bio test 3

Chapters 27, 28, 29, 30

3/31/2009 12:37:00 PM

Chap 27 homeostasis and the organization of the animal body How do animals maintain internal constancy? Homeostasis- describes the constancy of the bodys internal environment. The internal environment seethes with activity as the body continuously adjusts to internal and external changes. The internal state of an animal body is dynamic equilibrium. The equilibrium conditions are maintained by feedback systems. Negative feedback-systems counteract the effects of changes in the internal environment. It is the most important mechanism governing homeostasis. Because the initial change triggers a response that reverses its effects, the overall result is to return the system to its original state. It is negative because it reverses or negates the initial change. Positive feedback-systems (less common) reinforce changes when such reinforcement serves a physiological need. It produces a response that intensifies the original change. This creates chain

reactions. The set point in the temp control system varies by 1 degree in healthy people is located in your hypothalamus, which controls homeostatic responses. Positive feedback drives events to a conclusion. Events governed by positive feedback mechanisms are generally self limiting and occur infrequently. Positive feedback occurs during childbirth. Bodys internal system In order to maintain homeostasis, chemical signals are transported throughout the body, acting only on appropriate target cells that are specialized to receive and respond to specific signals. How is the animal body organized? Cells--tissues--organs--organ systems Tissues are composed of many cells that act in concert to perform its function.

Tissues are building blocks for organs, which perform complex functions. Ex. Stomach, small intestine, kidneys, bladder. Organ systems are groups of organs that function in a coordinated manner. Ex. Digestive system.

Tissues Epithelial tissue covers the body, lines its cavities, and forms glands Epithelial cells are the bodys gatekeepers, protecting and regulating mvmt of substances into and out of the body. Epithelial tissue is bound to loose connective tissue from continuous sheets of cells called membranes. These membranes cover the body and line its cavities such as the mouth and the stomach. No blood vessels penetrate epithelial tissue. It is nourished by diffusion from capillaries. Epithelial tissues are continuously lost and replaced by mitotic cell division. Your stomach lining is replaced every 2-3 days Your epidermis is renewed about twice a month. Some epithelial tissues fold inward and their cells change shape and

function to form glandsclusters of cells that are specialized to secrete substances. o Exocrine gland- remain connected to the epithelium by a passageway. These are your sweat glands and salivary glands o Endocrine glandsbecome separated from the epithelium that produced them. Produce mainly hormones. Connective tissue Connective tissue serve to support and bind other tissues. Most have a lot of extracellular substances. With exception of blood and lymph, connective tissues are interwoven with flexible, fibrous strands of extracellular protein called COLLAGEN which is secreted by the cells. There are 3 connective tissues: o Loose connectivecombines with epithelial cells to form membranes. Contains capillaries that nourish the epithelium. Ex is dermis

o Fibrous connectiveincludes tendons which connect bones to muscle. And ligaments which connect bones to bones. Tissues contains collagen fibers. o Specialized connective Cartilage- flexible and resilient with widely spaced cells. Provides support for respiratory passages, ears, nose, and shock absorbing pads. Bone-has a hardened matrix by deposits of calcium phosphate. Bone forms in concentric circles around a central canal. Fat- collectively called adipose tissue and are for long term energy storage. Blood-considered connective tissue bc they are composed largely of extracellular fluids. Cellular portion made up of red blood cells (transport oxygen), white blood cells (fight infection), and cell fragments called platelets (aid in blood clotting). All these are suspended in plasma. Lymph-consists of fluid that has leaked out of blood

capillaries (smallest blood vessels) and is carried back to the circulatory system within lymph vessels. Muscle tissue has ability to contract Skeletal musclegenerally under voluntary or conscious control. Main function is to move skeleton. Cardiac musclelocated only in heart. It is involuntary. These muscle cells are interconnected by gap junctions through which electrical signals spread through the heart, which stimulated the muscle cells to contract. Smooth musclelacks orderly arrangement of thick and thin filaments seen in cardiac and skeletal muscles and is in the walls of digestive track and large blood vessels. Nerve tissue Nerve tissuemakes up the brain, spinal cord. Nerve tissue is composed of 2 types of cells:

 Organs

o Neuronsaka nerve cellswhich are specialized to generate electrical signals and to conduct these signals to other neurons, muscles, or glands. o Glial cellssurround, support, electrically insulate and protect neurons. Also regulate composition of extracellular fluid. Dendrites receive signals from other neurons The axon carries electrical signals to other cells Synaptic terminals transmit the signals to other cells. include 2 or more interacting tissue types The structure of skin is a representation of many organs. It has an outer epithelium, underlain by connective tissue that contains blood supply, a nerve supply, muscle, and glandular structures.

