 years of age, in January 1994.
FB97, a dependent female calf, received a ‘‘C’’ score in June
1989, and disappeared several months later. FB206, a
stranded adult male, arrived at Mote Marine Laboratory in
June 1993 with a score of 42 (‘‘D’’). He underwent medical
treatment for 107 days, before being reintroduced to the
wild. Upon release, his score had improved to 9 (‘‘B’’) and he
was observed in the wild 6 months later in apparently good
condition. Thus, the scoring system appears to accurately
track individual medical conditions in at least some cases.
FUTURE OF THE HEALTH SCORING SYSTEM
Though the scoring system in its current form appears to
roughly reflect dolphin health, its general applicability is
hampered by several factors. Interlaboratory variability is
perhaps the most serious problem associated with the
blood parameter health scoring method. The requirement
of using the same laboratory/analytical techniques in order
to be able to identify trends over time within a site/indi-
vidual or to make valid comparisons across sites has been
problematic. Variability due to different analytical tech-
niques across laboratories, changes in laboratory availabil-
ity, and the occasional lack of availability of analyses of
252 Randall S. Wells et al.
some of the critical blood parameters can negate the utility
of this additive approach. Missing values potentially bias
the health scores downward. The blood parameter algo-
rithm also suffers from a lack of independence between
some of the variables, and the possible effects of weighting
variables remain to be evaluated.
The high variance associated with the scores resulting
from the current health assessment scoring system seems to
indicate that the approach may lack the sensitivity to
identify trends over time at the population level. We are
examining several potential solutions to this problem. One
refinement might be to consider adding or replacing health
parameters, incorporating only the most sensitive mea-
sures. The initial approach of limiting the scoring system to
blood parameters was in part an attempt to obtain objec-
tive, quantitative, comparable measures regardless of the
specific composition of the investigating team or the
location of the research site. However, it may be advisable
to identify a subset of blood parameters of clinical signifi-
cance that can be measured most reliably across laborato-
ries, and supplement these with additional health or body
condition measures that can also be replicated from site to
site. For example, age/sex/season-specific weights, girths,
and blubber depths could provide important measures of
body condition. Measures of thermal characteristics from
colonic temperatures, surface temperatures, heat flux, or
thermal imaging could provide indications of health status
(Meagher, 2001). Measures of immunocompetency could
also be incorporated (Lahvis et al., 1993; Erickson et al.,
1995). Integration of data about skin lesions could be useful
as well (Wilson et al., 1999). Ultrasonic imaging of organs
and microbiological cultures give insights into health, but
the means to quantify these data for inclusion in a scoring
system remain to be developed.
As we begin to understand more about the effects of
environmental contaminants on dolphin health (O’Shea,
1999), incorporating measures of contaminant loads or
biomarkers of contaminants or their effects becomes
increasingly important. Even in a relatively nonindustrial-
ized area such as Sarasota Bay, inorganic and organic
pollutants may be health factors. Rawson et al. (1993, 1995)
related mercury-associated pigment granules and liver
disease to concentrations of mercury in stranded dolphins
from the Sarasota Bay area. Lahvis et al. (1995) reported an
apparent relationship between increasing concentrations of
organochlorine contaminants (PCBs and DDT metabolites)
and decreasing Sarasota Bay male immune system function
as indicated by lymphocyte proliferation, but their sample
size was small. Though as yet unconfirmed, one possible
explanation for the high rate of first-born calf mortality in
Sarasota Bay (Wells et al., 2001, 2003) may relate to transfer
of environmental contaminants from mother to calf, as
described by Cockcroft et al. (1989) for dolphins in South
Africa. Vedder (1996) provided some support for this
hypothesis in her findings from analyses of Sarasota Bay
dolphin milk from females of different ages and repro-
ductive histories, in which she noted apparent depuration
of contaminants. Similarly, Küss (1998) found elevated
PCB and chlorinated pesticide concentrations in carcasses
of young Sarasota Bay resident dolphins followed by a
decline in maturing individuals, and subsequent increase as
males aged, and decline or steady state at lower concen-
trations as females reared offspring. Schwacke et al. (2001)
and Wells et al. (2003) identified a similar pattern from
analysis of blubber samples from living Sarasota Bay dol-
phins. Significant challenges remain in identifying the
specific chemicals, congeners, concentrations, interactive
effects, and biomarkers (e.g., DNA damage: Gauthier et al.,
1999) of greatest importance to dolphin health, and the
most appropriate and accessible sites for sample collection,
recognizing that contaminants are not distributed uni-
formly through blubber (O’Shea, 1999).
The authors are also beginning to approach the con-
cept of population health assessment from a different
quantitative perspective. Given that large-scale health
problems typically do not affect all members of a popula-
tion to the same degree or at the same time, it may be more
appropriate to examine health scores by looking in detail at
individuals that are outliers, rather than at population
means. Changes in the proportions of outliers over time
may provide a more meaningful and sensitive evaluation of
population trends and risks, as the outliers themselves may
serve as potential sentinels of environmental problems.
This approach would also eliminate the need to compare
specific parameter values directly from year to year, as the
most important parameter comparisons would be within-
year. It should be possible to test this approach both within
the Sarasota Bay reference population and across study sites
as expanded bottlenose dolphin health assessment pro-
grams are planned for the next several years.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Veterinary examinations and sampling were conducted
through the support of the National Marine Fisheries

Service, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the
National Science Foundation, Earthwatch Institute, Dol-
phin Quest, and the Chicago Zoological Society. W.
Jarman, J. (Vedder) Greene, and associates conducted
preliminary analyses of contaminant levels in blood and
milk samples. The participation of J. Buck, C. Driscoll, J.
Reif, and G. Worthy in the 1993 Bottlenose Dolphin Health
Assessment Workshop provided valuable input for devel-
opment and evaluation of the approach. The field sampling
in Sarasota Bay benefited greatly from the efforts of B.
Irvine, L. Fulford, K. Urian, S. Hofmann, K. Hull, and S.
Nowacek, along with a host of collaborating researchers
and volunteer dolphin handlers. This research was con-
ducted under Scientific Research Permits Nos. 417, 655,
945, and 522-1569 issued by the National Marine Fisheries
Service.
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