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Group Formation Process

EIIective teamwork is essential in today's world, but as you'll know Irom the
teams you have led or belonged to, you can't expect a new team to perIorm
exceptionally Irom the very outset. Team Iormation takes time, and usually Iollows
some easily recognizable stages, as the team journeys Irom being a group oI
strangers to becoming a united team with a common goal. Whether your team is a
temporary working group or a newly-Iormed, permanent team, by understanding
these stages you will be able to help it quickly become productive.
A team leader`s main aim is to help their team reach and sustain high
perIormance as soon as possible. To do this, they will need to change their
approach at each stage. The steps below will help ensure them that they are doing
the right thing at the right time.
1. IdentiIy which stage oI the team development your team is at Irom the
descriptions above.
2. Now consider what needs to be done to move towards the PerIorming stage,
and what you can do to help the team do that eIIectively. It helps you
understand your role at each stage, and think about how to move the team
Iorward.
3. Schedule regular reviews oI where your teams are, and adjust your
behavior and leadership approach to suit the stage your team has
reached.
Psychologist Bruce Tuckman Iirst came up with the memorable phrase
"Iorming, storming, norming and perIorming" back in 1965. He used it to describe
the path to high-perIormance that most teams Iollow. You might think that Iorming
a group is simply about choosing to work with some oI your Iriends. However,
when you work together in a speciIic group activity, your relationship with each
other needs to become proIessional. BeIore this can be achieved, the group may go
through certain stages. Consider whether Tuckman`s suggestions below Iit your
own experience oI group work. Functioning groups do not just Iorm out oI the
blue. It takes time Ior a group to develop to a point where it can be eIIective and
where all members Ieel connected to it. Bruce Tuckman has identiIied Iour stages
that characterize the development oI groups. Understanding these stages can help
determine what is happening with a group and how to manage what is occurring.
These Iour group development stages are known as Iorming, storming, norming,
and perIorming as described below and the skills needed to successIully guide a
group through these stages are given below in the Iollowing pages.

rientation / Forming

In the Iirst stages oI team building, the Iorming / orientation oI the team
takes place. The individual's behavior is driven by a desire to be accepted by the
others, and avoid controversy or conIlict. Serious issues and Ieelings are avoided,
and people Iocus on being busy with routines, such as team organization, who does
what, when to meet, etc. But individuals are also gathering inIormation and
impressions - about each other, and about the scope oI the task and how to
approach it. This is a comIortable stage to be in, but the avoidance oI conIlict and
threat means that not much actually gets done.

The team meets and learns about the opportunities and challenges, and then
agrees on goals and begins to tackle the tasks. Team members tend to behave quite
independently. They may be motivated but are usually relatively uninIormed oI the
issues and objectives oI the team. Team members are usually on their best behavior
but very Iocused on themselves. Mature team members begin to model appropriate
behavior even at this early phase. Sharing the knowledge oI the concept oI "Teams
- Iorming, storming, norming, perIorming" is extremely helpIul to the team.
Supervisors oI the team tend to need to be directive during this phase.

The Iorming stage oI any team is important because, in this stage, the
members oI the team get to know one another, exchange some personal
inIormation, and make new Iriends. This is also a good opportunity to see how
each member oI the team works as an individual and how they respond to pressure.

Here, you are asked questions like what the task is, iI all group members
share the same expectation Irom the task, iI they have the same attitudes, and iI
they Ieel anxiety in the outsets oI the activity. This is the initial stage when the
group comes together and members begin to develop their relationship with one
another and learn what is expected oI them. This is the stage when team building
begins and trust starts to develop. Group members will start establishing limits on
acceptable behavior through experimentation. Other members` reactions will
determine iI a behavior will be repeated. This is also the time when the tasks oI the
group and the members will be decided. Under Iorming, the group will be inclusive
and empowering. Make sure that everyone connected to the group is involved.
Seek out diverse members and talents and model inclusive leadership. IdentiIy
common purposes and targets oI change. Create an environment that Iosters trust
and builds commitment to the group.

2 Confrontation / Storming

Every group will next enter the storming stage in which diIIerent ideas compete
Ior consideration. The team addresses issues such as what problems they are really
supposed to solve, how they will Iunction independently and together and what
leadership model they will accept. Team members open up to each other and
conIront each other's ideas and perspectives. In some cases storming can be
resolved quickly. In others, the team never leaves this stage. The maturity oI some
team members usually determines whether the team will ever move out oI this
stage. Some team members will Iocus on minutiae to evade real issues.

The storming stage is necessary to the growth oI the team. It can be contentious,
unpleasant and even painIul to members oI the team who are averse to conIlict.
Tolerance oI each team member and their diIIerences should be emphasized.
Without tolerance and patience the team will Iail. This phase can become
destructive to the team and will lower motivation iI allowed to get out oI control.
Some teams will never develop past this stage.

Supervisors oI the team during this phase may be more accessible, but tend to
remain directive in their guidance oI decision-making and proIessional behavior. It
is a chaotic vying Ior leadership and trialing oI group processes The team members
will thereIore resolve their diIIerences and members will be able to participate with
one another more comIortably. The ideal is that they will not Ieel that they are
being judged, and will thereIore share their opinions and views.

Here, you will be asked questions like iI there was any conIlict in the group, iI
all the group members agree on the same means to accomplishing the task, who the
leader is and iI their authority was ever challenged, and iI any group members are
withdrawing Irom the group. During this stage oI group development,
interpersonal conIlicts arise and diIIerences oI opinion about the group and its
goals will surIace. II the group is unable to clearly state its purposes and goals or iI
it cannot agree on shared goals, the group may collapse at this point. It is important
to work through the conIlict at this time and to establish clear goals. It is necessary
Ior there to be discussion so everyone Ieels heard and can come to an agreement on
the direction the group is to move in. Here, the group will be ethical and open to
other people`s ideas. Allow diIIerences oI opinion to be discussed. Handle conIlict
directly and civilly. Keep everyone Iocused on the purpose oI the group and the
topic oI conIlict. Avoid personal attacks. Examine biases that may be blocking
progress or preventing another member to be treated Iairly.

3 Differentiation / Norming

Once the group resolves its conIlicts, it can now establish patterns oI how to
get its work done. Expectations oI one another are clearly articulated and accepted
by members oI the group. Formal and inIormal procedures are established in
delegating tasks, responding to questions, and in the process by which the group
Iunctions. Members oI the group come to understand how the group as a whole
operates. In this case, the group will be Iair with processes. New members should
Ieel welcomed, inIormed, and involved. Continue to clariIy expectations oI
individuals and oI the group. They engage in collaboration and teamwork.

The team manages to have one goal and come to a mutual plan Ior the team
at this stage. Some may have to give up their own ideas and agree with others in
order to make the team Iunction. In this stage, all team members take the
responsibility and have the ambition to work Ior the success oI the team's goals.
Here, you step back and help the team take responsibility Ior progress towards the
goal. This is a good time to arrange a social, or a team-building event. Be Iair with
processes. New members should Ieel welcomed, inIormed, and involved. Continue
to clariIy expectations oI individuals and oI the group. Engage in collaboration and
teamwork is the Iinal motive in this stage.

Here, the questions asked are iI you moved on to agree with the methods oI
working, iI you all shared a common goal, iI every member cooperated with each
other or not, and iI they have all Iinally worked out how to proceed at all in case
they are still probably storming. The regressions will become Iewer and Iewer and
the team will bounce back to 'norming in a quicker manner as the team
'matures. The natural leaders at this stage may not be the ones who were visible
in stages 1 & 2 (those people may no longer have the 'unoIIicial lead roles within
the team. This team still takes management direction, but not as much as storming.
Members are now resolving diIIerences and clariIying the mission and roles.
Members are less dissatisIied as in the previous stage because they are now
learning more about each other and how they will work together. They are making
progress toward their goals. They are developing tools to help them work better
together such as a problem solving process, a code oI conduct, a set oI team values,
and measurement indicators. Member attitudes are characterized by decreasing
animosities toward other members; Ieelings oI cohesion, mutual respect, harmony,
and trust; and a Ieeling oI pleasure in accomplishing tasks. The work is
characterized by slowly increasing production as skills develop. The group is
developing into a team.

4 Collaboration / Performing

It is possible Ior some teams to reach the perIorming stage. These high-
perIorming teams are able to Iunction as a unit as they Iind ways to get the job
done smoothly and eIIectively without inappropriate conIlict or the need Ior
external supervision. By this time, they are motivated and knowledgeable. The
team members are now competent, autonomous and able to handle the decision-
making process without supervision. Dissent is expected and allowed as long as it
is channeled through means acceptable to the team.

Supervisors oI the team during this phase are almost always participative.
The team will make most oI the necessary decisions. Even the most high-
perIorming teams will revert to earlier stages in certain circumstances. Many long-
standing teams go through these cycles many times as they react to changing
circumstances. For example, a change in leadership may cause the team to revert to
storming as the new people challenge the existing norms and dynamics oI the
team.

During this Iinal stage oI development, issues related to roles, expectations,
and norms are no longer oI major importance. The group is now Iocused on its
task, working intentionally and eIIectively to accomplish its goals. The group will
Iind that it can celebrate its accomplishments and that members will be learning
new skills and sharing roles. AIter a group enters the perIorming stage, it is
unrealistic to expect it to remain there permanently. When new members join or
some people leave, there will be a new process oI Iorming, storming, and norming
engaged as everyone learns about one another. External events may lead to
conIlicts within the group. To remain healthy, groups will go through all oI these
processes in a continuous loop. Finally, they celebrate accomplishments and Iind
renewal in relationships. Encourage and empower members to learn new skills and
to share roles that keep things Iresh and exciting. Revisit purpose and rebuild
commitment. Here, questions like had everyone taken on a Iunctional role to
achieve the task, iI the members worked constructively and eIIiciently, iI any oI
the members experienced a sense oI achievement are asked.

When conIlict arises in a group, do not try to silence the conIlict or to run
Irom it. Let the conIlict come out into the open so people can discuss it. II the
conIlict is kept under the surIace, members will not be able to build trusting
relationships and this could harm the group`s eIIectiveness. II handled properly,
the group will come out oI the conIlict with a stronger sense oI cohesiveness then
beIore.

Group Norms

Group norms are the inIormal rules that groups adopt to regulate members'
behavior. Norms are characterized by their evaluative nature; that is, they reIer to
what should be done. Norms represent value judgments about appropriate behavior
in social situations. Although they are inIrequently written down or even discussed,
norms have powerIul inIluence on group behavior. II each individual in a group
decided how to behave in each interaction, no one would be able to predict the
behavior oI any group member; chaos would reign. Norms guide behavior and
reduce ambiguity in groups.

Groups do not establish norms about every conceivable situation but only
with respect to things that are signiIicant to the group. Norms might apply to every
member oI the group or to only some members. Norms that apply to particular
group members usually speciIy the role oI those individuals. Norms vary in the
degree to which they are accepted by all members oI the group: some are accepted
by almost everyone, others by some members and not others. For example,
university Iaculty and students accept the Iaculty norm oI teaching, but students
inIrequently accept the norm oI Iaculty research. Finally, norms vary in terms oI
the range oI permissible deviation; sanctions, either mild or extreme, are usually
applied to people Ior breaking norms. Norms also diIIer with respect to the amount
oI deviation that is tolerable. Some require strict adherence, but others do not.

Understanding how group norms develop and why they are enIorced is
important to managers. Group norms are important determinants oI whether a
group will be productive. A work group with the norm that its proper role is to help
management will be Iar more productive than one whose norm is to be antagonistic
to management. Managers can play a part in setting and changing norms by
helping to set norms that Iacilitate tasks, assessing whether a group's norms are
Iunctional, and addressing counterproductive norms with subordinates.Norms
usually develop slowly as groups learn those behaviors that will Iacilitate their
activities. However, this slow development can be short-circuited by critical events
or by a group's decision to change norms. Most norms develop in one or more oI
Iour ways:

(1) explicit statements by supervisors or coworkers
(2) critical events in the group's history
(3) primacy, or by virtue oI their introduction early in the group's history
(4) carryover behaviors Irom past situations.

Group norms and functioning of work groups

Norms are generally the unwritten, unstated rules that govern the behavior oI
a group. Norms oIten just evolve and are socially enIorced through social
sanctioning. Norms are intended to provide stability to a group and only a Iew in a
group will reIuse to abide by the norms. A group may hold onto norms that are no
longer needed, similar to holding on to bad habits just because they have always
been part oI the group. Some norms are unhealthy and cause a poor
communication among people. OIten groups are not aware oI the unwritten norms
that exist. New people to the group have to discover these norms on their own over
a period oI time and may Iace sanction just because they did not know a norm
existed. At the end oI the exercise, I give some actual examples oI norms that I
have encountered in groups.

Every group has a set oI norms: a code oI conduct about what is acceptable
behavior. They may apply to everyone in the group or to certain members only.
Some norms will be strictly adhered to while others permit a wide range oI
behavior. The group usually has sanctions which it may apply in the case oI
"deviation". Common norms in groups include: taboo subjects, open expression oI
Ieelings, interrupting or challenging the tutor, volunteering one's services, avoiding
conIlict, length and Irequency oI contributions. All oI these are usually hidden or
implicit and new members may Iind it diIIicult to adjust. Over the Iirst Iew
meetings oI a group there may be conIusion about the norms are with consequent
Irustration, discomIort, and lost momentum. Every group develops its own
customs, habits and expectations Ior how things will be done. These patterns and
expectations, or group norms as they're sometimes called, inIluence the ways team
members communicate with each other.

