=
}
Average power,
2
1
lim ( )
T
P x t dt
T
=
}
The signal x(t) is called energy signal if E is finite and P = 0. It is called power signal if P is finite
and E = . If neither of the two is satisfied the signal is neither energy nor power signal.
3
H. Causal, anti-causal and noncausal signals
Some useful signal models
A. Unit step function, u(t)
1 0
( )
0 0
t
u t
t
>
=
<
B. Unit impulse function, (t)
The unit impulse, a generalized function, can be defined as follows. Consider a pulse function of
unit area:
1
0
( )
0 otherwise
t
t o
A
s s A
=
A
The integration of ( ) t o
A
is an
approximation to the unit step.
As 0 A , ( ) t o
A
gets taller and thinner, but keeps its unit area while ( ) u t
A
approximates a unit
step function. At the limit,
0 0
( ) : lim ( ) and ( ) lim ( ) t t u t u t o o
A A
A A
= = .
As, ( ) ( )
d
t u t
dt
o
A A
= , in this sense we can write,
( )
( )
du t
t
dt
o = . Also, ( ) ( )
t
u t d o t t
=
}
.
Graphically, ( ) t o is represented as,
C. Unit ramp function, r(t)
0
( )
0 0
t t
r t
t
>
=
<
; ( ) ( ). r t tu t =
What happens to i(t) when R 0 ?
/
( ) ( )
t RC
V
i t e u t
R
= .
Shorting a capacitor would blow out it, as the current in the
capacitor goes high in a very short time.
Integrating,
A
x(t) = A (t)
Here, A is called the strength of the impulse.
4
D. Sinusoidal signal
( ) cos( ) x t A t e u = + .
E. Exponential signal
A real exponential signal may be written as, ( )
t
x t Ae
o
= , where A
and o are real valued.
It is possible for an exponential signal to be complex valued.
For example, ( )
at
x t Ce = , where both C and a are of complex
valued.
j
C C e
u
= ,
0
a r je = + .
Thus,
| |
0
( )
0 0
( ) . cos( ) sin( )
j t rt rt
x t C e e C e t j t
e u
e u e u
+
= = + + + .
You can show a complex signal in a complex plane.
Basic operations on signals
A. Time scaling: ( ) ( ) y t x at = compression/ expansion
B. Reflection/ time reversal: ( ) ( ) y t x t =
C. Time shifting: ( ) ( ) y t x t b = delay/ advance
Let, ( ) ( ) y t x at b = . To correctly obtain y(t) from x(t), the time-shifting and the time-scaling
operations must be performed in the correct order. The time-shifting operation is performed first on
x(t), resulting in an intermediate signal v(t). Then the time-scaling operation is performed in v(t).
( ) ( ); ( ) ( ) ( ). v t x t b y t v at x at b = = =
A
B
C
5
Example: Playing back a tape recorder faster than the original rate results in compression.
If time-scaling is performed first, i.e., ( ) ( ) v t x at = , then the v(t) is to be shifted by
b
a
unit.
( ) ( ); ( ) ( / ) ( ). v t x at y t v t b a x at b = = =
Some examples
( ) ( 2) ( 4). f t u t u t =
( ) [ ( ) ( 2)] 2( 3)[ ( 2) ( 3)]
( ) 3( 2) ( 2) 2( 3) ( 3).
f t t u t u t t u t u t
tu t t u t t u t
=
= +
Plot the signal,
( ) 2 ( ) (2 ) ( 3) (5 ). x t u t u t u t u t = +
Some properties of impulse function
- Even function: ( ) ( ) t t o o =
- Multiplication property:
0 0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t t t t t | o | o =
- Shifting property:
0 0
( ) ( ) ( ) x t t t dt x t o
=
}
- Time-scaling property:
1
( ) ( ) at t
a
o o =
Unit doublet: The first derivative of unit impulse is
called unit doublet.
0 0 0
[ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
d
x t t t x t t t x t t t
dt
o o o = . Integrating from
1 2
to t t , where
1 0 2
t t t < < , we
obtain,
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 0 0
[ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
t t t
t t t
d x t t t x t t t dt x t t t dt o o o = +
} } }
.
or,
2
1
0 0
0 ( ) ( ) ( ) ;
t
t
x t x t t t dt o = +
}
or,
2
1
( ) ( )
0 0 1 0 2
( ) ( ) ( 1) ( ), .
t
n n n
t
x t t t dt x t t t t o = < <
}
See that the derivative of unit impulse
results in two impulses, one negative and
one positive. The resulting impulses are not
really impulses as their area is infinite. Unit
doublet samples the derivative of a signal
at t=0, as seen from the boxed equation.
t
x(t)
1 3
5
2
2 4
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( / )
1
(0) ; 0
1
(0)
1
(0) ; 0
1 1
( ) ( ) ; Hence, ( ) ( )
at x t dt x a d
a
x a
a
x
a
x a
a
t x t dt at t
a a
o o t t t
o o o
>
= =
<
= =
} }
}
2
1
0 0 1 0 2
( ) ( ) ( ), .
t
t
x t t t dt x t t t t o = < <
}
In general,
6
Examples
2
( 1)
[5 ( ) ( ) cos5 ( ) ( )]
t t
t e t t t e t dt o o t o o
+ + +
}
; Ans: (6+e)
Determine whether or not each of the following signals is periodic
2
1. ( ) cos sin 2 ; 2. ( ) sin ; ( ) cos sin .
