CHAPTER ONE 1.

0 INTRODUCTION According to encyclopedia Britannica (2009), radiation from the sun capable of producing heat, causing chemical reactions or generating electricity. The sun is an extremely powerful energy source, and sunlight is by far the largest source of energy received by the Earth, but its intensity at the Earth s surface is actually because of the enormous radial spreading of radiation from the distant sun. A relatively minor additional loss is due to the Earths atmosphere and clouds, which absorb or scanner as much as 54 percent of the incoming sunlight. Yet the total amount of solar energy incident on Earth is vastly in excess of the worlds current and anticipated energy requirement. If suitably diffused source has the potential to satisfy all future energy needs, in the 21st century solar energy is expected to become increasing attractive as an energy resource because of its inexhaustible supply and its no pollution character, in stark contrast to the finite fossil fuel coal, petroleum and natural gas. The sunlight reaches the around consist of nearly 50 percent visible light, 45 percent infrared radiation and smaller amount of ultraviolet and other forms of electromagnetic radiation. This radiation can be converted either into thermal energy (heat) or into electrical energy, though the former is easier to accomplish. Two main types of device are used to capture solar energy and convert it to thermal energy; plat collectors and concentrating collectors. Because the intensity of solar radiation at the earths surface is so low both types of collectors must be large in area even in sunny par. Worlds temperature regions for instant collectors must have a surface area of about 40 squares meter 1430 square feet; to server the energy needs to one person Leon, M et al (2007).

The most widely used flat-plat collectors consist of a blackened metal plate, covered with one or two sheets of glass, that is heated by the sunlight falling on it. This heat is then transferred to air or water, called carrier fluids, that flow past then back of the plat. Eth heat may be transferred to another medium for storage. Flat plat collectors are commonly used for hot water heating and house heating. The storage of heat for use at night or of cloudy days is commonly accomplished by using insulated tanks to store the water heated during sunny periods such as system can supply a home with hot water drawn from the storage tank, or when the warmed water flowing through tubes in floors and ceilings it can provide space heating, flat plate collectors typically heat carrier fluids to temperature ranging from 66 to 93oc (150-200 oF). the efficiency of such collector few the proportion of the energy received that they convert into as able energy range from 20 to 80m percent depending on the design of the collector are also solar heating. (Mills, David 2004) When higher temperatures are needed a concentrating or focusing, collector is used these devices concentrate sunlight received from a wide area onto a small blackened receiver, thereby considerably increasing the lights intensity in order to produce high temperatures. The arrays of carefully a highed mirrors or lenses used in these so called solar furnaces can issues enough sunlight purpose other than those described above in some countries, for instance, specially designed solar ovens are employed for cooking and solar energy is used to produce solar from scawater by evaporation. (Tzempelikos, Athanassions et al (2007)). The potential for solar energy is enormous since about 200,000 times the worlds total daily electric generating capacity is received by the earth every day in the form of solar conversion, and storage still limits its exploitation. (Mills, David (2004)).

According to Bradford, Travis (2006) solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation, along with secondary solar powered resources such as wind and wave powered. Resources such as wind and wave power hydroelectricity and biomass, account for most of the available renewable energy on earth, only a minuscule fraction of the available solar energy is used. Solar powered electrical generation relies on heat engines and photovoltaic, solar energys uses are limited only by human ingenuity. A partral list of solar applications includes space heating and cooling through solar architecture, potable water via distillation and disinfection day lighting, solar hot water, solar cooking, and purpose to harvest the solar energy, the most common way is to use solar panels. (Schittich, Christian (2003)). Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they can capture and distribute to heat a target temperature of 2000c (3,600
o

F)or more. This heat can be used to study the

properties of materials at high temperatures, or it can be used to operate a boiler, which in turn generates steam for a steam-turbine-electric-generator power plant. The solar furnace has become an important tool in high temperature research. For producing steam, the movable mirrors are so arranged upon blackened pipes through which water is circulated and thereby heated. Solar radiation may be converted directly into electricity by solar cells (photovoltaic cell). In such cells a small electric voltage is generated when light, strikes the junction between a metal and semi-conductors (such as silicon) or the junction between two different semi-conductors. (See photovoltaic affect). The power generated by a single individual cells together, however as in solar panel

arrays, hundreds even thousand of kilowatts of electric power can be generated in a solar electric plants. The energy efficiency of most present-day photovoltaic cells is only about 15 to 20 percent, and since the intensity of solar radiation is low to begin with, huge and costly assemblies of such cells are required to produced even moderate amounts of power consequently, photovoltaic have so far found major use only in loco-power applications as power sources for calculator and watches, for example larger units have been used to provide power for water pumps and communications system in remote areas and for weather and communication satellites. (Tritt, T; Bottner, H et al (2008)). Solar energy is also used on a small scale for available to be captured by plants. The rate at which plants photosynthesis depends on the amount of light reaching the leaves, the temperature of the environment, and the availability of water and other nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. The measured of the rate at which organisms convert light energy (or inorganic chemical energy) to the chemical energy of organic compounds is called primary productivity. Hence, the total amount of energy assimilated by plants in an ecosystems during environment s. (productivity is often measured by an increase in biomass a term used to refer to the weight of all living organisms in an area, biomass is reported in grams or metric tons). Much of the energy assimilated by plants through photosynthesis is not stored as organic material but instead during cellular respiration. In this process organic compounds such as carbohydrates, protein, and fats are broken down, or oxidized, to provide energy (in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for the cells metabolic needs the energy not used in this process is stored in plant tissues for further use and is called net primary productivity. The highest net primary productivity in terrestrial environments occurs in swamps and marshes and tropical