The group leader emphasizes the need Ior teams to nurture group cohesion,
and paying attention to norms is one way to do this. Seating arrangements, Ior
example, can illustrate norms. One group may have a norm oI always sitting in the
same place, another group may shuIIle the seating arrangements and a third group's
norm may be that some team members always sit together while others have no
particular pattern. While many norms operate without the member's conscious
awareness, a team can decide to intentionally set norms that every member can
endorse. In addition to the long-term beneIits such a set oI guidelines oIIers, the act
oI setting norms itselI can be a team-building activity. Setting norms does not
mean regulating every aspect oI group interaction; rather it is an opportunity Ior
the group to express its values.

The best way to exercise a norm

For a successIul group, it may be helpIul to invite them to break into
subgroups to discuss its norms and perhaps to discard some oI those which seem
counter-productive. This exercise is best done aIter you have had an opportunity to
observe the group Ior a period oI time to discoverer some oI their norms. The Iirst
time this exercise was done, it was in a workshop with 50 high school teachers.
AIter about 2 hours, anyone could tell their norms were stopping honest
communication. Here, they stopped the regular workshop and went into a norms
exercise.

The large group was divided into small groups oI Iive. 3 norms that had been
observed in the group that seemed to be stopping honest communication wsa
spotted. Each group was asked to discuss the norms and come up with 5 more they
knew were active in this group at work as well as in this workshop. They were to
write these on poster paper so they could present them to the large group. They
were given 30-45 minutes to do this exercise.

While they were working, the support desk walked around to each group and
answered any questions they had in an eIIort to get them to think. Sometimes a
group would get stuck and wouldn`t seem to come up with any norms. These may
be new people to this group. So, they combined this group with another group that
is doing well with the exercise. The teachers group came up with 26 diIIerent
norms. The large group discussed each oI these in terms oI how useIul they were
or iI they were unhealthy and iI they could eliminate any norms.

Another way you can decide what norms to keep and which to discard is to
have the group vote on the norms. Hand out 5 red dots to each person so they get to
vote on the 5 norms they want to keep, and only one vote per norm. Have the
norms written on down and posted. All members oI the group vote at one time
quickly. AIter the vote, you will graphically see which norms get the most votes
and they stay. Usually about 30 will get high votes and about 20 will get no
votes. In one group that was done, they had 20 norms and 6 got most oI the votes
and 9 got no votes or only one vote. AIter Iurther discussion, this group decided to
keep 9 oI the norms, but modiIied several oI the keepers.

The exercise is easy to do. The groups oIten start oII slow but build
momentum as they discover the unwritten rules that govern behavior oI their
group. II is oIten exciting Ior them and sometime they may even get angry at their
discoveries.

xamples of Group norms

xample This was a business engaged in scientiIic tasting oI products, but
mainly Ilavoring added to liquid medications. There were about 35 employees.
They stared oII very slowly mainly because some oI the norms had been caused by
the management oI the group and there was Iear in stating them. But given time
and encouragement, they did state them. One norm had been caused by a Iormer
employee that had written a nasty letter to all the employees as he leIt the
company. Another was caused by misunderstanding oI statements by the president
oI the company. This person, when conIronted, with this immediately set things
straight and that norm were ended. Other norms were evaluated and some
discarded, some saved. Overall it was a very healthy exercise.

xample 2 This was a large group oI people that lived in an intentional
community. The community had undergone considerable chaos and the group had
unknowingly divided into 5 diIIerent opinion subgroups. As these groups
continued to Iunction in a very critical mode, the unwritten norms became more
and more Ior protection and security. Each subgroup was made to deIend their own
needs or at least they Ielt they had to do this. The Iive groups were brought into a
meeting to make discoveries about their diIIerences. A long discussion evolved in
the large group that became more and more chaotic, but that was needed to get all
issues out on the table. AIter a period oI time, I called a halt to the open discussion
and said we would divide into 5 small groups with one person Irom each subgroup
making up the small groups. One subgroup reIused to participate and leIt the
group. The other Iour subgroups stayed and went into the small group to discover
their norms. They worked on this Ior about 70 minutes. Then the presentations to
the large group started. This lasted about another 90 minutes with the discussions.
When it was over, all oI the unhealthy norms were discarded because
understanding in the discussion made them no longer necessary. A Iew new norms
were created. These Iour subgroups became one group again in the community.
The IiIth group, which had only 6 people, continued to remain hostile to the others
and over several years destroyed the group.

Group norms are the most important reason is to ensure group survival. They
are also enIorced to simpliIy or make predictable the expected behavior oI group
members. That is, they are enIorced to help groups avoid embarrassing
interpersonal problems, to express the central values oI the group, and to clariIy
what is distinctive about it. Norm setting can only work iI the team is truly able to
arrive at consensus. Norms won't stick iI members have reservations about them.

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rganizational Roles
According to Banton (1965), a 'role can be deIined as a set oI norms or
expectations applied to the incumbent oI a particular position by the role
incumbent and the various other role players (role senders) with whom the
incumbent must deal to IulIill the obligations oI their position. Kahn et al. (1964)
Iurther clariIy the role model by stating that to adequately perIorm his or her role, a
person must know
(a) What the expectations oI the role set (duties, rights, responsibilities, etc) are
(b) What activities will IulIill the role responsibilities (means-end knowledge)
(c) What the consequences oI role perIormance are to selI, others, and the
organization.

According to Schaubroeck, Ganster, Sime, and Editman (1993), the episodic
role-making process is complicated by poor communication between role senders
and role receivers as well as Irom turbulence within the task environment, which
requires continual modiIications in sent roles. Thus the "role-making" process
begins Ior the role incumbent and the role senders and is a continual process.

ssential elements of a Role
The basic elements should be commitment, accountability and responsibility. A
position is supposed to IulIill these towards the overall purpose oI the oIIice. Every
role has two junctions - Direct and Supervisory.

Direct aspects oI a role include:
Norm setting Ior perIormance
"uality oI decisions and operations
EIIiciency oI overall operations
Cost eIIectiveness through systems improvement and improvement oI
procedures
Level oI perIormance in terms oI norms
Anticipation oI problems
Supervisory responsibility oI a role includes:
Control, which can be exercised through norms and the analysis oI relevant
data
Service, which includes updating technical knowledge, staII training,
analyzing date, problem solving and building conIidence.

The importance of organizational role

Organizational roles are a method oI providing service entitlements to person
entities within the system. The main reasons Ior which these roles are so important
are given below:

1. Role analysis must provide an overall picture oI what the job is supposed to
achieve and what it contributes to the total interlinking operations oI a particular
unit. It must also give a clear idea oI the prescribed elements oI the job and within
the scope oI the job, the core areas oI discretion, It is assumed that a meaningIul
job must provide considerable scope Ior judgment oI the part oI the individual
concerned, but his area oI decision making must not inIringe upon the role
boundary oI other positions. For this purpose areas oI discretion should be
indicated.

2. It is always useIul to carry out a work-Ilow analysis and delineate the areas oI
priority. It is also useIul to discuss in concrete terms, what a person has bone over
the last your, last month or last week, so that one is able to obtain a realistic
position oI his/her work.

3. It is oIten Iound that certain tasks are repeated at two or three levels. The
superior may be carrying out the same work as his subordinate. It is useIul to make
a note oI this and discuss the matter with the superior in order to rationalize both
the jobs. Supervision is exercised through critical indicators oI the quality oI work
done by the subordinate, and not by going through the job oI the subordinates,

4. At times, the assignment consists mainly oI repetitive jobs. It is necessary to
make a note oI this and discuss the role with the superior oIIicer. The purpose oI
such a discussion would be to rearrange jobs in such a way that each has a
discussion discretion and a distinctive contribution.

5. At times, it is Iound that pertain jobs are overlapping, and this could have
happened over a period oI time. Moreover, many important aspects oI the work,
which need to be done, remain unattended. In such cases, the roles will have to be
redesigned. There may be a case Ior combining two roles in certain areas. In such
an event it is necessary
(i) to Iirst deIine these two roles separately and then combine them
(ii) until such time that the combining oI roles is achieved, it will be useIul to have
separate roles.

Role Conflict
"Role conflict is a conIlict among the roles corresponding to two or more
statuses." Behavioral scientists sometimes describe an organization as a system oI
position roles. Each member oI the organization belongs to a role set, which is an
association oI individuals who share interdependent tasks and thus perIorm
Iormally deIined roles, which are Iurther inIluenced both by the expectations oI
others in the role set and by one's own personality and expectations. For example,
in a common Iorm oI classroom organization, students are expected to learn Irom
the instructor by listening to them, Iollowing their directions Ior study, taking
exams, and maintaining appropriate standards oI conduct. The instructor is
expected to bring students high-quality learning materials, give lectures, write and
conduct tests, and set a scholarly example. Another in this role set would be the
dean oI the school, who sets standards, hires and supervises Iaculty, maintains a
service staII, readers and graders, and so on. The system oI roles to which an
individual belongs extends outside the organization as well, and inIluences their
Iunctioning within it. As an example, a person's roles as partner, parent,
descendant, and church member are all intertwined with each other and with their
set oI organizational roles.

As a consequence, there exist opportunities Ior role conIlict as the various
roles interact with one another. Other types oI role conIlict occur when an
individual receives inconsistent demands Irom another person; Ior example, they
are asked' to serve on several time-consuming committees at the same time that
they are urged to get out more production in their work unit. Another kind oI role
strain takes place when the individual Iinds that they are expected to meet the
opposing demands oI two or more separate members oI the organization. Such a
case would be that oI a worker who Iinds himselI pressured by their boss to
improve the quality oI their work while their work group wants more production in
order to receive a higher bonus share.

These and other varieties oI role conIlict tend to increase an individual's
anxiety and Irustration. Sometimes they motivate him to do more and better work.
Other times they can lead to Irustration and reduced eIIiciency. Role conIlict is
diIIerent Irom role strain - a tension among the roles connected to a single status.

ConIlicts between people in work groups, committees, task Iorces, and other
organizational Iorms oI Iace-to-Iace groups are inevitable. As we have mentioned,
these conIlicts may be destructive as well as constructive.

ffects of Role Conflicts

ConIlict arises in groups because oI the scarcity oI Ireedom, position, and
resources. People who value independence tend to resist the need Ior
interdependence and, to some extent, conIormity within a group. People who seek
power thereIore struggle with others Ior position or status within the group.
Rewards and recognition are oIten perceived as insuIIicient and improperly
distributed, and members are inclined to compete with each other Ior these prizes.
Even the roles linked to a single status can make competing demands on us. A
plant supervisor may enjoy being Iriendly with workers. At the same time, distance
is necessary to evaluate his staII.

In western culture, winning is more acceptable than losing, and competition
is more prevalent than cooperation, all oI which tends to intensiIy intragroup
conIlict. Group meetings are oIten conducted in a win-lose climate that is,
individual or subgroup interaction is conducted Ior the purpose oI determining a
winner and a loser rather than Ior achieving mutual problem solving. The win-lose
conIlict in groups may have some oI the Iollowing negative eIIects:

1. Divert time and energy Irom the main issues
2. Delay decisions
3. Create deadlocks
4. Drive unaggressive committee members to the sidelines
5. InterIere with listening
6. Obstruct exploration oI more alternatives
7. Decrease or destroy sensitivity
8. Cause members to drop out or resign Irom committees
9. Arouse anger that disrupts a meeting
10. InterIere with empathy
11. Leave losers resentIul
12. Incline underdogs to sabotage
13. Provoke personal abuse
14. Cause deIensiveness

xample "People in modern, high-income countries juggle many
responsibilities demanded by their various statuses and roles. As most mothers can
testiIy both parenting and working outside the home are physically and
emotionally draining. Sociologists thus recognize role conIlict as conIlict among
the roles corresponding to two or more statuses" (Macionis 90).

Role Ambiguity

Role ambiguity may be deIined as 'norms Ior a speciIic position are vague,
unclear and ill-deIined. Actors disagree on role expectations, not because there is
role conIlict but because role expectations are unclear. Examples: job descriptions,
clinical objectives. Role ambiguity has been described by Kahn, WolIe, "uinn,
Snoek, and Rosenthal (1964) as the single or multiple roles that conIront the role
incumbent, which may not be clearly articulated (communicated) in terms oI
behaviors (the role activities or tasks/priorities) or perIormance levels (the criteria
that the role incumbent will be judged by). Naylor, Pritchard, and Ilgen (1980)
state that role ambiguity exists when Iocal persons (role incumbents) are uncertain
about product-to-evaluation contingencies and are aware oI their own uncertainty
about them. Breaugh & Colihan (1994) have Iurther reIined the deIinition oI role
ambiguity to be job ambiguity and indicate that job ambiguity possesses three
distinct aspects: work methods, scheduling, and perIormance criteria.

