CHAPTER 5.

APPENDIX D Technical simulations

APPENDIX D

TECHNICAL SIMULATIONS

Simulation is an essential tool in the development and verification of system

properties and performance. The STDMA/VDL Mode 4 Performance Simulator (SPS)
has been used extensively in the development and validation of VDL Mode 4 SARPs
and in various international projects to investigate the performance of VDL Mode 4 in
support of ADS-B. This appendix includes a description of the SPS and provides
examples of important simulation results to illustrate the use of technical simulations.

Document control

Version Status Date Page(s) affected Notes

0.1 28 MAY 2001 REVIEW ISSUE

1.3 27 AUG 2001 All Material added

1.4 12 SEP 2001 Minor additions

2.0 Issued 19 SEP 2001 ISSUE II

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APPENDIX D

TECHNICAL SIMULATIONS

Table of contents

D.1 INTRODUCTION 1
D.2 STDMA/VDL MODE 4 PERFORMANCE SIMULATOR (SPS) 1
D.2.1 SPS overview 1
D.2.2 Simulation inputs and outputs 2
D.2.3 Modelling of physical layer effects 3
D.2.4 Operational scenarios modeled with SPS 3
D.2.5 Supplementary information 4
D.3 SIMULATIONS 4
D.3.1 VDL mode 4 performance in support of ADS-B in
high-density scenarios 4
D.3.1.1 Scenario descriptions 5
D.3.1.2 Technical assumptions 5
D.3.1.3 Results 6
D.3.1.3.1 Slot utilization 6
• Core European Scenario 6
• LA Basin Scenario 6
• Extended LA Basin scenario 7
D.3.1.3.2 MASPS requirements 7
• Effective update period and acquisition range 7
• ATC surveillance 10
D.3.1.3.3 Slot re-use ratio 12
D.3.1.3.4 Channel loading characteristics 14
• Optimal channel loading 14
• Robustness to overload and graceful degradation 14
• Effectiveness of the slot selection algorithm 16
D.3.2 SPS simulations of timing errors 16
D.3.2.1 Introduction 16
D.3.2.2 Technical context and conclusions 16

REFERENCES 19

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D.1 INTRODUCTION
The STDMA/VDL Mode 4 Performance Simulator (SPS) has been used extensively
in the development and validation of VDL Mode 4 SARPs and in various international
projects to investigate the performance of VDL Mode 4 in support of ADS-B. For
instance, the SPS simulation tool has been used to;
• demonstrate compliance with VDL Mode 4 SARPs;
• analyse system behaviour under certain conditions such as signal
interference from CCI and ACI and the hidden terminal situation (see
Chapter 5 Section 5.9.3.1);
• analyse the effects of timing errors on link synchronisation and slot
separation;
• determine the expected performance with regard to message throughput
and error rates under various channel loadings;
• demonstrate compliance with ADS-B MASPS requirements;
• determine channel requirements to support ADS-B in different traffic
scenarios.

Technical simulations do not obviate the need for real world trials and
demonstrations. However, a simulation tool is fundamental for analysing system
behaviour without actually building the system, and allows alternative solutions to
be implemented with limited software modifications. Obviously, system behaviour
and performance in future traffic scenarios in which a large number of transmitters
are present can only be tested by simulations. It is not always possible to model a
full set of VDL Mode 4 and scenario properties, but with careful modelling adapted to
the particular objectives it is possible to arrive at conclusive and representative
results.

This appendix provides a description of the SPS and an overview of important

simulation results.

D.2 STDMA/VDL MODE 4 PERFORMANCE SIMULATOR (SPS)

This section gives a brief description of SPS. For a more comprehensive description,
refer to the SPS User Manuals.

D.2.1 SPS Overview

The SPS simulates the VDL Mode 4 Digital Link and STDMA protocol. It was
designed to investigate the interplay of multiple users in an environment accessing
the digital link, making reservations, and assigning resources with the distributed
algorithms unique to VDL Mode 4.

SPS models two of the reserved access protocols defined in SARPs:

• Periodic Broadcast Reservation;
• Directed Request Reservation.

The Periodic Broadcast Reservation is the main protocol used for autonomous ADS-
B operations and accurately models the steady-state performance of VDL Mode 4 for
ADS-B. Only the Periodic Broadcast Reservation protocol was used in the
simulations outlined in this appendix.