3 4
x t t t x t t x t t t
t t
= + = = +
1. Here, the ratio of two frequencies is not integer. Hence the signal is not periodic.
2.
1 1
( ) cos 2 .
2 2
x t t = Here, the signal is periodic with period,
2
.
2
T
t
t = =
3. ( ) cos sin .
3 3 4 4
T T
x t T t t
t t t t | | | |
+ = + + +
| |
\ . \ .
( ) ( ) for 2 and 2 .
3 4
T T
x t x t T m n
t t
t t = + = =
4
3
m
n
= , The period of the signal can be found by letting m and n co-prime.
Let, m=4, Then, 2 4 3 24 T = = sec.
Determine whether the following signals are energy signals, power signals or neither
0
) ( ) ( ), 0; ) ( ) cos( ); ) ( ) ( ).
at
a x t e u t a b x t A t c x t tu t e u
= > = + =
a)
2
2 2
0 0
1 1
( )
2 2
at at
E x t dt e dt e
a a
( = = = = <
} }
. Thus x(t) is an energy signal.
b)
c)
Find and sketch the derivatives of the following signals
1 0
1. ( ) ( ) ( ), 0; 2. ( ) [ ( ) ( )]; ( ) sgn( )
1 0
t
x t u t u t a a x t t u t u t a x t t
t
>
= > = = =
<
.
See next page for answer.
f
S(f)
9 9
4 4
5 -5 -15 15
Write the expression for S(f)
in terms of (t).
0
0
2
2
2 2 0
0
0 0
0
2 2 2 2
0 0
0
0
0
1
( ) cos ( )
2
2
[1 cos(2 2 )]
2 2 2 2 2
P x t dt A t dt
T
A A A
t dt
t
e
t
e
e
e u
t
e e t
e u
t t e
= = +
= + + = = <
} }
}
7
Classification of systems
Let, x(t) and y(t) be the input and the output signals respectively of a system. A system is a
mathematical relationship between an input signal and an output signal, i.e. ( ) { ( )} y t T x t = . A
system may be represented by a block diagram, or by symbolically as,
Or,
T
x y .
A system may be consists of several subsystems connected in cascade, parallel or feedback.
2 1
y G G x = .
1 2 1 2
y y y G x G x = + = + .
8
2 1
; e x G y y Ge = = .
A System with cascade and
parallel connections.
A. Linear and nonlinear systems
A system is said to be linear if it satisfies the principle of superposition. This implies, the
response of a linear system to a weighted sum of input signals is equal to the same weighted
sum of output signals, each output signal being associated with particular input signal acting on
the system independently of all other input signals. If a system violates the principle of
superposition it is called nonlinear.
Let,
1
( ) ( )
n
i
i
x t x t
=
=
, then
{ }
1
( ) { ( )} ( )
n
i i
i
y t H x t H a x t
=
= =
.
If the system is linear then,
1
( ) ( )
n
i i
i
y t a y t
=
=
where, ( ) { ( )}
i i
y t H x t = , is the output of the
system in response to the input ( )
i
x t acting alone.
B. Time-invariant and time-varying systems
A system is said to be time-invariant if a time-delay or time-advance of the input signal leads to
an identical time-shift in the output signal. Stated in another way, the characteristics of a time-
invariant system do not change with time. Otherwise, the system is time-variant.
0 0
( ) { ( )}; ( ) { ( )} y t T x t y t t T x t t = = .
C. Causal and noncausal systems
A system is called causal if its output y(t) at any arbitrary time
0
t t = depends on only the input
x(t) for
0
t t s .
( ) ( ) 2 ( 1); ( ) ( ) 2 ( 1) y t x t x t y t x t x t = + = + + .
D. Instantaneous and dynamic systems (with and without memory)
A system is called instantaneous or memoryless if the output at any time depends on only the
input at that same time. Otherwise the system is dynamic or said to have memory.
1
( ) ( ); ( ) ( ) .
t
v t Ri t v t i d
C
t t
= =
}
9
E. Invertible and noninvertible systems
A system is said to be invertible if the input signal can be uniquely recovered from the output
signal. The inverse system
1
S
=
}
is invertible.
Differentiating,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
t t
t t
dy t d
e e x d x t e e x d
dt dt
t t
t t t t
(
= =
(
} }
Or,
( )
( ) ( )
dy t
y t x t
dt
+ = ; This is the system equation.
The system is invertible, and the inverse system would be,
( )
( ) ( )
dx t
x t y t
dt
+ = .
Note: This problem will be readdressed in Laplace transform domain.