Most research suggests that role ambiguity is indeed negatively correlated
with job satisIaction, job involvement, perIormance, tension, propensity to leave
the job and job perIormance variables (Rizzo, House, & Lirtzman 1970; Van Sell,
BrieI, & Schuler 1981; Fisher & Gitelson 1983; Jackson & Schuler 1985; Singh
1998). Typically, the role ambiguity and role conIlict constructs are discussed
together. The present analysis Iocuses primarily on role ambiguity, because the
literature has shown that role ambiguity and role conIlict have diIIerent causes
(Keller, 1975) and thereIore potentially diIIerent remedies. Sawyer (1992) has
even hypothesized that diIIerent types oI role ambiguity may have diIIerent causes,
and Singh & Rhoads (1991) believe that role ambiguity is more amenable to
managerial "intervention", that is implementing programs to diminish role
ambiguity may be less diIIicult to conduct than interventions Ior role conIlict.

Kahn, et. al. (1964) hypothesized that the presence oI three organizational
conditions contributes to an environment oI ambiguity: the amount oI
organizational complexity, rapid organizational or technological change, and
management's philosophy about intra-company communications. HoIstede (1980)
echoes these same concerns regarding uncertainty in organizations by describing
the rationale Ior his uncertainty avoidance construct, which he described as
"(in)tolerance Ior ambiguity". According to HoIstede (1980), "The concept oI
uncertainty is oIten linked to the concept oI environment; the "environment" which
usually is taken to include everything not under direct control oI the organization is
a source oI uncertainty Ior which the organization tries to compensate."

ffects of Role Ambiguity

The type oI services that an organization provides may also inIluence the
level oI conIlict or role ambiguity. According to Rogers & Molnar (1976),
organizations supplying human services tend to employ larger numbers oI
specialists than organizations supplying services with less uncertainty about the
appropriate treatment or technique. This draws one to conclude that proIessional
roles are permitted greater discretion and are supported by the authority oI
proIessional codes oI conduct, which would reduce ambiguity levels, but may
increase conIlict.

This leads us to the inevitable position oI ultimately attempting to determine
whether or not the presence oI ambiguity should be considered a "bad" thing.
Ambiguity can be both "good" (resulting in productive stress), also called eustress
by Selye (1976) and "bad" (the lack oI stress or too much stress which results in
dysIunction), also known as distress (Selye, 1976). As the concept oI stress is
considered to be highly individual in nature, we must attempt to determine the
point at which ambiguity causes distress. One avenue to consider is in evaluating
an individual`s need Ior clarity. Lyons (1971) deIines role clarity as the
"subjective Ieeling oI having as much or not as much role relevant inIormation as
the person would like to have."

With the lack oI a clear deIinition as noted above, Ior the purpose oI this
paper, role ambiguity will be deIined as: the ambiguity on the job that occurs due
to lack oI clear role expectations, requirements, methods, and inIormation in
situational experiences. Role ambiguity predicts strain over time. Role ambiguity is
related to selI-eIIicacy. Role ambiguity is negatively related to employee selI-
eIIicacy. It may be negatively related to selI-eIIicacy Ior the Iollowing two reason:

1. Role ambiguity diminishes the quality oI the inIormation available to

evaluate correctly an individual`s ability to perIorm a task.
2. According to social cognitive theory, achieving a high level oI selI-eIIicacy
requires that an individual can visualize an excellent perIormance in a given
situation. However, high role ambiguity inhibits an individual`s ability to
visualize one`s perIormance, ultimately reducing one`s conIidence in their
ability to perIorm eIIectively.
Role ambiguity may negatively aIIect an employee`s selI-eIIicacy.
Additionally, selI-eIIicacy may inIluence employee creativity. Similarly,
Ford (1996) included selI-eIIicacy belieIs as a major motivational element in
his model oI individual creativity.

Role Analysis

There was always the need Ior clarity oI what a person occupying a role in
an organization is supposed to do. This was usually done by experts or senior
executives, preparing a list oI requirements Ior the job holders. These were called
"job descriptions", a term still prevalent in some organizations. However, more
systematic attention was needed. This was done by what was called, "job analysis"
- analysis oI responsibilities a job contains. The term "job analysis" was later
replaced by the term "task analysis".

The traditional approach to task analysis is characterized by two models: the
British model and the America model. The British model (Annet, et al., 1971) has
emphasized analysis in terms oI speciIic activities Ior which the job holder is held
responsible (Boydell, 1970), whereas the American model (U.S. Civil Service
commission, 1973) has included an emphasis on the competencies needed Ior the
job. With both models, the analysis is usually carried out by management with the
help oI experts, and in other respects also the two models are quite similar. Both
have been Iound to be useIul in analyzing semiskilled and skilled work.

A diIIerent approach to task analysis was suggested (Pareek, 1988) in which
task analysis was deIined as the process oI identiIying the tasks oI a particular job
in a particular organizational context by analyzing any discrepancies uncovered by
this process. For this purpose a six-step model oI task analysis was suggested:

Contextual analysis
Activity analysis
Task Delineation
Competency analysis
PerIormance analysis
Discrepancy analysis

Role analysis is a structured exercise to provide an overall picture oI what
the role is supposed to achieve, the rationale Ior its existence in the organization,
its interlinkage, and the attributes oI an eIIective role occupant. Role Analysis
helps in deIining reciprocal expectations and in bringing objectivity to Iormal an
inIormal exchange which enhances the participative spirit by reducing distortions
caused by role ambiguity. This is the major contribution oI role analysis in the
development oI participative culture and team building. Role Analysis leads to the
building oI Role Directory, which contains Role Analysis or the major roles in a
department/unit/organization.

Role Analysis Technique

Role Analysis has been a rather more acceptable strategy in India. RA has
been described as one oI the team building techniques and has been adequately
explained by French & Bell. The two authors have also acknowledged the work oI
ProI Ishwar Dayal oI India, with regard to RA. Role Analysis implies analyzing the
role oI a person/position in the organization. Job description is something akin to
RA, the subtle diIIerence being that RA deals with total role oI a person (including
competencies) whereas JD is a mere description oI the job (may not clearly Iocus
on competencies). It will be prudent here to mention that many oI these RA
derivatives(sub-systems) were already in vogue in the organization, but not so
eIIectively linked as they became aIter the OD interventions. As on today, RA and
all its sub-systems have been institutionalized and the organization is now
preparing Ior next phase oI OD Interventions.

Thomas and Dayal (1968) developed a technique oI role analysis. The

Iollowing Iour steps are involved in RAT (Dayal, 1969). As will be seen, RAT
distinguishes between prescribed and discretionary elements in the activities
perIormed by the role occupant.

1. The "Iocal role" individual initiates discussion oI his role by analyzing the
purpose oI the role in the organization how it Iits into the total range oI
activities and its rationale.
2. The "Iocal role" individual lists in the blackboard his activities consisting
oI the prescribed and discretionary elements. Other role incumbents and his
immediate superior question him on the deIinition oI his tasks, iI there is
conIusion in their perceptions, the ambiguity is cleared.
3. The "Iocal role" individual lists his expectations Iorm each oI those other
roles in the group which he Ieels most directly aIIect his own work: "Role
Senders" state their expectations, and aIter discussion the "Iocal role" and
the "role senders" arrive at an agreement, among themselves, on their mutual
expectations.
4. The "Iocal role" individual writes up his role. This consists oI all aspects
oI his work discussed above.

LiIe Insurance Corporation oI India, using RAT approach, role analysis oI
diIIerent operating and specialist positions as a part oI their OD and HRD
interventions. The synopsis oI the methodology is reproduced in Annexure 1 Irom
Pareek.

RoIe AnaIysis reducing RoIe ConfIicts and RoIe Ambiguity

The Focal role occupant takes up the list oI behaviors, discusses these with
order role set members, develops consensus, and edits the list. These are behavioral
norms. The groups also discuss what critical attributes (CA) a Iocal role occupant
should have to be very eIIective in the role. Such attributes may include
qualiIications, experience, and competencies which make the diIIerence Ior
eIIectiveness. For example, Ior leadership roles visioning is a critical attribute.
This list should not be too long; as a rule oI thumb it may not exceed eight.

The consolidated and Iinal consensus is then put down together.
Comprehensive Role Analysis oI the role oI Head oI Training Unit is suggested in
Appendix 2. While the above outline is a standard one, several variations can be
done. Two examples are given here to indicate such variations:

In order to achieve job and organizational clarity, role analysis was
attempted at Crompton Greaves. A task Iorce was set up Ior role analysis. All the
role set members participated in the exercise, and both the role occupants and the
other members oI the role set listed their expectations. The distinguishing Ieatures
oI this exercise were, involving the best perIormers in an in-depth analysis,
participation by the top managers, and placing each role within the perspective oI
the mission and strategy oI the organization. The roles were Iinalized aIter
discussions with the vice-presidents and general manager, and were reviewed by
the managing director. Role analysis was done Ior 500 managerial positions,
Iollowed by 500 junior level oIIicers.

In the Role Analysis Technique, Role Incumbents, Injunction with team
members, deIine and delineate Role requirements. The Role being deIined is called
'The Focal Role. The Focal Role person assumes responsibility Ior making a
written summary oI the. This is called a 'Role ProIile and is derived Irom detailed
discussions. The accepted Role ProIile constitutes the Role activities Ior the Focal
Role person. This intervention can be a Non-threatening activity with high PayoII.
OIten, the mutual demands, expectations and obligations oI inter-dependent team
members have never been publicly examined. Each role incumbent wonders why
'those other people are not doing what they are supposed to do, while in reality,
all the incumbents are perIorming as they think they are supposed to. Collaborative
Role Analysis and deIinition by the entire work group not only clariIies who is to
do what but also ensures commitment to the role once it has been clariIied.

$teps invoIved in RoIe AnaIysis

Extensive role analysis was carried out in the Indian Oil Corporation Ltd.
Both in reIineries and other oIIices. Role analysis results were used Ior setting
perIormance objectives, monthly perIormance reviews etc. Several volumes oI
Role Directories were published. The Iollowing steps were involved in the exercise
(Sarangi, 1989):

IdentiIication oI roles
Finalisation oI the role set members Ior each Iocal role.
Bringing the Iocal role and the role members together at a behavioural skills
workshop.
Preparation oI a list by each Iocal member, oI what he/she oIIers to each role
set member while perIorming the given role in an organisation.
Preparation oI a list oI what each role set member expects Irom the Iocal
role in terms oI role perIormance.
A detailed role description, aIter detailed discussions by the role set.
IdentiIication by the head role and the boss oI the agreed key perIormance
areas Ior the Iocal role Irom the role descriptions that have emerged.
Preparation by the role set members and the Iocal role, oI a list oI critical
attributes required Ior eIIective perIormance by any role occupant in a Iocal
role.
Development oI a common list oI critical attributes Ior each Iocal role, aIter
discussions.
Goal setting by each Iocal role member on the basis oI the identiIied key
perIormance areas (Ior the period oI action research project).
Suggestions oI goals by the superior (oI the Iocal role member on the basis
oI the identiIied KPAs (Ior the period oI the action research project).
Agreed goals by the Iocal role and the, superior, aIter discussion (Ior action
research project)
Monthly review oI the perIormance oI each Iocal role. At the end oI the
action research project Ior a six-month period, a total review oI the
perIormance oI each Iocal role was done.
Sharing' oI the experience, and learning Irom this eIIort by the members.

Role analysis must provide an overall picture oI what the job is supposed to
achieve and what it contributes to the total interlinking operations oI a particular
unit. It must also give a clear idea oI the prescribed elements oI the job and within
the scope oI the job.

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RGANIZATINAL CULTUR

During the 1980's, we saw an increase in the attention paid to organizational culture as an
important determinant oI organizational success. Many experts began to argue that
developing a strong organizational culture is essential Ior organizational eIIectiveness
and its success. Organizational culture can be deIined as:
An utcome - DeIining culture as a pattern oI behavior. People use the term culture to
describe patterns oI cross-individual behavioral consistency .For example, when people
say that culture is 'The way we do things around here, they are deIining consistent way
is in which people perIorm tasks, solve problems, resolve conIlicts, treat customers, and
treat employees.
A Process - DeIining culture as a set oI mechanisms that create cross-individual
behavioral consistency. In this case culture is deIined as the inIormal values, norms, and
belieIs that control how individuals and groups in an organization interact with each other
and with people outside the organization.

Organizational culture has some main important Iunctions that cannot be missed. They
have to have the Iollowing:
1. Behavioral control
2. Encourages stability
3. Provides source oI identity

Organizational culture is the personality oI the organization. Culture is comprised oI the
assumptions, values, norms and tangible signs oI organization members and their
behaviors. Members oI an organization soon come to sense the particular culture oI an
organization. Culture is one oI those terms that's diIIicult to express distinctly, but
everyone knows it when they sense it. For example, the culture oI a large, Ior-proIit
corporation is quite diIIerent than that oI a hospital which is quite diIIerent than that oI a
university. You can tell the culture oI an organization by looking at the arrangement oI
Iurniture, what they brag about, what members wear, etc. -- similar to what you can use
to get a Ieeling about someone's personality.