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The SPS was developed by the Swedish CAA with the objective of validating the
fundamental data link protocols and slot allocation features of STDMA. For the
purpose of enabling the SPS to be used more extensively in the validation of SARPs,
the EUROCONTROL Experimental Centre (EEC) developed an “Enhanced SPS” [3],
which supports incremental broadcast and random access protocols on top of the
periodic broadcast protocol supported by SPS1. EUROCONTROL’s main objective
was to gain confidence in the SPS as an appropriate tool to measure performance
and capacity of VDL Mode 4. A series of simulations were done using the enhanced
SPS under a variety of scenarios to exercise the newly added features, and to
compare with the standard SPS. The results were verified by theoretical analysis.
EUROCONTROL also made a thorough review of the SPS source code, and
identified the SARPs paragraphs which have been implemented in the SPS, those
which are not supported, and those where there are interpretation ambiguities.

D.2.2 Simulation inputs and outputs

SPS is data driven and the user can set a number of parameters in order to define
the behaviour of the VDL Mode 4 algorithms and define the scenario. Some
parameters can be randomly distributed giving a Monte-Carlo simulation and
statistical output.

Examples of "VDL Mode 4 parameters" are:

• ADS-B (sync bursts) report period. This can be different for each user
(aircraft or ground station) and altered during the simulation. Each aircraft
may be specified to operate in autonomous or ground controlled mode.
• Slot reservation parameters like dither range, pre-announce times, slot
reservation hold times, and slot re-use ("Robin-Hood") related parameters.
These are common for all users in the simulation.
• Slots per superframe, e.g. 4500 for 19.2 kbps radios. This is common for
all users in the simulation.
• Number of quarantined slots available for ground stations and aircraft
under ground-control.

Examples of “scenario parameters” are:

• Aircraft data, i.e. the total number, their positions and altitudes, and their
trajectories. Aircraft may also be given randomly generated tracks, top
speed, maximum altitudes etc. Aircraft dynamics are not modelled, e.g.
turns are instantaneous.
• Ground station data, i.e. the total number and their positions. Ground
stations can be distributed in the scenario randomly or specifically. For
each ground station, the antenna height over sea level and position
reporting on/off can be set.
No terrain model is used, however earth curvature is taken into account for
transmission propagation calculations.

SPS does not accurately reflect the situation during the entry of new users (net
entry). The scenarios presented in this appendix, therefore, are based on the steady
state performance of VDL Mode 4 ADS-B.

1
EUROCONTROL has supported the development and validation process of the VDL Mode
4 SARPs and is considering the use of VDL Mode 4 for ADS-B applications, such as
air/ground surveillance, airborne separation assurance and airport surface movement control.

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SPS generates results in a number of on-line plots and output files, for example:
• General log file;
• Kinematic log file;
• Transfer probability matrix;
• Transmission log file;
• Specific user performance;
• Histogram output file.

D.2.3 Modelling of physical layer effects

The physical layer of SPS models the following effects:
• Message garble due to propagation delays. This describes the way that a
distant message may span two slots when it is received.
• Co-Channel Interference (CCI). This models the way that a stronger
(desired) signal can be successfully discriminated over a weaker
(undesired) one. The parameter is adjustable to reflect the use of different
modulation schemes with different physical properties. CCI calculations
only consider the closest undesired user, and do not consider the
increased power of additional, more distant, undesired users. The CCI
value is altered by setting the reuse_ratio parameter in one if the input files
• Message error rate (MER). This models the way that the probability of
correct reception of a message reduces with distance because the bit error
rate (BER) increases with distance. The model uses a ‘probability of
successful message reception’ function that varies with distance. The
function gives a high probability of successful reception up to a nominal
range. Above this range, the probability of reception reduces.
• Line of sight (LOS) limitations. The effect of the radio horizon is modelled
using a spherical earth model, with a 4/3 earth radius assumption to
account for VHF signal refraction in the lower atmosphere. The model
recognises that users beyond the radio horizon and are not within LOS of
each other.
• The probability of a user successfully receiving a particular message is
calculated from the LOS and MER effects, taking into account propagation
delays and the effects of undesired interfering signals (using the CCI
effect).
• The model assumes a proper aircraft installation with no adjacent channel
interference and does not take antenna patterns and aircraft orientation
into account. Such effects are however assumed to be averaged into the
MER model and this will be continuously evaluated as data from more
detailed simulations, equipment test and flight trials is being available.

D.2.4 Operational scenarios modelled with SPS

SPS is only used to simulate the performance of an ADS-B service using position
reporting aircraft and ground stations - other possible functions, such as TIS-B and
FIS-B, are not included. The scenarios modelled assume 100% aircraft equipage
with ADS-B. Non-ADS-B services such as ATN point-to-point communications are
not modelled.