Chapter 28 Circulation Circulatory systems have 3 parts: Bloodserves as a medium of transport Blood vesselssystem of channels that conduct the blood throughout the body. Heartthe pump that keeps the blood circulating. Circulatory systems for animals have 2 types Open circulatory systempresent in many invertebrates such as arthropods, spider, insects. Open circulatory system means that you have one or more hearts, a network of blood vessels, and a large open space within the body called a HEMOCOEL. o The heart pumps blood through vessels that release blood into the hemocoel. Tissues and organs are directly bathed in blood. Closed circulatory systempresent in some invertebrates such as earthwork and active mollusks. This is what humans have. Blood in our body is 5-10% by volume and blood is confined to just blood vessels and the heart. This system allows more rapid blood flow and efficient transport of wastes and nutrients, and higher blood pressure is possible. Vertebrate circulatory system has many functions

 Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide Distribute nutrients Transport waste Distribute hormones Regulation of body temp Protection of the body against blood loss and disease How does the heart work in vertebrates? Our heart consists of muscular chambers capable of strong contractions. Atria (atrium) collect blood and its contractions send blood to the ventricles Ventricleschambers whose contraction circulate blood through the body. 2 chamber hearts Hearts of fishes are the fist vertebrates to evolve, consist of two contractile chambers. They have one atrium and one ventricle. Blood passes from the ventricle through the gill capillaries. 3 chamber hearts evolved from fish rising to amphibians and then to reptiles. Heart consists of two atria and one ventricle. Deoxygenated blood from the body is delivered into the right atrium, while blood from the lungs travels into the left atrium. Both aria empty into the single ventricle. Most oxygenated blood stays in left atrium. 4 chamber hearts warm blooded and mammals with high metabolism require more efficient delivery of oxygen to their tissues. Separate right and left ventricles isolate oxygenated from deoxygenated blood, ensuring that blood reaches the tissues has the highest possible o2 content. The right atrium receives oxygenated depleted blood from the body through 2 large veins: Superior vena cava and inferior vena cava. Oxygen rich blood from lungs enters the left atrium through pulmonary veins and is then squeezed into the left ventricle. Human heart pumps 100000 times a day. Cardiac cycle: o the two atria first contract in synchrony, emptying their contents into the ventricles

o then the two ventricles contract simultaneously, forcing blood into arteries that exit the heart o bother atria and ventricles then relax before the cycle repeats veinscarry blood to atria arteriescarry blood away from ventricles

Right pump Right atrium receives O2- poor blood from body by superior and inferior vena cava Right ventricle ejects O2 poor blood into pulmonary arteries to be oxygenated by lungs Left pump Left atrium receives O2 rich blood from lungs by pulmonary veins Left ventricle ejects o2 rich blood into aorta to be distributed to body tissues blood flow direction atrioventricular valvesallow blood to flow from the atria into the ventricles (but not reverse). Second pacemaker cell cluster. In right atrium. Sends impulse to ventricles by excitable fibers. semilunar valvesallow blood to enter the pulmonary artery and the aorta when the ventricles contract and prevent it from returning as the ventricles relax. Nervous system influence on heart and heart rate Pacemakera cluster of specialized heart muscle cells that produce spontaneous electrical signals at a reg rate. Sinoatrial (SA) nodeis the hearts primary pacemaker, located in the upper wall of the right atrium. Nerve impulses and hormones alter heart rate. Parasympathetic nervous systemregulates the body systems during periods of rest. Slows heart rate. Sympathetic nervous systemprepares the body for emergency action, accelerates the heart rate during exercise or stress. Under stress, the hormone EPHINEPHRINE is released Stimulates SA node and increases heart rate Blood pressure Systolic pressureblood pressure during ventricular contraction