Corporate culture can be looked at as a system. Inputs include Ieedback Irom, e.g.,
society, proIessions, laws, stories, heroes, values on competition or service, etc. The
process is based on our assumptions, values and norms, e.g., our values on money, time,
Iacilities, space and people. Outputs or eIIects oI our culture are, e.g., organizational
behaviors, technologies, strategies, image, products, services, appearance, etc. The
concept oI culture is particularly important when attempting to manage organization-wide
change. Practitioners are coming to realize that, despite the best-laid plans, organizational
change must include not only changing structures and processes, but also changing the
corporate culture as well.

Importance of rganizational Culture

As a widely used concept, organizational culture is a vital environment condition that
aIIects the systems and subsystems oI an organization and examining it is a valuable
analytical tool. The executive leaders have a Iundamental role to play in the organization
through their actions and leadership, while the employees contribute in developing the
organizational culture, which is the work environment. The main reasons oI
Organizational culture to gain Iame are as Iollows:

1. rganizational culture conveys the belieIs and ideas oI the goals that need to be
pursued by and the appropriate standards oI behavior the members oI the
organization utilize to attain their respective organizational goals.
2. The organizational values in turn develop the norms, guidelines and expectations
Ior appropriate behavior oI employees while in a particular situation as well as
control behavior oI the members with one another.
3. A strong culture is a talent attractor your organizational culture is part oI the
package that prospective employees look at when assessing your organization.
Gone are the days oI selecting the person you want Irom a large eager pool. The
talent market is tighter and those looking Ior a new organization are more selective
than ever. The best people want more than a salary and good beneIits. They want
an environment they can enjoy and succeed in.
4. A strong Iorm oI organizational culture changes the view oI work most people
have a negative connotation oI the word work. Work equals drudgery, 9-5, 'the
salt mine. When you create a culture that is attractive, people`s view oI 'going to
work will change.
5. In order to make changes in the organizational culture, which is considered
diIIicult, the areas that need to be Iocused on are putting the heart and mind into it,
Iostering understanding and conviction, re-enIorcing along with Iormal
mechanisms, developing the talent and skills, and role modeling.
6. Organizational culture creates greater synergy. A strong culture brings people
together. When people have the opportunity to (and are expected to) communicate
and get to know each other better, they will Iind new connections. These
connections will lead to new ideas and greater productivity in other words, you
will be creating synergy. Literally, 1 1 right culture more than 10.
7. A strong culture makes everyone more successIul. Any one oI the other six
reasons should be reason enough to Iocus on organizational culture. But the
bottom line is that an investment oI time, talent and Iocus on organizational
culture will give you all oI the above beneIits.
8. A strong culture creates energy and momentum Build a culture that is vibrant and
allows people to be valued and express themselves and you will create a very real
energy. That positive energy will permeate the organization and create a new
momentum Ior success.

Levels of rganizational Culture

Anthropologist Symington (1983) has deIined culture as, '. that complex whole which
includes knowledge, belieI, art, law, morals, customs and capabilities and habits acquired
by a man as a member oI society. One comes across a number oI elements in the
organization which depict its culture. Organizational culture can be viewed at three levels
based on maniIestations oI the culture in tangible and intangible Iorms.

At Level ne the organizational culture can be observed in the Iorm oI physical objects,
technology and other visible Iorms oI behaviour like ceremonies and rituals. Though the
culture would be visible in various Iorms, it would be only at the superIicial level. For
example, people may interact with one another but what the underlying Ieelings are or
whether there is understanding among them would require probing.

At Level Two there is greater awareness and internalisation oI cultural values. People in
the organization try solutions oI a problem in ways which have been tried and tested
earlier. II the group is successIul there will be shared perception oI that success`, leading
to cognitive changes turning perception into values and belieIs.

Level Three represents a process oI conversion. When the group repeatedly observes that
the method that was tried earlier works most oI the time, it becomes the preIerred
solution` and gets converted into underlying assumptions or dominant value orientation.
The conversion process has both advantages. The advantages are that the dominant value
orientation guides behaviour, however at the same time it may inIluence objective and
rational thinking.

Nature of Culture in rganizations

The culture oI an organization may reIlect in various Iorms adopted by the organization.
These could be:

O The physical inIrastructure
O Routine behaviour, language, ceremonies
O Gender equality, equity in payment
O Dominant values such as quality, eIIiciency etc

Philosophy that guides the organization`s policies towards it employees and customers
like customer Iirst` and customer is king`, and the manner in which employees deal
with customers. In the words oI HoIstede (1980) culture is, 'The collective programming
oI the mind which distinguishes the members oI one human group Irom another. The
interactive aggregate oI common characteristics that inIluences a human group`s response
to its environment.

Controlling of rganizational Culture

(Cultural Control Mechanisms)

How does organizational culture control the behavior oI organizational members? II
consistent behavioral patterns are the outcomes or products oI a culture, what is it that
causes many people to act in a similar manner? There are Iour basic ways in which a
culture, or more accurately members oI a reIerence group representing a culture, creates
high levels oI cross individual behavioral consistency. There are:

Social Norms - Social norms are the most basic and most obvious oI cultural control
mechanisms. In its basic Iorm, a social norm is simply a behavioral expectation
that people will act in a certain way in certain situations. Norms (as opposed to
rules) are enIorced by other members oI a reIerence group by the use oI social
sanctions. Norms have been categorized by level.

(a) Peripheral norms are general expectations that make interactions
easier and more pleasant. Because adherence oI these norms is not
essential to the Iunctioning oI the group, violation oI these norms
general results in mild social sanctions.
(b) Relevant norms encompass behaviors that are important to group
Iunctioning. Violation oI these norms oIten results in non-inclusion
in important group Iunctions and activities
(c) Pivotal norms represent behaviors that are essential to eIIective
group Iunctioning. Individuals violating these norms are oIten
subject to expulsion Irom the group.

Shared Values - As a cultural control mechanism the keyword in shared values is
shared. The issue is not whether or not a particular individual's behavior can best
be explained and/or predicted by his or her values, but rather how widely is that
value shared among organizational members, and how responsible was the
organization in developing that value within the individual. Values are the
conscious, aIIective desires or wants oI people that guide their behavior

There are two kinds oI values that have Iormed or were developed within individuals:

A. Instrumental values represent the 'means an individual preIers Ior achieving
important 'ends.
B. Terminal values are preIerences concerning 'ends to be achieved.

These components oI culture have a well deIined link with each other which binds a
culture and makes change in any one oI the components diIIicult. However, change in
any one oI these components causes chain reactions amongst others.

The impact on rganizational ffectiveness

There is still no comprehensive theory oI how organizational culture may
inIluence organizational eIIectiveness, nor much empirical evidence to support the idea.
Several authors have made compelling arguments about the ways in which aspects oI
culture, such as socialization or commitment, may impact eIIectiveness (Pascale, 1984),
or the way in which values and assumptions which once Iormed the Ioundation oI an
organization's culture may limit change and adaptation at a Iuture point. No research that
we were able to Iind, however, has speciIically tried to integrate the numerous implicit
assumptions about organizational culture and eIIectiveness into a general theory, and
begin to test it empirically. This paper addresses the problem by deriving Irom the
literature Iour implicit hypotheses regarding the relationship between culture and
eIIectiveness. The paper then presents a preliminary empirical test oI that model using
CEO perceptions oI culture and eIIectiveness Irom a sample oI 969 organizations.

There are a number oI methodologies speciIically dedicated to organizational
culture change such as Peter Senge`s Fifth Discipline. These are also a variety oI
psychological approaches that have been developed into a system Ior speciIic outcomes
such as the Fifth Disciplines 'learning organization or Directive Communications
'corporate culture evolution. Ideas and strategies, on the other hand, seem to vary
according to particular inIluences that aIIect culture.

There are Iour primary ways to inIluence the culture oI your organization. Firstly,
emphasize what`s important. This includes widely communicating goals oI the
organization, posting the mission statement on the wall, talking about accomplishments
and repeating what you want to see in the workplace. Secondly, Reward employees
whose behaviors reIlect what`s important. Thirdly, discourage behaviors that don`t reIlect
what`s important. There is no need to punish or cause prolonged discomIort. Rather, you
want to dissuade the employee Irom continuing unwanted behaviors by giving them
constructive Ieedback, verbal warnings, written warnings, or Iiring them. Fourthly, model
the behaviors that you want to see in the workplace. This is perhaps the most powerIul
way to inIluence behaviors in the workplace.

The implicit theories oI organizational eIIectiveness presented in the culture
literature usually have pursued a variation oI the Iollowing theme: shared values Iorm the
basis Ior consensus and integration which encourages the motivation and commitment oI
meaningIul membership. These same shared values also deIine an institutional purpose
which gives meaning and direction. From these properties comes an organization with
high levels oI implicit coordination and the capacity to adapt by projecting the existing
normative structure on ambiguous situations. These themes can be described in terms oI
Iour distinct hypotheses:

The Involvement Hypothesis

This hypothesis suggests that high levels oI involvement and participation create a
sense oI ownership and responsibility. Out oI this ownership grows a greater commitment
to an organization and a growing capacity to operate under conditions oI greater
autonomy. Increasing the input oI organizational members is also seen as increasing the
quality oI decisions and their implementation.

Ouchi (1980; 1981) suggests that the application oI these principles results in an
organizational Iorm called the "clan." Recent reviews oI the literature concluded that in
many cases there was only a modest relationship between participation and perIormance.
Nonetheless, the hypothesis is compelling and persists as a central hypothesis regarding
organizational culture and eIIectiveness.

The Consistency Hypothesis

The consistency hypothesis about the relationship between organizational culture
and eIIectiveness presents a somewhat diIIerent explanation. This perspective, in its
popular version, emphasizes the positive impact that a "strong culture" can have on
eIIectiveness; arguing that a shared system oI belieIs, values, and symbols, which are
widely understood by an organization's members, has a positive impact on their ability to
reach consensus and carry out coordinated actions. The Iundamental concept is that
implicit control systems, based upon internalized values, are a more eIIective means oI
achieving coordination than external control systems which rely on explicit rules and
regulations (Pascale, 1984). Shared belieIs and values are vital to organizational
eIIectiveness. Shared meaning has a positive impact because an organization's members
all work Irom a common Iramework oI values and belieIs which Iorms the basis by
which they communicate. The power oI this means oI control is particularly apparent
when organizational members encounter an unIamiliar situation: By stressing a Iew
general value-based principles upon which actions can be grounded, individuals are better
able to react in a predictable way to an unpredictable environment.

Very Iew theorists, however, have made a clear distinction between the
consistency hypothesis and the involvement hypothesis noted above. Upon closer
examination, while the involvement hypothesis asserts that the inclusion and participation
oI members in the processes oI the organization will outweigh the dissension,
inconsistency, and non-conIormity associated with a more democratic internal process,
the consistency hypothesis would assert that low levels oI involvement and participation
can be outweighed by high levels oI consistency, conIormity and consensus. EIIective
organizations seem to combine both principles in a continual cycle.

The Adaptability Hypothesis

The relationship between culture and adaptation usually consists oI the collective
behavioral responses that have proven to be adaptive in the past Ior a particular
organization. When conIronted with a new situation, an organization Iirst "tries" the
learned collective responses which are already a part oI its repertoire. When new
situations are unlike old, the capacity to unlearn the old code and create a new one
becomes a central part oI the adaptation process. The adaptation hypothesis asserts that
an organization must hold a system oI norms and belieIs which support the capacity oI an
organization to receive, interpret, and translate signals Irom its environment into internal
behavioral changes that increase its chances Ior survival, growth and development. Tichy
(1983) emphasizes that the capacity to manage change and strategic adaptation is a
central element to any organization's eIIectiveness. Thus, three aspects oI adaptability are
likely to have an
Impact on an organization's eIIectiveness: First is the ability to perceive and respond to
the external environment. One oI the distinguishing characteristics oI successIul Japanese
organizations is that they are obsessed with their customers and their competitors. Second
is the ability to respond to internal customers. Insularity with respect to other
departments, divisions, or districts within the same corporation exempliIies a lack oI
adaptability, and has direct impacts on eIIective perIormance. Finally, reacting to either
internal or external customers requires the capacity to restructure a set oI behaviors and
processes that allow the organization to adapt. Without this ability to implement an
adaptive response, an organization cannot be eIIective.
The Mission Hypothesis
The last major component oI this theory and a Iourth implicit hypothesis in the literature
on organizational culture is the importance oI a mission, or a shared deIinition oI the
purpose and direction oI an organization and its members. A sense oI mission provides
two major inIluences on an organization's Iunctioning: First, a mission provides purpose
and meaning and a host oI non-economic reasons why the work oI an organization is
important. Second, a sense oI mission provides clear direction and goals which serve to
deIine the appropriate course oI action Ior the organization and its members.
Both oI these Iactors grow out oI and support the key values oI the organization. A
mission provides purpose and meaning by deIining a social role Ior an institution and
deIining the importance oI individual roles with respect to the institutional role. Through
this process, behavior is given intrinsic, or even spiritual meaning that transcends
Iunctionally deIined bureaucratic roles. This process contributes both to short and long
term commitment and leads to eIIective perIormance. The second major inIluence that a
strong sense oI mission has on an organization is to provide clarity and direction.