A fully implemented VDL Mode 4 ADS-B system would probably use additional
channels to provide more services. The configuration could for example include:

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• Two global signalling channels (GSCs) for ADS-B reporting, as stated in

the SARPs.
• Local signalling channels to support the ADS-B application for approach,
departure and ground operations, e.g. parallel runway monitoring and
ground movement surveillance.
• Local signalling channels for Terminal Areas in very busy airspace if
required.
• Additional channels for other non ADS-B applications if implemented in
VDL Mode 4.
However, these limitations are not critical since the main aim of SPS is to investigate
the performance of the basic ADS-B service.

Only one VHF channel is modelled in the simulator. For an operational VDL Mode 4
ADS-B system, it is intended to use two channels for basic ADS-B. Each aircraft
reports at half the nominal rate on each channel. The impact of using two channels
can be determined with the simulator by modelling one channel at a time. In most
cases, the channels will have very similar performance.

D.2.5 Supplementary information

SPS is developed in Matlab and runs under Windows and UNIX. A scenario such as
the Core European scenario (representing 30 minutes of simulation time) takes
approximately 10 hours to execute on a Pentium-III 500 Mhz Xeon (512 MB RAM)
and 24-30 hours on a Pentium-II 300MHz (256MB RAM). It results in 1-2 Mbytes of
output result data.

D.3 SIMULATIONS
This section summarises important technical simulations using the SPS tool. The
conclusions described in this appendix only represent a subset of the full set of
results described in the source documents. They should be seen as illustrative
examples of what has been achieved by technical simulations.

D.3.1 VDL Mode 4 performance in support of ADS-B in high-density

scenarios
The simulations described below were conducted in support of the SARPs validation
activities of VDL Mode 4. The results were also mapped against ADS-B MASPS
requirements as stated in RTCA/DO-242. It should be noted that the MASPS are
process of being revised.

An important consideration of VDL Mode 4 is its ability to meet future requirements

on ADS-B capacity in high traffic density areas. Three different scenarios have been
developed, which are believed to be representative for maximum density situations in
Europe and the US up to the 2005 timeframe. These scenarios were originally
developed by EUROCONTROL and MITRE respectively. The “Extended LA Basin
Scenario” described below was developed for the purpose of the SPS simulations in
order to overcome limitations in the basic “LA Basin Scenario”.

A similar set of simulations was conducted within the TLAT (Technical Link
Assessment Team) activity in the Safe Flight 21 project for the purpose of comparing
the VDL Mode 4, Universal Access Transceiver (UAT) and Mode S data links. The
scenarios used in these simulations were developed to replicate projected traffic
volumes in the 2015-2020 timeframe and make use of further extensions to both the
LA (~2700 a/c) and the Core European (XCE with ~1940 a/c) scenarios. The

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massive (and possibly unrealistic) traffic volumes in the TLAT scenarios called for
additional ADS-B channels compared to the two Global Signalling Channels capable
of supporting ADS-B in the simulations described below. The TLAT simulations are
not further addressed in this appendix. Reference is made to Appendix B to this
chapter in which the use of both Local Signalling Channels (LSC) and GSCs in
support of ADS-B and other data link applications is described.

D.3.1.1 Scenario descriptions

• “Core Europe Scenario”. This scenario is based on predicted “worst
case” traffic levels in 2005 in an area encompassing the London,
Amsterdam, Brussels, Paris and Frankfurt TMAs. The size of the area is
300NM x 300NM. The number of aircraft in this scenario was 838, all
airborne.
• “LA Basin Scenario”. The Los Angeles Basin is defined as a cylinder with
120 NM diameter and a height of 40,000 ft. The traffic volume is based on
a snapshot of a representative traffic situation in the 2005 timeframe. It
contained 743 aircraft, all airborne.
• “Extended LA Basin Scenario”. In addition to the traffic volume and
distribution in the LA Basin scenario, this scenario also included 257
aircraft in adjacent sectors with a random distribution between 60 and
200NM of the scenario centre. This scenario was developed in order to
replicate the scenario described in the RTCA MASPS document (see
Chapter 3 Section 3.5.5.3 and Appendix B to Chapter 3).

The European scenario is different from the LA Basin scenarios. Whereas a very
high percentage of the traffic in the LA Basin is General Aviation (GA), the highest
density European areas generally contain more air transport (AT) aircraft. Because of
this, the altitude distribution is also different, with more aircraft at high altitudes in the
European scenario. Moreover, the traffic is spread over a much larger area in the
European scenario. This means that this scenario tests the re-use of slots in a wide
area. Slot re-use is an important aspect of VDL Mode 4.