rainforest; the lowest occurs in desert in aquatic environments, the highest net productivity occurs in estuaries, algal beds and reefs. Consequently, these environments are especially critical for the maintances of worldwide biological productivity solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy passive solar techniques includes orienting a building to the sun, selecting materials with favourable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. (Balcomb, J. Douglas (1992)). 1.1 ENERGY FROM THE SUN Main article: insolation and solar radiation about half the incoming solar energy readies the earths surface. Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere 1. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the earths surface is mostly spread across the visible and near- infrared ranges with a small part in the near ultraviolet. 2. Earths land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation (insulation), and this raises their temperature warn air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric a high altitude, where temperature is low, water vapour condenses into clouds, which rain into the earths surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of condensation into clouds which rain into the earths surface, competing amplifies

convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. (Benard, C; Gobin, D et al 1981). 3. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 140c 4. By photosynthesis green convert solar energy into chemical energy, which produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived. (Zedtwiz, P.Z; Petrachi, et al 2006). 5. The total solar energy absorbed by earths atmosphere, ocean and land masses in approximately 3, 850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year 6. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year 7. Photosynthesis capture approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass 8. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the earths non-renewable resources of cola, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined. 9. From the table of resources it would appear that solar, wined or biomass would be sufficient to supply all of our energy needs, however, the increased use of biomass has had a negative effect on global warning and dramatically increased food prices by diverting forests and crops into biofuel production. 10. As intermittent resources, solar and wind other issue 11. Solar energy can be harnessed different levels around the world depending on a geographical location the closer to the equator the more potential solar energy is available.

CHAPTER TWO 2.0 APPLICATION OF SOLAR TECHNOLOGY Average insulation showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world primary energy supply with solar electricity 18TW is 568 Exajoule (EJ) per year. Insulation for most people is from 150 to 300 w/m2 or 3.5 to 7.0 kwh/m2/day. (Vecchia, A; et al (1981)). Solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends. However, all renewable energies, other than geothermal and total, derive their energy from the sun. (Lieth, Hevum et at (1975)). 2.1 ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING Main articles: passive solar building design heat island. Darmstadt University of Technology in Germany won the 2007 solar Decathlon in Washington, Direct current with this passive house designed specially for the humid and hot subtropical climate. (Balcomb, J. Douglas (1992)). Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history. Advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the Greeks and Chinese, who oriented their building toward the south to provide light and warmth. (Butti, Ken; Perlin, John (1981)). The common feature of passive solar architecture are orientation relative to the sun, compact proportion (a low surface area to volume ratio), selective shading (overhangs) and thermal mass when these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they can produced well lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range Socrates Megaron House is a classic example of passive solar

design. The most recent approaches to solar design use computer modeling typing systems in an integrated solar equipment such as pumps, fans and switchable windows can complement passive design and improve system performance. (Tzempelikos, et al 2007). Urban heat islands (UHI) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of the surrounding environment. The higher temperatures are a result of increased absorption of the solar light by urban materials such as asphalt and concrete, which lower albedos and highed heat capacities that those in the natural environment, A straightforward method of counteracting the UHI effects is to paint building and roads white and plant trees. Using these methods, a hypothetical cool communities programmes Los Angeles has project that urban temperature could be reduced by approximately 30c at an estimated cost of US$1, billion, giving estimated total annual benefits of US$530 million from reduced air conditioning costs and healthcare saving. 2.2 AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE Greenhouses like these in the Westland municipality of the Neverlands grow vegetables, fruits, and flowers. Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize the productivity plants techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation staggered heights between rows and mixing of plant verities can improve crop yields, while sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resources, the exception highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture. During the short growing seasons of the little ice age, French and English farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of solar energy. These walls acted

as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm. Early fruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground and facing south, but over time, slopping walls were developed make better use of sunlight. In 1699, Nicolas Fatio de Ouilier even suggested using a tracking mechanism which could pivot to follow the sun. application of solar energy in agriculture aside from growing crops include pumping water, drying crops, brooding chicks and drying chicken manure. More recently the technology has been embraced by vinters, who use the energy generated by solar panels to power grape presses. Greenhouse convert solar light to heat, enabling year-round production and the growth (in enclosed environment of specially crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local climate primitive greenhouse were first used during Roman times to produce cucumber year round for the Roman emperor Tiberius. The first modern greenhouses were built in Europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad. Greenhouses remain an important part of horticulture today, and plastic transparent materials have also been used to similar effect in polytunnels and row covers. (Vechia, A; et al 1981). 2.3 SOLAR LIGHTING Daylighting features: such as this ocuus at the tope of the pantheon, in Rome, Italy have been in use since antiquity. The history of lighting is dominated by the use of natural light. The Roamans recognized a tight to light as early as the 6th century and English law echoed these judgments with the prescription Act of 1832. In the 20th century artificial lighting become the main source of interior illumination but daylighting techniques and hybid solar lighting solutions are ways to reduce energy consumption.

Hybrid solar lighting is an active solar method of providing interior illumination. HSL systems collect unslight using focusing mirrors that track the sum and use optical fibers to transmit it inside the building to supplement convectional lighting in single-story applications these system are able to transmit 50% of the direct sunlight received. Solar lights that charge during the day and light up at dusk are a common sight along walkways. (citation needed). Although daylight saving time is promoted as a way to use sunlight to save energy. Recent research has been limited and reports contradictory results. Several studies report savings, but just as many suggest no effect on even a net loss, particularly when gasoline consumption is taken into account. Electricity use is greatly affected by geography, climate and economics, making it hard to generalize from single studies. 2.4 SOLAR THERMAL Main articles: Solar Thermal Energy Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling and process of heat generation. WATER HEATING Main Articles: Solar hot water and solar combisystem solar water heaters facing the sun to maxminizw gain solar how water systems use sunlight to heat.