General Impacts of Culture on an rganization

Research suggests that numerous outcomes have been associated either directly or
indirectly with organizational culture. A healthy and robust organizational culture may
provide various impacts, including the Iollowing:
Competitive edge derived from innovation and customer service Organizational
culture can be a Iactor in the survival or Iailure oI an organization - although this is
diIIicult to prove considering the necessary longitudinal analyses are hardly Ieasible. The
sustained superior perIormance oI Iirms like IBM, Hewlett-Packard, and McDonald's at
least partly, a reIlection oI their organizational cultures. Although little empirical research
exists to support the link between organizational culture and organizational perIormance,
there is little doubt among experts that this relationship exists.
Consistent, efficient employee performance A 2003 Harvard Business School study
reported that culture has a signiIicant impact on an organization`s long-term economic
perIormance. The study examined the management practices at 160 organizations over
ten years and Iound that culture can enhance perIormance or prove detrimental to
perIormance. Organizations with strong perIormance-oriented cultures witnessed Iar
better Iinancial growth.
High employee morale: It has been proposed that organizational culture may impact the
level oI employee creativity, the strength oI employee motivation, and the reporting oI
unethical behavior, but more research is needed to support these conclusions.
Additionally, a 2002 Corporate Leadership Council study Iound that cultural traits such
as risk taking, internal communications, and Ilexibility are some oI the most important
drivers oI perIormance, and may impact individual perIormance.
Team cohesiveness Organizational culture is reIlected in the way people perIorm tasks,
set objectives, and administer the necessary resources to achieve objectives. Culture
aIIects the way individuals make decisions, Ieel, and act in response to the opportunities
and threats aIIecting the organization. job satisIaction was positively associated with the
degree to which employees Iit into both the overall culture and subculture in which they
worked. A perceived mismatch oI the organization`s culture and what employees Ielt the
culture should be is related to a number oI negative consequences including lower job
satisIaction, higher job strain, general stress, and turnover intent.
Strong company alignment towards goal achievement Organizational culture also has
an impact on recruitment and retention. Individuals tend to be attracted to and remain
engaged in organizations that they perceive to be compatible. Additionally, high turnover
may be a mediating Iactor in the relationship between culture and organizational
perIormance. Deteriorating company perIormance and an unhealthy work environment
are signs oI an overdue cultural assessment.

Impact of rganizational Culture in mirates Hotels & Resorts

The Emirates Group is a public international travel and tourism conglomerate holding
company headquartered in Garhoud, Dubai, United Arab Emirates, by Dubai
International Airport. The Emirates Group comprises Dnata, an aviation services
company providing ground handling services at 17 airports and Emirates Airline, the
largest airline in the Middle East. The airline has 170 aircraIt on order worth US$
58 billion. The Emirates Group has a turnover oI approximately US$12 billion and
employs over 50,000 employees across all its 50 business units and associated Iirms,
making it one oI the biggest employers in the Middle East.|5| The company is wholly
owned by the Government oI Dubai directly under the Investment Corporation oI Dubai.
Emirates Hotel & Resorts (EH&R) is part oI the Emirates Group, widely known Ior its
Dubai-based international airline. Its Iirst project, Al Maha Desert Resort, was a
pioneering desert ecolodge. It led to the creation oI the Iirst-ever protected conservation
area in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), the Dubai Desert Conservation Reserve, in
2004.

Launched in 2006, Emirates Hotels & Resorts (EH&R) is Emirates Airline's premier
hospitality management division. EH&R's philosophy centres on the two most critical
global environmental issues: declining bio-diversity and emissions reduction. Our resorts
implement large-scale projects aimed at bio-diversity protection through habitat
rehabilitation, wildliIe protection, and the reintroduction oI threatened species into
scientiIically managed, protected, reserves. This conservation-based philosophy has been
successIully showcased through Al Maha Desert Resort & Spa in Dubai, UAE, which
opened in 1999. Al Maha was directly responsible Ior proposing, and now managing, the
surrounding 225 km2 Dubai Desert Conservation Reserve (DDCR). The largest Iormally
protected conservation reserve in the GulI, the DDCR is internationally recognised by the
United National Environment Programme (UNEP) and is a member oI the International
Union Ior Conservation oI Nature (IUCN). The same conservation-based philosophy was
replicated at Wolgan Valley Resort & Spa in Australia's Blue Mountains, which opened
in October 2009. The resort occupies just 2 oI a 4,000-acre conservancy reserve, which
is undergoing habitat rehabilitation aIter 100 years under agriculture. The only resort in
recent history to receive permission to be built adjacent to a World Heritage Area,
Wolgan is the Iirst hotel in the world to be internationally accredited as carbon neutral.

In addition to natural heritage conservation, EH&R has worked hard to protect the
cultural heritage oI the area. At Wolgan Valley, both settler and aboriginal culture are
preserved and celebrated, with guest events and activities Iocused on learning about both
the traditional aboriginal history oI the area, as well as the history oI the settlers. The
original settler Iarmhouse has been restored, along with its vegetable gardens and Iruit
orchards, and is used as a 'living' museum. Several Aboriginal archaeological sites have
also been located and preserved intact on the property, Iorming the basis oI several guest
activities Iocused on learning about Aboriginal culture.

The need for a Cultural Change

The Emirates Hotels and Resorts was about to open its Ilagship property.
There are over 280 employees Irom 32 diIIerent nationalities and each with
diIIerent hotel training with diIIerent service styles. As obvious as it is, each
employee and each staII had their own views, Iinding them with the same kind oI
thought and Iramework was a diIIicult task and then getting them to actually think
Ior the organization in a similar way and start to have a certain Iramework oI
loyalty to the company kept it Irom moving in the right path. The hotel was
supposed to be operational in 4 weeks and everyone is Iranticly running around to
complete their tasks by extra short deadline. Yet, despite eIIorts oI management to
align and create a uniIied vision, let alone culture, there was no uniIied identity and
individuals were acting and reacting as individuals and not as a cohesive Iorce.
Emirates wanted a cohesive Iorce that provided an exclusive type oI service in line
with the Emirates philosophy.

'A pattern oI shared basic assumptions that the group learned as it solved its
problems oI external adaptation and internal integration that has worked well
enough to be considered valid and, thereIore, to be taught to new members as the
correct way you perceive, think, and Ieel in relation to those problems is what
culture is deIined as.

When people are 'busy or 'stressed they tend to be on autopilot, they react
to situation aIter situation and Iorce Ieeding values and missions will have little
eIIect. Traditional 'Change Management approaches apply the 'change the
policies, reinIorce them, then eventually behavior will change while this does
work, its takes too long oIten highly resisted, and thereIore most oI the time gets
abandoned in the process. It was very much evident that there was a necessity oI
transIormation or some kind oI solution that would drive the company to not Iace
the major troubled scenarios that other companies had to go through. Also, it is an
extremely noteable Iact that the company was nowhere near a phase oI lavish time.
The limited time availability was also a major Iactor oI concern Ior the
organizational cultural transIormation.

The methodology of solving the problem
(The solution)

A new approach to changing and keeping a culture uses Directive Communication
Psychology to cultivate chain reaction change within the organisation itselI. There are #
steps in the process:

Step - senior management must be committed to the RESULT and not to their own
egos or hard Iast way oI doing things. In this case, the management had the commitment.

Step 2 - discover the Iactors that are bothering the majority oI the people. besides the
usual 'we want more money, some oI the real issues became apparent such as an
impression that respect was lacking between managers and subordinates. Additionally,
many Ielt that their input was valuable yet no one listened there was already an open
door policy Irom the GM, but no one used it. hmm. Senior management is consulted
and predetermine the guidelines that can be accepted Ior Instant implementation oI new
initiatives.

Step 3 - Discover who are the positive and negative Key InIluencers. In this case we
identiIied a total oI 22 positive Key inIluencers and 2 negative ones.

Step 4 - Apply the DC Revolution strategy by separating the total group into 2 groups oI
12. This process incorporates six 1day experiential trainings, each Iollowed by 1day
onsite implementation and dissemination oI experience gained at the workshop. The
process incorporated the psychological tools on how individuals could achieve their own
personal emotional and liIe goals through their work and related their own success as a
Iunction oI successIully cooperating with others. In an experiential environment, key
inIluencers become aware oI the eIIects they have had on their environment and how that
has aIIected their lives and success. They take responsibility Ior their world and no longer
blame others Ior their problems.

Step 5 - Address the emotional issues Iound in the discovery process. This is done
through creating guiding principles that they extract Irom their interactions with others in
the organisation. They become the representatives Ior the people.

Step 6 - Have coaches on site to assist in the dissemination oI inIormation and
implementation into the work processes. Each key inIluencers works with 5 others to
implement what they have learned and those 5 then work with 3 to 5 others. In essence,
the key inIluencers become the consultants and the coaches simply assist these 'inhouse
consultants to be eIIective.

Step 7 - have a halI day session where the entire organisation attends. The key
inIluencers perIorm scenes Irom work environment that all can relate to and how the
diIIiculties are overcome with the new knowledge that everyone has attained through the
program. Key inIluencers also present changes proposed by them and the other staII to
senior management.

Step 8 - senior management accepts the initiatives proposed why? Because they have
Iallen within the guidelines that were preset by the senior management in the discovery
process step 2.

The end result was that the people Ielt totally empowered, they Ielt like they were part
owners in the organisation and personally beneIited Irom its success. 5 months later
employees were still volunteering Ior extra duties (without pay) and were still conIidently
and passionately working as a uniIied culture they embraced.

Verdicts by the Team

'I probably need to pinch myselI to know that this is me. This program has
changed the way I think, the way I deal with people. I`m not as impatient and stressed out
like I used to be. Every situation now makes me pause to think oI the appropriate way to
address it. This program is a must! - Andre Leung, Administration Manager.

"This program has Iar exceeded our expectations, it has managed to achieve more
in 2 weeks what we have he been trying to implement Ior the past 6 months. It has added
a new dynamic in the whole approach to establishing a service culture. - Martin Le
Roux, Manager Planning, Projects & Development.

'The whole hotel is teaming with an energy that is truly exhilarating. I think the
program is so successIul because it calls on the signiIicance and substance oI people
rather than on material things and that is what service is all about. The revolutionary
attitude and group dynamics that came out oI this program can put into every aspect oI
our work across all departments and every stage oI the operations. - Bruno Hivon,
General Manager.

When an organization does not possess a healthy culture, or requires some kind oI
organizational culture change, the change process can be daunting. Culture change may
be necessary to reduce employee turnover, inIluence employee behavior, make
improvements to the company, reIocus the company objectives and/or rescale the
organization, provide better customer service, and/or achieve speciIic company goals and
results. Culture change is impacted by a number oI elements, including the external
environment and industry competitors, change in industry standards, technology changes,
the size and nature oI the workIorce, and the organization`s history and management.

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MANAGMNT F DIVRSITY

Diversity management is the key to growth in today`s Iiercely competitive global
marketplace. The "business case Ior diversity" theorizes that, in a global marketplace, a
company that employs a diverse workIorce (both men and women, people oI many
generations, people Irom ethnically and racially diverse backgrounds etc.) is better able to
understand the demographics oI the marketplace it serves and is thus better equipped to
thrive in that marketplace than a company that has a more limited range oI employee
demographics. An additional corollary suggests that a company that supports the
diversity oI its workIorce can also improve employee satisIaction, productivity, and
retention. This portion oI the business case, oIten reIerred to as inclusion, relates to how
an organization utilizes its various relevant diversities. II a workIorce is diverse, but the
employer takes little or no advantage oI that breadth oI that experience, then it cannot
monetize whatever beneIits background diversity might oIIer.

In most cases, US employers are prohibited by Iederal and state laws Irom giving
race or ethnicity any consideration in hiring or assigning employees. However, the US
Supreme Court has upheld the use oI limited preIerences based on race, ethnicity, and
sex, when there is a 'maniIest imbalance in a 'traditionally segregated job category.
Diversity management is a strategy that is intended to Ioster and maintain a positive
workplace environment.

"The key to managing a diverse workIorce is increasing individual awareness oI
and sensitivity to diIIerences oI race, gender, social class, sexual orientation, physical
ability, and age". There are several ways to go about creating the multicultural
organization that perIorms extremely well.

In her article, Judi Brownell identiIies three skills which help to develop eIIective
communication in diverse organizational environments. These skills include selI-
monitoring, empathy, and strategic decision-making. SelI-monitoring reIers to a
communicator's awareness oI how his or her behavior aIIects another person, and his or
her willingness to modiIy this behavior based on knowledge oI its impact. Empathy
enables the receiver to go beyond the literal meaning oI a message and consider the
communicator's Ieelings, values, assumptions, and needs. Strategic decision-making
implies that the communication sources and channels used to reach organization
members, as well as the substance oI the messages conveyed, are mindIully selected.
An example oI a company involved with creating diversity in the workplace is
MentorNet, a non-proIit online mentoring organization that Iocuses on women and
underrepresented minorities in the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics) Iields. MentorNet has used an algorithm to match over 30,000 mentor
relationships since 1997. The organization is unique because gives students, especially
women and underrepresented minorities, the chance to seek mentors to discuss how to
overcome diversity obstacles in their Iields and eventually their workplace.