D.3.1.2 Technical assumptions

• The number of VDL Mode 4 ground stations was five in the European (one
at each major airport) and six in the LA Basin scenarios;
• Two GSCs were used in all scenarios. No LSCs were used;
• All users operated in autonomous mode using the periodic broadcast
protocol, i.e. there was no ground controlled aircraft;
• Reporting rates in the European scenario were:
- 10 s used by ground stations and by aircraft outside the TMAs. This
nominal rate is distributed over two GSCs, resulting in an update rate per
channel of 20 s;
- 5 s used by aircraft in the TMAs. Distributed over two GSCs, this means
an update rate per channel of 10 s;
• Reporting rates in the LA scenarios were:
- 7.5 s by all aircraft and ground stations, i.e. an update rate per channel of
15 s when distributed over two GSCs;
• The signal re-use ratio was 3.

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A number of variations of these and other parameters were simulated, such as

different ADS-B reporting rates, different number of ground stations and different re-
use ratios.

D.3.13 Results
D.3.1.3.1 Slot utilisation
The slot utilisation obtained with the three different scenarios is summarised in Table
D-1.
Table D-1 Slot utilisation for the three scenarios

Scenario Core European LA Basin Extended LA Basin

No. of channels 2 GSCs 2 GSCs 2 GSCs
No. of aircraft 838 743 1000
Update period 5 s in terminal areas 7.5 s 7.5 s in LA Basin
10 s en-route 10 s en-route
2
Overall load 2 x 85% 2 x 67% 2 x 84%
Slots with single 99.5% 99.8% 97.9%
transmissions
Slots with multiple 38 of 7658 12 slots of 5980 160 of 7522
transmissions

Note that ground station transmissions are included in the results presented in Table
D-1 (occupying approximately 1% of transmissions).
According to VDL Mode 4 validation documentation, update periods of 5 s in TMAs
and 10 s in en-route airspace shall be maintained with a 98% success probability per
message.
The percentage transmission in slots with a single message is not the same as the
probability of success per message but may be linked to it. It is important to
distinguish between slot re-use and slot collision for VDL Mode 4, i.e. between
intentional slot re-use, and unintentional slot reuse. Slot re-use does not necessarily
mean that a message is “lost”.

Where the slot re-use is small at 1 or 2%, and channel load is below 100%, as is the
case for the scenario simulation results in Table D-1, the slot re-use is likely to be
intentional and subjected to discrimination in most cases. Thus figures of 98 or 99%
of messages transmitted in slots with a single message mean that the VPCD
requirement of a 98% probability of success per message will be met whenever
physically possible.

Core European Scenario

99.5% of messages are transmitted in slots with a single message. This indicates
that a 98% probability of success per message will be achieved whenever physically
possible. It can therefore be concluded that the validation requirement is met for the
Core European scenario.

2
Per GSC.

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LA Basin Scenario
99.8% of messages are transmitted in slots with a single message. Thus again, a
98% probability of success per message will be achieved whenever physically
possible, and therefore this VPCD requirement is met for the LA Basin scenario.

Extended LA Basin Scenario

97.9% of messages are transmitted in slots with a single message, which is lower
than for the other two scenarios, and lower than the required 98%. However, this
scenario has 2.1% slot re-use. As discussed above, this will most likely be intentional
re-use, and the slot re-use will also be subjected to discrimination in most cases.
Therefore, despite the higher rate of slot re-use, this scenario should also meet the
98% validation requirement whenever physically possible.

D.3.1.3.2 MASPS requirements

Effective update period and acquisition range
The ADS-B MASPS requirements R3.9 and R3.10 specify the effective update
periods and the ranges over which these periods shall be met. These requirements
are summarised in Table 3.3-3 of the ADS-B MASPS document, and are illustrated in
Figure D-2.

Figure D-2 MASPS Update Period and Acquisition Range Requirements

40

35
Aid to Visual Conflict Separation Flight Path Deconfliction
30 Acquisition Aviodance and Assurance and Planning
Collision Sequencing (Head-on)
Avoidance
Update period (s)

25
24 24 24
MASPS 99th percentile
20

15
14
12 12 12
10 10
MASPS 95th percentile
7
6
5 5
3

0
3 10 20 40 90 120
Distance (nmi)

It should be noted that for flight path deconfliction planning, the 90 NM range is a
requirement while the 120 NM range is a “desirable” requirement only.

The MASPS update period and acquisition range requirements basically only apply
to the LA Basin scenario. Hence only a comparison of the MASPS requirements and
the simulation results with regard to effective update periods in the “basic” LA Basin
scenario are presented below. However, comments are provided on a comparison of

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the MASPS requirements with the simulation results from the Extended LA Basin and
Core Europe scenarios. [1] provides full details.

In Figure D-3, the effective update periods at the 95th percentile obtained from LA
Basin scenario simulations with 5 and 7.5 s nominal update rates are plotted against
the MASPS 95% requirements. It should be noted that this scenario only extends up
to a radius of 60 NM and therefore data in the plots only applies to user pair
distances up to approximately 110 NM (reached by some aircraft after 30 minutes
slow flying).

Figure D-3 LA Basin scenario 95th percentile effective update periods

vs. MASPS 95th percentile requirements
14

12
Effective Update Period (s)

10

MASPS 95th percentile requirements

4
Nominal update period 5s (100% load), 95th percentile

Nominal update period 7.5s (66% load), 95th percentile

2

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Distance (nmi)

The plot is the accumulated results for all messages and all users. All potential user
pairs are used to calculate a set of delivery probabilities per message, and stored in
the appropriate range bin (e.g. the 25 km range bin) for every message.

It can be seen from Figure D-3 that the MASPS 95% requirements are met for the LA
Basin scenario at distances greater than approximately 24 NM.

In Figure D-4, the effective update periods at the 99th percentile obtained from LA
Basin scenario simulations with 5 and 7.5 s nominal update rates are plotted against
the MASPS 99% requirements.

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Figure D-4 LA Basin scenario 99th percentile effective update periods

Vs. MASPS 99th percentile requirements
28

24
Effective Update Period (s)

20 MASPS 99th percentile requirements

Nominal update period 5s (100% load), 99th percentile
16 Nominal update period 7.5s (66%load), 99th percentile

12

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Distance (nmi)

For the purpose of meeting the MASPS requirements it is sufficient to use the result
for the simulation performed at 66% channel loading, shown by the lower curve in
Figure D-4. This shows that the MASPS 99% requirements are met for the LA Basin
scenario at distances greater than approximately 5 NM.

When applied to the Extended LA Basin scenario, the MASPS 95% requirement was
met at distances greater than approximately 32 NM, while the more important 99%
requirement was met at distances greater than 15 NM. It was also concluded that the
delivery probability was very good with a data link load around 85%, that the
acquisition range considerably exceeds the range requirement in the ADS-B MASPS,
and that the 99% MASP requirement is met by a large margin at distances greater
than 20 NM.

When applied to the Core Europe scenario, the simulation results showed better
compliance than in the LA Basin scenarios with the ADS-B MASPS requirements on
effective update periods at shorter distances. This can be attributed to the fact that
there is a smaller number of users at low altitudes in the European airspace.

A comparison of the results between the Extended LA Basin and the Core Europe
scenarios is illustrated in Figure D-5. The figure also illustrates the better
performance at short ranges in the European scenario.

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Figure D-5 Comparison between Core European and Extended LA Basin

scenarios at 115% load at the 99th percentile, and MASPS 99th percentile
requirements

60
MASPS 99th percentile requirements
Core European nominal update period 5s (112%), 99th percentile
50 Extended LA Basin nominal update period 5s (116%), 99th percentile
Effective Update Period (s)

40

30

20

10

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
Distance (nmi)

Whereas the plots for the two scenarios were very similar at an 85% link load, the
performance at the illustrated 115% link load is better in the European scenario. The
reason for this is the large proportion of low-flying aircraft in the LA Basin scenario.
40% of the traffic volume in the LA Basin (out to 60 NM radius) is below 4,000 ft. In
an operational ADS-B implementation, a large proportion of these aircraft could
operate on LSCs.

ATC Surveillance
The Core Europe scenario was selected to illustrate simulation of ATS surveillance in
this appendix. Refer to [1] for details of the other scenarios. 98% of the transmitted
ADS-B messages were received by at least one of the five ground stations. See
Figure D-6.

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Figure D-6 Ground station reception of ADS-B messages (Core Europe)

100% 97%

90%
83%
80%
73%
70%
60%
% messages

60%

50%

40% 37%

30%

20%

10%

0%
1 2 3 4 5
Minmum number of ground stations receiving ADS-B messages

3% of messages were not received by any ground station. This was either because
there was a slot collision – two messages transmitted in the same slot resulting in
garbling at the ground station – or because the aircraft was out of line of sight of all
ground stations.

There was considerable redundancy in the ground network with over 60% of the
messages being received by four of the five ground stations. However, for two
reasons this is a lower redundancy than achieved with the LA scenarios:
• the separation between ground stations is greater than in the LA Basin
scenarios, because the Core Europe scenario covers a wider area;
• no attempt was made to optimise the position of the ground stations.