Importance of Management of Diversity

Corporate leaders pay lip service to diversity, but they don`t really live it.
Diversity is more than employee demographics and support Ior a Iew non-proIits. You
can`t buy diversity, and organizations that continue to embrace this approach will tarnish
their brand. America is changing, and the new population careIully evaluates how
organizations relate to it. II you are not authentic, consumers and employees will begin to
question the authenticity and leadership oI your organization.

As Rohini Anand says, 'The traditional representation perspective originated Irom
the Civil Right era. This will never go away entirely. However, diversity must go
beyond this mentality. At Sodexo, diversity is embedded in our brand. The Sodexo
brand is synonymous with diversity. Though the Sodexo brand is not a known consumer
brand, diversity leadership deIines our brand it`s all about talent. Diversity is about
responding to the needs oI our clients in a holistic way.

'Companies must take a long term strategic approach to engage diverse talent.
Companies must deIine their role in the global marketplace. The train has leIt the
station. You may not be where you want to be with your diversity strategy, but you need
to get started! adds Kathy Hannan. 'Diversity is another way oI saying aIIirmative
action and we are Iorced to support it in order to protect our brand in the trade and
amongst our consumer audience. Diversity has no real value tangible to the growth oI
our business. UnIortunately, many executives still share this opinion today.

Consumer Packaged Goods (CPG) companies have been particularly eIIective
with diversity Irom a marketing initiative standpoint. However, this is diIIerent Irom
embracing diversity holistically. Companies must think about diversity beyond
addressing niche needs. Diversity is not just about accessing multicultural markets.
Companies must look more broadly to reinvent the way we think about how business is
done. How can diversity be pulled out oI this commoditized mentality? Diversity
leadership must drive innovative perspectives. Companies have not yet Iigured out how
to unlock the potential within markets and processes that must be enabled globally.

Diversity is much more than just a multicultural issue. Diversity is about
embracing many diIIerent types oI people, who stand Ior diIIerent things and represent
diIIerent cultures, generations, ideas, and thinking. As Ron Glover says, 'Innovation is
about looking at complex problems and bringing new views to the table. Diversity has
allowed IBM to be innovative and successIul Ior 100 years and to work across lines oI
diIIerences in 172 countries, amongst 427,000 employees. Diversity has moved away
Irom a nice-to-have, to a must-have Ior companies as a strategic business imperative.
KPMG has a multinational client base. We must understand their protocols, their ways oI
doing business. Diversity must move Irom just a value, to being operational.

enefits of Cultural Diversity on the rganization

Diversity is beneIicial to both associates and employers. Although associates are
interdependent in the workplace, respecting individual diIIerences can increase
productivity. Diversity in the workplace can reduce lawsuits and increase marketing
opportunities, recruitment, creativity, and business image. In an era when Ilexibility and
creativity are keys to competitiveness, diversity is critical Ior an organization's success.
Also, the consequences (loss oI time and money) should not be overlooked. Here are
some oI the reasons why management diversity is beneIicial to organizations:

enefits of Workplace Diversity

An organization's success and competitiveness depends upon its ability to embrace
diversity and realize the beneIits. When organizations actively assess their
handling oI workplace diversity issues, develop and implement diversity plans,
multiple beneIits are reported such as:

2 Increased adaptability
Organizations employing a diverse workIorce can supply a greater variety oI
solutions to problems in service, sourcing, and allocation oI resources. Employees
Irom diverse backgrounds bring individual talents and experiences in suggesting
ideas that are Ilexible in adapting to Iluctuating markets and customer demands.

3 roader service range
A diverse collection oI skills and experiences (e.g. languages, cultural
understanding) allows a company to provide service to customers on a global
basis.

4 Variety of viewpoints
A diverse workIorce that Ieels comIortable communicating varying points oI view
provides a larger pool oI ideas and experiences. The organization can draw Irom
that pool to meet business strategy needs and the needs oI customers more
eIIectively.

5 More effective execution
Companies that encourage diversity in the workplace inspire all oI their employees
to perIorm to their highest ability. Company-wide strategies can then be executed;
resulting in higher productivity, proIit, and return on investment.

6 etter Information provided
Organizations are recognizing the huge opportunity as well as the challenges oI
getting the best results out oI the varied collections oI people. Business leaders are
recognizing that even groups oI people who appear to be the same are oIten
diverse.

Adverse Impact of Cultural Diversity on the rganization

1. Diversity in Multinational corporation A business Iirm that has extensive
international operations in more than one Ioreign country is an MNC. They have a
total world view without allegiance to any one national home. They have
enormous economic power and impact. They also bring beneIits and controversies
to host countries.

2. Multicultural workforces and expatriates Their styles oI leadership,
motivation, decision making, planning, organizing, and controlling vary Irom
country to country. Expatriates have commonly known to suIIer several
discriminations in their work places around the world. People who live and work
abroad Ior extended periods oI time are called expatriates. They can be very costly
Ior employers. Progressive employers will try taking supportive measures to
maximize potential Ior expatriate success.

3. thical behavior across cultures: Ethical challenges in any organization are a
result oI cultural diversity and variations in governments and legal systems around
the world. The most prominent current issues they are Iacing deal mainly with
corruption, bribery, poor working conditions, child labor, prison labor, business
support Ior repressive governments, sweatshops, etc. The eIIective management oI
ethical issues requires that organizations ensure that their managers and employees
know how to deal with ethical issues in their everyday work lives. ThereIore,
organizational members must Iirst understand some oI the underlying reasons Ior
the occurrence oI unethical practices.

4. Cultural Relativism and thical Absolutism Here it is essential that we note
that multinational businesses should adopt core or threshold values that respect
and protect Iundamental human rights. Beyond the threshold, businesses should
adapt and tailor actions to respect the traditions, Ioundations, and needs oI
diIIerent cultures.

5. Prejudice and Discrimination Cox reIers to prejudice as 'attitudinal bias and a
means to prejudge something or someone on the basis oI some
characteristic...usually reIers to negative attitudes toward certain groups and their
members.15 In turn, discrimination reIers to a bias someone may have toward a
person based on that person`s group identity. Although these concepts are
diIIerent, they are closely interrelated. Cox states there are three sources oI
interpersonal prejudice: (1) perceived physical attractiveness, (2) communications
proIiciency and (3) legacy eIIects Irom the history oI intergroup relations

Approaches to Manage rganizational Diversity

nowing Culture
Figure out what exactly is Cultural identity. Cultural identity is relational -
a person`s identity, oI which culture is a part, is established in relation to and in
exchange with other people. The diIIerent components oI a person`s identity will
be emphasized depending on the Iramework oI interaction with others, e.g. the
local, regional, national, or global levels. Then one has to identiIy the dynamism
oI cultures. No culture is static, but changes over time.

2 nowing the Realities of cultural diversity
At a global level, more than 225 oIIicial languages spoken around the
world point to at least as many diIIerent cultural groups. With the increasing
intermixture oI members oI diIIerent cultural groups within (national) societies,
the exposure to diIIerent cultures is no longer limited to a Iew people who travel
abroad, but has become a Iact oI everyday liIe at all levels oI society.

3 nowing the Impacts of globalization
Increasing awareness oI cultural diIIerences is important. Globalization is
not a new phenomenon, but more readily available inIormation about other
cultures increases the sensitivity to cultural diIIerences. Homogenization oI
(popular) culture also shows a tendency oI converging worldwide.

4 nowing the Reactions to globalization
Persons with the means have to actively engage in global. Cultural
exchange tends to perceive culture as a process and develop an increased
receptivity towards other cultures. Cultural diversity is perceived as enrichment,
not a threat. Retreating into narrowly deIined cultural identity is the best way out.

5 Supporting a Culture of dialogue
In order to actively participate in culturally diverse societies, every
individual should be supported in eIIorts to develop an attitude that is receptive to
intercultural exchange, consisting oI several components:

(a) Knowledge: Accurate inIormation about the values, norms, historical
experiences and cultural reality underlying the words and actions oI others
serves to increase mutual understanding.
(b) Respect: While tolerance means not to interIere with others` ways oI living or
thinking, respect actually attaches a positive value to what one is or does, thus
going beyond mere tolerance. This respect, oI course, can be extended only iI a
person`s actions and ways oI thinking do not limit the rights and Ireedoms oI
other persons.

(c) Search Ior unity in diversity: As every person or social group reIlects a
multiplicity oI traditions and cultures, all individuals diIIer in some respects,
but in other regards have much in common. The lack oI appropriate means oI
exchange or selI-expression can lead to an alienation Irom the process oI
globalization and a retreat into a narrow sense oI cultural identity.

6 Cultural pluralism
It means accepting the diversity oI cultural identities and expressions while
at the same time recognizing commonalities among cultures. It builds on the
conviction that every individual has the capacity and should be given the means to
decide Ior herselI/himselI which cultural values to base their lives on. Cultural
relativism implies that all cultures are closed systems: no cultural standard set by
one culture can be applied to other cultures. Shows tolerance towards other
cultures, but denies cultural dynamics based on intercultural exchange. Cultural
absolutism assumes that there is a hierarchy oI cultures: 'minority cultures are
expected to subordinate to the dominant culture. II these show resistance, strong
barriers are erected between the dominant and minority cultures that tend to be re-
enIorced by both sides.

7 Providing the means for participation
Creating the basis Ior inIormed choices is vital Ior any organization
towards its last stage oI managing organizational diversity. When discussing
cultural characteristics, it is important to diIIerentiate between idealized images oI
cultures and their actual expressions in real liIe, both with regard to one`s own and
to other cultures. An exploration and discussion oI the values and norms, traditions
and social conditions actually at work in inIluencing worldviews in diIIerent
societies today will help to identiIy real as opposed to perceived cultural
diIIerences. Cultural pluralism is possible only iI members oI diIIerent cultural
groups within a local community, a nation state, or on the global level have
equal chances to reIlect their preIerences in political, social and economic
decision-making. This is where the promotion oI cultural pluralism links to human
development, with both a necessary condition to attain the other. Every person
should be able to gain access to all relevant inIormation needed Ior eIIective
participation in society.

8 Awareness of the dynamism of cultures
Keeping in mind that neither one`s own nor the culture oI others is static
lays the basis Ior an open exchange that includes changing the perception oI one`s
own cultural values and norms. The readiness to transIorm will give us the
recognition oI diIIerences alone does not yet lead to mutual understanding, but has
to be accompanied by a genuine receptivity to other viewpoints. Ultimately, one
should be prepared to transIorm one`s own world views by integrating other
perspectives into one`s ways oI thinking.

Strategic Alliances & Coalitions

Strategic alliances are cooperative arrangements between organizations belonging
to some country or diIIerent parts oI the world or diIIerent ends oI the supply chain.
These' alliances represent connection between otherwise independent organizations that
can take many Iorms and contain the potential Ior additional collaboration', which are
more than just the deal. They are mutual agreements to continue to get together to avail
oI stream oI opportunities.

Business alliances have come to be recognized, in the business world since the
early 1970s as prominent tool to derive synergistic beneIits, combat competitive threats,
access to latest technology, widen market base, and strengthen Iinancial position and
above all to achieve competitive edge on a sustainable basis. Alliances are a response to
uncertainty and provide comIort that the Iirm is taking action. They are a tool Ior
extending or reinIorcing competitive advantage, but rarely a sustainable means Ior
creating it. The alliances open up possibilities that could not have existed Ior either
partner acting alone.

There are a variety oI arrangements Ior joint developments and alliances. Some
may be very Iormalized inter-organizational relationships; at the other extreme there can
be very loose arrangements oI cooperation between organizations, with no shareholding
or ownership involved'. The reasons why these diIIerent Iorms oI alliances might occur
are varied, but they are likely to be conceived with the assets involved in the alliance. As
such, the Iorm oI the alliance is likely to be inIluenced by asset management, asset
separability and asset appropriability. Thus, alliances may take the Iorm oI networks
opportunistic alliances, subcontracting licenses and Iranchises, consortia, joint ventures
and acquisitions and mergers.

Various terms have been used to describe Iorms oI strategic partnering. These
include international coalitions` (Porter and Fuller, 1986), strategic networks` (Jarillo,
1988) and, most commonly, strategic alliances`. DeIinitions are equally varied. An
alliance may be seen as the joining oI Iorces and resources, Ior a speciIied or indeIinite
period, to achieve a common objective`. $trategic Alliances provides pioneering analysis
oI the circumstances leading to movement alliances. Contributors investigate coalition
dynamics among social movements, including antiwar, environmental, and labor
movements, as well as ethnic organizations and women`s groups. While many oI the
essays examine coalition Iormation in the United States, others consider coalitions in
Britain, the Iormer East Germany, East Asia, and Latin America.

It is Iair to say that some kinds oI strategic alliances are best known in the Ior
proIit sector (most notably, mergers and acquisitions) However, strategic alliances are an
important tool available Ior nonproIit organizations to enhance their ability to accomplish
mission and goals.