The ADS-B MASPS requires that at least 98% of the transmitted ADS-B be received
by at least one ground station. As shown in Figure D-6, this requirement is not met
with the five-station configuration tested. In order to investigate whether more ground
stations would allow the MASPS requirement to be met, the simulation was re-done
using four ground stations. The results are shown in Figure D-7.

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Figure D-7 Minimum number of ground stations receiving ADS-B messages in

Core European scenario with 4 additional ground stations

99%
100%

90% 87%

80% 76%

70% 67%
% messages

60% 55%

50% 46%

40%

30%
24%
20%

10%
3%
0.9%
0%
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Minmum number of ground stations receiving ADS-B messages

Figure D-7 shows that 99% of messages were received by at least one ground
station in the nine-station scenario, and therefore that 9 ground stations are sufficient
to enable the MASPS 98% reception requirement to be met.

In addition to increasing the number of ground stations, further improvements in ATC

surveillance may be achieved by optimising the locations of ground stations, and/or
by siting their antennas above ground level. The following general conclusions with
regard to ground stations could also be derived from the simulations:
• Coverage. This is the need to provide coverage to aircraft at very low
altitudes.
• Slot reuse. A network of geographically separated ground stations will
successfully receive messages from a greater number of users than a
single station and thus be able to pick up more transmissions even when
the slots are reused within LOS or channel is overloaded.
• Operational requirements. It may be desirable to use separate ground
stations for different operational services, for different airspaces or for
different service providers.
• Redundancy. Multiple ground stations can provide greater redundancy in
the case of hardware failure.

D.3.1.3.3 Slot re-use ratio (ref. Chapter 5 Section 5.5.6.1)

A slot re-use ratio of R allows a station A to communicate with station B, separated
by distance x, by re-using slots already reserved by another station C for
transmission to station D, a distance y away, provided that C is further than Rx from
B and that D is further than Ry from A (see Figure C-8).

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Figure D-8 Re-use ratio

Station D
Station B

y
x

Station C
Station A

Most of the simulations have used a re-use ratio R of 3, equivalent to a signal

difference of 10 dB. To check the effect on the results of the choice of the value of
the re-use ratio, a number of equivalent simulations of the Core European scenario
were performed with the re-use ratio set to 2, 3, 4, 8, and 10. The effect on the
delivery probability as a function of distance is shown in Figure D-9.

Figure D-9 Effect of different re-use ratios

0.99 RR 2 (6dB)
RR 3 (10dB)
RR 4 (12dB)
RR 8 (18dB)
0.97 RR 10 (20dB)
Delivery probability

0.95

0.93

0.91

0.89
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
Distance (km)

Figure C-9 shows that with the re-use ratio reduced to 2 there is an improvement in
the delivery probability up to a distance of about 200 km that equates to an increase
in range of 30-40 km. Reducing the re-use ratio in an overloaded scenario gives an
aircraft a better chance of broadcasting to other aircraft nearby because it is then
able to re-use slots from a greater proportion of the more distant aircraft.

An increase in re-use ratio decreases delivery probability. For a re-use ratio of 8-10
we see a major decrease up to 50km. The scenario size was not big enough get
accurate data above 50 km since there were very few user pairs 10x50km from each
other. It is however expected that the re-use ratio has most effect on the short-range
performance and that long-range performance is limited by propagation effects (i.e.
BER rather than slot re-use).

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D.3.1.3.4 Channel loading characteristics

Optimal channel loading

The VDL Mode 4 protocol allows stations to share slots when they are unable to find
free slots for transmission. The slot selection rules embodied in the Mode 4 standard
make possible slot sharing between pairs of distant aircraft, in which case the
transmissions of each aircraft can be heard by a reduced set of aircraft located close
to the aircraft. As the channel becomes more highly loaded, it becomes possible for
more than two aircraft to share a slot. There is little reduction in performance for
channel loads of up to 85-90%. At higher loads there is a “graceful” degradation in
simulated performance as an increasing number of transmissions share slots. See
Chapter 5 Section 5.5.6.1.
The slot sharing issue is investigated in more detail below.

Robustness to overload and graceful degradation

Figure D-10 illustrates the number of transmissions subject to slot sharing within LOS
for the Core Europe scenario.

Figure D-10 Transmissions subject to slot sharing within LOS for the Core
Europe scenario

9000

8000 >=3
2
7000 1

6000
Messages

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
VAL1011 (86%) Random (100%) Random (120%) VAL1010 (171%)
Scenario

At channel loads of 85%, most slots are occupied by single transmissions. This
confirms that below a channel load of between 85% and 90%, the system is limited
by propagation (BER) effects only. At higher channel loading, there is an increasing
number of dual and triple occupancy slots as stations are forced to share slots. This
results in the decrease in performance at longer range, since the transmissions in
shared slots will only be received by closer range aircraft.

Note that the VDL Mode 4 protocol favours selection of garbled slots before selection
of single occupancy slots. Hence a high proportion of single occupancy slots is
maintained even at high load and there is a relatively large population of triple (or
greater) occupancy slots (i.e. garbled slots become more garbled).

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CHAPTER 5. APPENDIX D Technical simulations

Figure D-11 illustrates transmissions subject to slot sharing within LOS for the LA
Basin scenario.

Figure D-11 Transmissions subject to slot sharing within LOS for the LA Basin
scenario

9000

8000 8
7
7000 6
5
6000 4
3
Messages

5000 2
1
4000

3000

2000

1000

0
LA1006 (66%) LA1001 (100%) LA1080 (199%)
Scenario

The results for the LA Basin show a high proportion of garbled slots at high loading. It
is believed that this is attributable to the small geographical range of the LA Basin
scenario.

As noted above, the VDL Mode 4 slot selection protocol will choose garbled slots
rather than slots with single occupancy. To understand the effect illustrated in Figure
D-11, it is necessary to look at the slot selection mechanism in more detail.

Stations that are close to one transmitter in a double occupancy slot have a high
chance of decoding the transmission because of favourable CCI conditions and
hence will perceive the slot as a single occupancy slot. This slot therefore has a
reduced chance of being selected for a transmission from a new station. Hence there
is a tendency to preserve dual occupancy slots that, because the reservation streams
move from time to time, have a good chance of “decaying” to become single
occupancy slots. Hence there is a strong generation mechanism for single
occupancy slots. This mechanism is responsible for maintaining the proportion of
single occupancy slots in the Core Europe scenario.

However, in the LA Basin scenario, all aircraft are located relatively close to each
other and there is a reduced probability that a dual occupancy slot will be regarded
as a single occupied slot by close range stations. Hence the mechanism to maintain
the supply of dual occupancy slots, and hence single occupancy slots, is reduced
and slots therefore tend to become more garbled, with a reduction in the number of
single occupancy slots.

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CHAPTER 5. APPENDIX D Technical simulations

Effectiveness of the slot selection algorithm

The following results highlight four key aspects of the slot selection algorithm:
• At low-medium channel loading, typically below 85%, there are sufficient
slots for each station to select a free slot. The result is that most slots are
single occupancy and there are very few garbled slots;
• At high channel loads, typically between 85% and 110%, stations begin to
intentionally share slots, i.e. choose slots using the “Robin Hood Principle”
in which slots occupied by distant users are selected for sharing;
• At channel overload, typically between 110% and 150%, the number of
slots with more than two transmissions increases. A high proportion of
single occupancy slots is maintained because CCI effects prevent some
dual occupancy slots being selected;
• At the highest channel overloads, or in cases where the population of
aircraft is compressed into a small geographic region, slots become more
highly garbled as the CCI effect becomes less effective;

D.3.2 SPS simulations of timing errors (ref. Chapter 5 Section 5.5.3)

D.3.2.1 Introduction
This section is a brief summary of conclusions drawn in the EUROCONTROL VDL
Mode 4 timing study completed in 1999. The objective of the study was to validate
the timing requirements in the SARPs and to provide guidance with regard to suitable
timing sources for future VDL Mode 4 implementations. The conclusions in this
appendix are limited to the effects of timing inaccuracies on the performance of VDL
Mode 4. The conclusions have been derived from the report [2].

D.3.2.2 Technical context and conclusions

VDL Mode 4 transmissions require an accurate time source synchronised with other
VDL Mode 4 stations to ensure that frames are transmitted at the correct time. Loss
or degradation of synchronisation between VDL Mode 4 stations will result in an
increase in error rates due to the increased likelihood of slot-to-slot garble.

Three timing modes are specified in the VDL Mode 4 SARPs:

• Primary: all airborne systems are synchronised to UTC to within 400 ns;
• Secondary: all airborne systems are synchronised to UTC to within 5
microseconds;
• Tertiary: A station shall be capable of maintaining time synchronization to
an estimate of the mean slot start times of a set of stations to within a two-
sigma value of 20 microseconds

The simulations of VDL Mode 4 performance were based on three different

scenarios. The scenarios used were the Core Europe scenario described earlier in
this appendix, the “Atlantic scenario” and a surface movement scenario. These
scenarios represent the range of aircraft densities, communications traffic loads and
air traffic control data link application performance requirements likely to be
encountered in future VDL Mode 4 systems.