Management of diversity when strategic alliances and coalitions take place

Strategic alliances are a tool Ior accomplishing mission and important

organizational goals. The need Ior a strategic alliance should emerge Irom an agency
planning process. That planning process should help identiIy the concrete value provided
to the organization oI a strategic alliance. Ultimately, the importance oI a strategic
alliance needs to be balanced against the potential threat an alliance presents to an
organization`s identity, For example, is the security a potential alliance creates Ior an
organization`s Iuture more important than the potential loss oI identity created by the
alliance? The answer to that question can only be answered by the organization involved
in the strategic alliance. However, it is important to remember that all alliances do not
aIIect an agency`s identity; indeed, some alliances may not aIIect an agency`s unique
identity at all. Some oI the ways to deal with these strategic alliances and coalitions take
place are given below:

1. Understanding and managing with Language
Language is perhaps the most visible aspect oI culture. According to the WhorIian
hypothesis, language is considered as a major determinant oI thinking and processing.
There are Low-context cultures (where the message is conveyed by the words used, eg;
stereotype NewYorker) and High-context cultures (where the words convey only a
limited part oI the message, eg; a stereotype individual Irom Texas).

2. Understanding and managing with Time
Time orientation is another important Iactor relating to managing diversity. There
are polychronic cultures (where time is seen as a never-ending river, with no pressure Ior
immediate action or perIormance and an emphasis on the present) and there are
monochronic cultures (where time is discrete and not continuous, creating pressure Ior
action and perIormance and where long-range goals and planning are important).
Example oI polychronic culture is that oI Saudi Arabia, and monochronic is Canada.

3. Understanding and managing Space
Proxemics, which is the study oI how people use space to communicate, reveals
important cultural diIIerences. For example, North American executives who travel
internationally oIten complain about how closely people stand next to them in some
countries.

4. Understanding and managing Avoidance
There is always uncertainty in avoidance. The cultural tendency towards
discomIort with risk and ambiguity are much known to all the employees in a working
organization. There is always preIerence when it comes to a structured versus an
unstructured organizational situation. Example oI a high uncertainty avoidance culture
would be France and the example oI a low uncertainty avoidance culture is deIinitely a
place like Hong Kong.

5. Understanding and managing Culture
Culture could mean both values and national culture. The HoIstede`s Iive
dimensions oI national culture is the best way to describe it. It could stated culture as a
power distance, an uncertainty avoidance, an individualism collectivism concept, a
masculinity Ieminity Iocused, and a long term / short term oriented culture. For
example, in western culture, stereotypically, men are aggressive, competitive and
instrumentally oriented while women are passive, cooperative and expressive.

6. Understanding and managing Relationships
Every management has to ensure that they identiIy the cultural diIIerences in
handling relationships with other people. It is essential to relate to the concept oI
Universalism means relative emphasis on rules and consistency or on relationships and
their Ilexibility are to be understood and acted accordingly. Individualism means that
relative emphasis on individual Ireedom and responsibility and consensus should be
Iocused on. USA relates to universalism and China is more individualistic.

7. Understanding and managing rientation
There are both Long-term and short-term orientations. The tendencies oI a culture
to emphasize Iuture-oriented values versus present-oriented values are to be taken.
Adoptions oI long-term or short-term perIormance horizons are also included here.
Example oI a long-term orientation culture is South Korea. Example oI a short-term
orientation culture is United States.

8. Understanding and managing thics
Parochialism is assuming that the ways oI one`s own culture are the only ways oI
doing things. Ethnocentrism is assuming that the ways oI one`s culture are the best ways
oI doing things. An example oI parochialism is the Americans that believe that others
must learn our language and that Ior ethnocentrism is the belieI that our religion is better
than somebody else's.

9. Understanding and managing Individualism
The concept oI Individualism-collectivism is to be well understood. The cultural
tendency to emphasize individual or group interests grows minute by minute. PreIerences
Ior working individually or in groups also keep changing. Example oI an individualistic
culture is the United States and that oI a collectivist culture is Mexico.

10. Understanding and managing Gender quality
Masculinity-Iemininity has to be well understood beIore entering into this area.
The tendencies oI a culture to value stereotypical masculine or Ieminine traits are very
common these days. The main emphasize should be competition/assertiveness versus
interpersonal sensitivity/relationships. Example oI a masculine culture would be Japan,
whereas that oI a Ieminine culture is Thailand.

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Lmpowerment |n organ|zat|ons
Empowerment oI employees in the work place provides them with opportunities to
make their own decisions with regards to their tasks. Now-a-days more and more
bosses and managers are practicing the concept oI empowerment among their
subordinates to provide them with better opportunities. Employee empowerment is
considered by many organizational theorists and practitioners to be one oI the most
important and popular management concepts oI our time. Companies ranging Irom
small to large and Irom low-technology manuIacturing concerns to high-tech
soItware Iirms have been initiating empowerment programs in attempts to enhance
employee motivation, increase eIIiciency, and gain competitive advantages in the
turbulent contemporary business environment.
According to author Stewart, in her book Empowering People she describes that in
order to guarantee a successIul work environment, managers need to exercise the
'right kind oI authority. To summarize, 'empowerment is simply the eIIective use
oI a manager`s authority, and subsequently, it is a productive way to maximize
all-around work eIIiciency.
Share information with everyone this is the Iirst key to empowering people within
an organization. By sharing inIormation with everyone, you are giving them a clear
picture oI the company and its current situation. Another strong point that this brings is
trust; by allowing all oI the employees to view the company inIormation, it helps to build
that trust between employer and employee.
Create autonomy through boundaries this is the second key to empowerment
which also builds upon the previous one. By opening communication through sharing
inIormation, it opens up the Ieedback about what is holding them back Irom being
empowered.
Replace the old hierarchy with self-managed teams this is the third and Iinal key
to empowerment which ties them all together. By replacing the old hierarchy with selI-
managed teams, more responsibility is placed upon unique and selI-managed teams
which create better communication and productivity.
These keys are hard to put into place and it is a journey to achieve empowerment
in a workplace. It is important to train employees and make sure they have trust in
what empowerment will bring to a company. 'Empowerment is not giving people
power, people already have plenty oI power, in the wealth oI their knowledge and
motivation, to do their jobs magniIicently. We deIine empowerment as letting this
power out (Blanchard, K)."

Importance of mpowerment
1. Job satisIaction and a sense oI meaning in the work you do can be the most
powerIul reward the employee can get.

2. Motivates employees to put more eIIort to achieve higher wages or perIormance
bonuses given.

3. Task-speciIic knowledge is the best way to identiIy and solve problems to increase
productivity through better decisions taken by persons on the job rather than the
management.

4. Encouraging & getting the employees involved to play an active role in their work
place gives them the Ieeling oI responsibility to perIorm better. It gives them a
better sense oI belonging in their workplace.

5. Empowerment also points towards a career development path, motivating people
to work harder and perIorm as managers, even iI they are currently not holding
managerial positions.

6. By delegating authority to run the day to day business to those who are involved in
the task, people become energized and interested to Iorge ahead.

7. Minimizing the layers oI supervision, reducing costs and creating agility within a
business that is so important in today`s Iast phased global environment.

8. There develops a sense oI shared decision-making. Employees and/or teams may
have input into and inIluence over decisions ranging Irom high-level strategic
decisions to routine day-to-day decisions about how to do their own jobs.

9. Leadership development and training also enable them to not only to do their own
jobs better but also providing training in interpersonal/leadership skills and the
economics oI the business.

10. It helps the employees to identiIy and be aware oI the customer / the end user oI
the product and hence make the products accordingly and share their views on the
same with whom so ever concerned.
When an organization taps on to these beneIits Irom empowerment, the managers
must make sure to reward and recognize the achievements oI those who are empowered.
This boosts the morale oI the work Iorce Iurther while encouraging those who are lagging
behind to seize the opportunities to be empowered.

TH PRCSS F MPWRMNT
STP
Provide mployee tools that empower them to manage their own career paths and
professional development
This step works because employees are motivated to update their own inIormation
regularlywhether they have just completed a project or a course oI study. They know
that they receive something valuable in return: real-time Ieedback on their individual
employability, career options, and training and development resources.

STP 2
Motivate and innovate the employees` skills/knowledge
This step works because it`s simple and user-Iriendly, requiring almost no time or eIIort
Irom employees.
a. Easily update their proIessional inIormation any timein minutesto tell the
company about their new skills, projects, career expectations, ideas and outside
activities.
b. Automatically receive suggestions Ior additional career development, Iuture jobs
and roles on projects matching their updated skill sets.
c. Review their skill Iits and gaps Ior target positions.
d. Find training resources to cover gaps and meet actual business needs.
e. Explore career paths and apply Ior posted job openings.
I. Access personal progress reports on their employability and contributions to
business needs.

STP 3
Help the employees manage their data whenever possible
This step helps employees gain a sense oI control. They manage their own data directly
and gain an unprecedented view on possible career paths.
a. Update usable employee data at no extra cost.
b. Insight on what drives employee career and training decisions.
c. Proactive and visible talent management across the organization.
d. Opportunities to match the individual career aspirations with business needs

STP 4
Integrate new hires quickly so they become productive right away
The organization has the responsibility to create a work environment which helps Ioster
the ability and desire oI employees to act in empowered ways. The work organization has
the responsibility to remove barriers that limit the ability oI staII to act in empowered
ways.
a. Help new employees develop any critical skills they lack.
b. Stay in touch with new employees through career management tools.
c. Empowerment comes Irom the individual.

mpowerment of Different rganizational Units

ndividual members feel empowered if they are listened to their ideas are valued,
they are recognized for their contribution, encouraged, projected as important
members, consulted, etc. Empowerment or roles is also important. n fact,
motivation can be increased in employees by motivating and empowering the
roles (see Pareek,1993 for detailed discussion). f different roles have scope for
initiative, creativity, discretion, growth, linkages, etc., they are empowered. One
role deserves special attention, that of the leaders (senior managers). Even while
they can continue to control by using their leadership role), unless they attend to
important functions like visioning, strategic thinking and planning, searching and
nurturing talent, etc. Teams have their own dynamics, and need to be
empowered by clearer goals and freedom to work, with enough support by, the
management. Finally, the organization must also be an empowered organization,
inspiring and supporting other units in this process. n Exhibit 1 the indicators of
empowerment are mentioned for each of the five organizational units. n the next
column are mentioned the instruments which can and have been used to assess
the empowerment level.

Empowerment is both the process and the outcome. So it is difficult to separate
the indicators from the enablers of empowerment; indicators mentioned also
contribute and enhance empowerment in an organization. ndicators-enablers in
a way define empowerment. Empowerment is facilitated by some other factors
which also be seen" as its consequences; these are called enablers/first-level
outcomes. These are mentioned below, and in Column 4 of Exhibit 1. n the next
column 5 are mentioned the relevant instruments to assess these. Finally,
empowerment results in some consequences for making different organizational
units more effective; these, are called second level outcomes.

Organizations tackle the uncertainties of today's changing world by drawing out
the creative potential of the people who are the organization. Empowerment
means creating an environment where people are equipped and encouraged to
make decisions in autonomous ways and to feel that they are in control of the
outcomes for which they are responsible. t means opening the door for dissent,
avoiding groupthink and encouraging innovation. Empowerment involves
distributing authority throughout the organization. The leader's perspective is
where it all starts.

Empowering leaders behave in an empowering manner by (1) influencing
through context, (2) creating a culture of inclusion, (3) giving and not taking back
control, (4) providing moral and logistical support, (5) communicating a clear
mandate, and (6) equipping people for success.

At Individual Level

A Ieeling oI empowerment is generated by recognition, autonomy and support to work on
their tasks and develop strategies to achieve the goals to which they are committed.
Facing the challenges put Iorth by the current environment is only possible through team
work, eIIort, innovation, Ilexibility and adaptability. An empowered and talented team is
an important ingredient oI organizational success. A valued Ieature oI successIul teams is
that they have a high level oI empowerment or decision making authority.

Empowering employees is about more than just participation; it also involves individual
analysis, decision making, and action. Employee empowerment is a beneIicial process Ior
employees, managers, and the company as a whole. Employees Ieel more invested in the
company, valued as important contributors, and motivated to excel in their areas.

These day's companies understand the need Ior empowering employees Ior the success oI
the company and customer satisIaction, but t is also very common to not see it happening
across the departments. This is because lack oI inter-department communication, Iairly
eIIicient, ineIIicient and divisive coordination between the departments. A good BPM
model is in the position to analyze not only processes and departments, identiIy the
technology and resources needs, but also aid in employee empowerment. BPM will help
build strategy objectives and create operational disciplines such as: service/operational
excellence, outcome/results orientation, and collaborative/cross-Iunctional perspective.
By pinpointing which parts oI the business can be better coordinated and how we can
deIine this coordination, it will eliminate the decision-making loop holes. It will also help
individuals to make more inIormed decisions which will help increase the problem
solving capacity, increase day-to-day production in the operational areas and increase
long term growth (proIitability). For all companies, the customer is the Iocus;
service/product is the business and proIitability builds the Iuture. The company needs to
be one that customers can rely on to provide timely, exceptional quality, conscious
services through highly skilled proIessionals to meet the ever changing customer needs.
This asks Ior the commitment Irom the proIessionals working in the company, which is
heavily dependent on the kind oI empowerment the company provides to each oI the
proIessionals.