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CHAPTER 5. APPENDIX D Technical simulations

Simulations were conducted using the SPS modified as required to enable the effects
of timing errors to be studied. A number of different error types were implemented to
reflect all the potential sources of error as follows:
• Random errors representing the inherent inaccuracy of a time source;
• Progressively increasing errors representing loss of synchronisation with a
primary time source;

• Progressively increasing errors which are periodically re-synchronised to

primary time, representing the situation where a station is deriving a
secondary timing reference from other stations that maintain primary time;
• Step function errors which may arise from a change from one time source
to another;
• Appearance and disappearance of error to give an idea of how well and
how fast the system responds to these changes.
• Re-synchronisation errors resulting from a distant station blocking
transmissions from a nearby station.

The simulations focused primarily on the Core Europe scenario as representing the
most demanding requirements both in terms of traffic density and in air traffic control
applications that would make use of VDL Mode 4.

For the Core Europe scenario, the simulations of random errors provided an
indication of the effects of errors in the primary time source. Although the magnitude
of this error was very large for some simulations, in many cases it only had a small
effect on the effective update period. It should be noted that the magnitude of the
random error will, in the majority of cases, be much smaller than the maximum
possible magnitude and the system would be expected to be more tolerant of this
type of error.

A potentially more serious problem is where a timing source progressively drifts

relative to UTC. Under these conditions the throughput was found to level out when
the error magnitude reaches approximately twice the guard delay, i.e. 2 x 1250 µs. It
was found that, in general, the drifting errors had a much greater effect on the
effective update period and at ranges of 90NM and greater, would significantly
reduce the effective update period.

The simulation of secondary timing showed that there was no reduction in

performance provided that at least one transmitter in line of sight of the other
transmitters was synchronised to primary time. The simulation of the step function
shows the expected instantaneous reduction in performance plus an additional
gradual reduction in throughput. The simulation of recovery from an error showed a
rapid improvement in performance and the system appears to be very stable against
short-term errors.

All of the simulations that were carried out for the Core Europe scenario were
completed for the Atlantic scenario and it was found to be very tolerant of timing
inaccuracy due to the low traffic density. Similarly, simulations of the Ground
scenario showed a significant tolerance to timing errors due to low traffic densities
and the short ranges.

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CHAPTER 5. APPENDIX D Technical simulations

A further error was simulated which considered the effect of timing inaccuracies in
distant transmitters blocking the transmissions from nearby transmitters. This was
found to reduce the effective update period at shorter ranges (up to 40 NM).

The simulations indicate that the VDL Mode 4 system is very tolerant of timing
inaccuracies. The robustness is primarily dependent upon data link load. At low
loading levels, it is extremely robust. It can also be concluded that it is more robust at
shorter range. This is an important characteristic as the primary concern is likely to
be in ensuring that reports are received from the closest transmitters when the
system is an a degraded mode.
It can also be concluded that, for the scenarios considered, the timing requirements
specified in the draft SARPs will not result in any loss of performance due to timing
inaccuracy.

As an appendix to the Timing error report an assessment was made of how timing
errors might affect the XCE (1942 a/c) scenario. During these simulations channel
management was used involving two GSCs and two RSCs. The results of the
substantially larger scenario indicate a high robustness of the system. The load of
each channel was around 90% compared to the medium density scenario, in which
the load was 112%, due to fewer channels.

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REFERENCES:

[1] SIMULATION OF ADS-B USING VDL MODE 4 IN THE LA BASIN AND

CORE EUROPEAN AIRSPACE. Version 3.0 24/6/99. Swedish Civil
Aviation Administration

[2] STUDY ON THE OPTIONS FOR TIME SYNCHRONISATION IN THE VDL

MODE 4 DATALINK SYSTEM. Final Report, Edition 1.0, December 1999.
EUROCONTROL EATMP.

[3] ENHANCED STDMA/VDL-4 PERFORMANCE SIMULATOR. VALIDATION.

Version 1.3 04/03/ 1999. ADS Studies and Trials Project, EUROCONTROL
Experimental Centre

VDL-4 SIMULATIONS. CORE EUROPE 2015 SCENARIO. Draft version

March 2001. EUROCONTROL ADS Programme. ADS-B Technology
Assessment Task. EUROCONTROL Experimental Centre

TECHNICAL LINK ASSESSMENT REPORT. February 2001

ADS-B Technical Assessment Team (TLAT). RTCA Free Flight Select
Committee. Safe Flight 21 Steering Committee/EUROCONTROL ADS
Programme Steering Group

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