Empowerment can be diIIicult to quantiIy. There are no statistics or percentages by
which to measure its success. When it comes to empowerment, qualitative indicators are
the most important measure oI success. One has to understand, however, that change does
not occur overnight.

RoIe

For the roles, two aspects are important. The Iirst one is role eIIicacy or potential oI the
role to be eIIective (perceive scope Ior using one's assets, take initiative, try out new
ways, solve problems; have a sense oI being valued; opportunities oI growth; and
working Ior a large cause). The second aspect is to have optimum role stress and
capability oI eIIectively coping with stress.

Rather than as a lowly, know-nothing, the apprentice is viewed as an unskilled worker
with potential. He or she may be assigned tasks which are seemingly menial yet are
essential to the eIIective working oI the shop. The apprentice is expected to be aware oI
how the organization works and to ask questions at appropriate times. Also he or she is
expected to be eager to learn new skills and to practice these skills under the guidance oI
journeymen and masters. A selI-directed workIorce is a puzzle to most in management in
the same way that land is a mystery to dolphins.

They may be masters oI their domain and seem to be in control, but in a world oI selI-
actualizing employees, they are completely out oI their element. Companies today are
looking to create and dominate emerging opportunities. A selI-directed learning
organization is a competitive advantage in exploiting those opportunities. Those
organizations that have achieved this state realize they simply can`t be disorganized or
ineIIicient, except to people who don`t understand. They have achieved a true paradigm
shiIt in the transIormation oI the governance model oI an organization.

People don`t produce well in spite oI 'loose management practices such as selI-
direction. They produce well because oI them. SelI-direction begins with creating space
Ior people. In many companies, creating this space is seen as losing eIIiciency. When
managers truly create this space, though, they may lie awake at night worrying about
what someone might be doing at that very moment.

Since most managers cannot live with this anxiety Ior too long they tend to err on the side
oI more control, not less. This leads to their tendency to assume the role oI controlling
managers who hold down the costs oI output. This is the polar opposite oI the role oI
empowering managers who use selI-direction to Iocus on increasing the output per unit oI
cost. A control-oriented manager might be more eIIective in a shrinking business but an
empowering manager will most likely be more eIIective in a growing business.

In looking at a successIul human activity, a trait that consistently shows up is that success
has been steadIastly rooted in the newly discovered capacity oI the people involved.
People have a natural tendency to expand outward and create networks. In doing so they
become part oI a larger system. These systems can be stimulated but they do not accept
direction.

3 Leadership

Leadership role requires special attention. Some Iunctions are more important Ior an
eIIective leader (called transIormational ,Iunctions, like visioning, the boundary
management, searching and developing talents etc.), compared with what 'are called
"transactional" Iunctions (eg. planning, coordinating, rewarding competence, etc.).

In looking at a successIul human activity, a trait that consistently shows up is that success
has been steadIastly rooted in the newly discovered capacity oI the people involved.
People have a natural tendency to expand outward and create networks. In doing so they
become part oI a larger system. These systems can be stimulated but they do not accept
direction.

Leadership is the process oI developing the vision oI success and the collaborative
support to achieve it. Whereas empowerment is the process oI enabling through
inIormation, support, opportunity. ThereIore, when empowering the leaders, it:

Helps to deIine key values and uses these principles to guide action
Participates in scanning the environmentinternally and externallyIor
inIormation critical to the agency`s mission
Keeps the mission in Iocus and articulates it clearly
Facilitates creation oI a vision oI excellence, a compelling scenario oI a preIerred
Iuture
Allows others to be empowered to create and implement plans to enact the shared
vision.

Empowerment works when leaders examine the work environment and to identiIy
barriers getting in the way oI responsible Ireedom. It insures employees closest to a
problem or need have the authority to make judgments on how the problem is solved or
the need met. Empowerment does not mean unlimited license...just do whatever you
need to do.. It means responsible Ireedom. It means employees who balance the
Ireedom to go the extra mile Ior the customer with the responsibility oI taking care oI the
organization. It means thinking and acting more like an owner, and not like a brainless
slave who simply 'does what he or she is told. Organizations can no longer aIIord
Iront-line people reluctant to use their Iull capacity at work. Cop out behind, 'I just did
what I was told, or 'Just tell me what to do, and everyone loses.

It is not a giIt bestowed by a benevolent leader. Leaders don`t GIVE power. Power
already exists in the employee. The job oI the leader is to release power...that is, to
remove the barriers that keep employees Irom acting with power. Empowerment is a
partnership in Iocused energy and go the extra mile` enthusiasm.

Teams

A team is a small number oI people with complementary skills who are committed to a
common purpose, perIormance goals and approach Ior which they hold themselves
mutually accountable. It Ialls anywhere Irom 2 to 25. Team size oI 8 to 12 is optimal. The
larger the group oI people, the harder it is to get them all together at the same time.
Teams need to have a clear sense oI direction, enough autonomy to work on their tasks,
and enough support to do their work. We can teach principles related to trust, but that
does not have much to do with building trust. Trust is not a skill that can be acquired
intellectually. You cannot gather all oI your team members into a classroom one day, and
say, 'Folks, today we are going to learn to trust each other. It simply does not work that
way.

Team success is dependent on a healthy interaction oI employees with customers, while
supported by management.
Together
veryone
Achieves
More

Best Practice organizations think that teams can be empowered, while at the same time,
work within the structure and discipline imposed by their organization, and that the
organizations that Iail at teaming oIten cite the lack oI structure as a contributing Iactor.

The key to success is in knowing what kind oI structure to impose and how much.
Predictable things arise which cause teams to waste time, team leadership to suspect
things are running amok, and executive management to worry whether organizational
goals are being met.

In many organizations, groups oI employees are "anointed" as teams, told they are
"empowered" and are expected to act accordingly. This approach can result in a Ilurry oI
interest and excitement about teaming, and some groups may even achieve a measure oI
success. However, at some point in the liIe cycle oI most teams, unresolved internal
issues emerge which threaten the teams' ability to meet their business objectives. These
unresolved issues can jeopardize the very existence oI a team, since the lack oI resolution
can lead to Irustration and disengagement on the part oI team members.

Managing empowerment by using a structured approach enables the organization to
change and realize improvement in business objectives simultaneously. By putting some
structure in place up Iront, and addressing the "predictable" behaviors in a disciplined
Iashion, the risk oI unresolved issues will decrease signiIicantly. Organization leadership
becomes more willing to buy-in because the process is business Iocused, not just a "Ieel
good" exercise.

5 rganization

The organization needs to have structural mechanisms oI empowerment. One such
mechanism is delegation. Three aspects are important Ior. delegation: amount oI
delegation by the role occupant, the process oI delegation and Iacilitating Iactors Ior
delegation. The other aspects oI structural empowering are:

Dehierarchisation, usually called delayering - i.e., reducing the levels in an
organization in making decisions;
decentralization, i.e., decision making to levels where action is involved;
debureaucratisation, i.e., reducing paper work and red tape in decision making
and simpliIying rules and procedures resulting in Iaster sharing sensitive and
strategic inIormation at various levels, and Iacilitating horizontal, top-down and
bottom-up communication;
decontrol i.e., reducing outer control to increase others' autonomy and to Iree
oneselI Ior more strategic inIluence.

The three keys that managers must use to empower their employees are: share
inIormation with everyone, create autonomy through boundaries and replace the old
hierarchy with selI-managed teams.

In order to guarantee a successIul work environment, managers need to exercise the
'right kind of authority. To summarize, 'empowerment is simply the eIIective use oI a
manager`s authority, and subsequently, it is a productive way to maximize all-around
work eIIiciency.

Share information with everyone this is the Iirst key to empowering people within an
organization. By sharing inIormation with everyone, you are giving them a clear picture
oI the company and its current situation. Another strong point that this brings is trust; by
allowing all oI the employees to view the company inIormation, it helps to build that trust
between employer and employee.

Create autonomy through boundaries this is the second key to empowerment which
also builds upon the previous one. By opening communication through sharing
inIormation, it opens up the Ieedback about what is holding them back Irom being
empowered.

Replace the old hierarchy with selI-managed teams this is the third and Iinal key to
empowerment which ties them all together. By replacing the old hierarchy with selI-
managed teams, more responsibility is placed upon unique and selI-managed teams
which create better communication and productivity. These keys are hard to put into
place and it is a journey to achieve empowerment in a workplace. It is important to train
employees and make sure they have trust in what empowerment will bring to a company.

mpowerment in an rganization
(DHL International U( Ltd)

Study Findings
The study participants were presented with several statements to assess the perceived importance
oI people and people management Ior organizational competitiveness. Participants were
requested to show how strongly they agreed with these statements on a 5-point Likert scale. In
Iocusing on employee empowerment, the participants were presented with several proposed best
practices and were asked to assess their applicability and criticality Ior a successIul people
management system.

Employee empowerment best practices
For the purpose oI the study, the practices proposed were considered validated as best practices`
iI 75 oI the respondents either agreed or strongly agreed with the statement and less than 5
strongly disagreed`. The reasoning behind this choice oI 75 point was that the concepts being
proposed were exploratory in nature. They were practices suggested Ior Iuture success, and have
only been applied by pioneers |best perIormers in their Iields|, or suggested in the literature to
date. Thus they would be new to most organizations questioned, and would present a change
Irom the norm. II 75 agreed that they are best practices` and none disagreed, then it could be
concluded that most oI the remaining respondents do not hold any strong opinions |Ior or
against| probably due oI lack oI experience with the idea. This would be suIIicient grounds upon
which to conclude that such a practice would have positive outcomes when properly applied in
an organization. A literature review on related studies has revealed similar approaches, and
demonstrated that there is no clear cut-oII point.

Employee empowerment study results
Employee empowerment can be termed the most arguable concept in the management oI the
90`s`. Various literature sources |Peters, 1997||Oakland, 1993||Albert and Bradley, 1997||Ganz,
1994| have deIined it, and many organizations claim they employ it. However, iI one asks a
hundred people what empowerment means or entails, one is guaranteed at least 99 diIIerent
answers. Empowerment in general terms is handing the power oI decision and action to the
employees and giving them more authority and responsibility to achieve their job and thus
customer satisIaction.

86.9 oI the study participants agreed and conIirmed this as a best practice. The concept oI
participative decision making is at the heart oI empowerment. However, there are various
degrees oI employee participation in making decisions. This varies Irom merely asking
employees what they think in general meetings to treating the employees as business people. It is
the ultimate accountability strategy |Peters, 1997|. This Iorm oI empowerment will require a
culture shiIt to one that balances the reward with responsibility, ensures training Ior the required
skills, sets a clear measurement system, and employs a continuous improvement system and
organisational structure that Iacilitates it. Although this practice has been proposed in extreme
terms (rule breaking versus customer satisIaction), it received a relatively large level oI support
(63.9), not enough to conIirm it as a best practice, but enough to support the concept and
maybe conIirm it aIter minor adjustments.

The main criticism Irom study participants was breaking the rule`. However, breaking the rule`
does not advocate doing anything unethical or illegal. It advocates the need to change habit
patterns, break Iamiliar rhythms, and turn stones which should not be turned, these patterns,
rhythms, and anchors which have somehow evolved into rules`. The responses were very
surprising and very low support was given Ior this idea. Given the importance both oI the work
place layout and oI making employees Ieel that they belong, it is not very clear why participants
did not support this idea.

Again, there was insuIIicient support to declare it a best practice |67|, but there was a clear
interest. This idea is part oI the overall package oI employee accountability. II organizations tend
to let employees participate in decision-making, have the responsibility Ior their own training,
and accountability Ior the results oI their work, it seems natural that they should set their own
goals Ior production. There are oI course certain criteria that have to be in place like all goals
should be in line with the organizational overall goals, and in some cases in manuIacturing
organizations, there are physical limitations like machine capacity and economic batch sizes.

This practice received a lot oI resistance. Service organizations claimed that there needs to be a
certain company image they would like to maintain, and manuIacturing organizations had an
additional note about production requirements (health, saIety, etc.).

onclusions
The study has identiIied several concepts and approaches relating to employee empowerment
that leading organizations consider to be best practices. Clearly the whole concept oI employee
empowerment` is still an inIant in terms oI practical implementation. Although various beneIits
stand to be gained, organizations are still not willing to hand down power to employees and the
control` mentality is still abundant. This has to change, and is gradually doing so. The Iuture oI
work relies on knowledge workers and the competitive advantage oI organizations is their
people. Moreover, the contract between organizations and employees will undergo dramatic
changes, and the organizations are already changing the way they hire, reward, train, and rely on
their employees. Within this context, organizations must be ready to oIIer a system oI
empowerment to allow employees to produce their Iull potential. Any residues oI the command
and control culture are very strong obstacles Ior achieving maximum employee potential. Thus,
this requires a change in management style. There is no on single best practice system or Iormula
Ior organizations to Iollow and implement. What the study has provided are well proven best
practices that represent the pieces to a puzzle. Each organization should take the appropriate ones
and build their own picture that drives them and their people to excellence. The only constant in
all the practices proposed is the emerging theme oI people involvement and in all the thought
process and relevant decision making points. This Iormula, coupled, with a shared vision towards
the overall beneIit oI the organization and its people is the true path Ior Iuture perIormance
excellence.