 Diastolic pressureblood pressure during ventricular relaxation. Heart valves They insure one way flow of blood through the heart Insures that O2 poor blood is sent to lungs and O2 rich blood is sent to body tissues Atrioventricular valvesallow blood to flow from atria to ventricles. Semilunar valvesallow blood to flow from ventricles to arteries Blood flow RIGHT ATRIUM RIGHT VENTRICLE PULMONARY ARTERIES TO THE LUNGS INTERACTS WITH THE LUNG TISSUE TO RE-OXYGENATE THE CELL PULMONARY VEINS FROM THE LUNGS LEFT ATRIUM LEFT VENTRICLE AORTA BODY TISSUES SUPERIOR & INFERIOR VENA CAVA What is blood? River of life contains plasma, which is mainly water where proteins, salts, nutrients, and wastes are dissolved. Plasma has 3 proteins: o Albuminshelps maintain the bloods osmotic pressure o Globulinstransport nutrients and play a role in the immune system. o Fibrinogenimportant in blood clotting. Plasma is 55-60% of blood volume. Red blood cells carry O2 from the lungs to the tissues The most abundant type blood cell is the red blood cells called ERYTHROCYTES. Each drop of blood contains 5 million erythrocytes which is 99% of all blood cells and about 40% of total blood volume in females and 45% in males. hemoglobin

The red color is caused by the pigment hemoglobin. Contains iron. It is 1/3 of the weight of each red blood cell. Carries 97% of O2. Hemoglobin binds loosely to oxygen, picking it up in the capillaries of the lungs. Hemoglobin becomes a deeper red when O2 is released. It is composed of 4 polypeptide chains and four iron containing heme groups. Red blood cells have a short life cycle Red blood cells are formed in bone marrow. During formation, nucleus is removed. Red blood cells live 4 months. 2 million red blood cells die per second and are replaced by new ones from bone marrow. o Dead cells removed by liver and spleen o The iron is recycled and used to form more hemoglobin. The number of red blood cells in blood determines how much O2 it can carry. This number is maintained by a negative feedback system that involves the hormone erythropoietin. It is produced by the kidneys and released into the blood in response to O2

deficiency. Blood type Blood type is determined by specific proteins on red blood cell membranes Groups are A, B, AB, and O Based on the types of glycoproteins on their plasma membranes (antigens) A blood attacks B blood and vice versa. Mixing these bloods can cause blood clumping inside blood vessels. Rh factortype of protein in red blood cells. If the protein is positive, it is considered Rh positive, if absent, Rh negative. The presence of the Rh factor is important in transfusions and in pregnancy. Rh positive is a dominant genetic trait. White blood cells 5 common types. White blood cells are also called LEUKOCYTES make up less than 1% of all blood cells

protect body against disease o lymphocytescan produce antibodies used in immunity. o Macrophagesmobile and amoeba like. Engulf foreign particles and bacteria. White blood cells are derived from cells that originate in bon marrow. Cells that give rise to lymphocytes migrate from the bone marrow through the blood stream to tissues of the lymphatic system, such as the thymus, spleen, and lymph node. Cell fragments that aid in blood clotting. Pieces of large cells called megakaryocytes. They remain in bone marrow. Clotting takes 1012 days. Blood clots form from sticky fibrin protein threads, platelets, forming patch over wound site. Interactions among circulating plasma proteins particularly thrombin and fibrinogen, contribute to clot formation.

Platelets

Clotting Clotting begins when blood comes in contact with injured tissue. The ruptured surface causes platelets to adhere and partially block the opening. Both the adhering platelets and the ruptured surface causes platelets to adhere and partially block the opening. One important outcome of the chemical reactions that take place during clotting is the production of the enzyme THROMBINwhich catalyzes the conversion of the plasma protein FIBRINOGEN into soluble strands of protein called FIBRIN. Fibrin proteins adhere to one another, forming a fibrous network on top of the aggregated platelets.

Pattern of blood flow Blood flows through blood vessels Flows from: o Arteries to arterioles to capillaries to venules to veins back to heart. Arteries help pump the blood and maintain its steady flow through the smaller vessels.

Arteries branch into vessels of smaller diameter called ARTERIOLES which determine how blood is distributed. Arteries contain smooth muscle and elastic tissue with withstand high pressure. Elastic recoil maintains blood pressure during diastole. capillaries Arterioles (blood vessels) conduct blood to capillaries, which are the tiniest of all vessels where the actual process of diffusion occurs. Allow exchange of materials between blood and body cells. Blood pressure drives fluid leakage out of capillaries and into spaces surrounding tissue cells. Veins Venules merge to form veins Contain smooth muscle and elastic tissue o Wider, thinner walled and more expandable than arteries o Contain one way valves that allow blood to flow only to heart o Skeletal muscle contractions compress veins and drive blood movement towards heart. o After picking up CO2, capillary blood drains into larger vessels

called venules. o Veins provide low resistance that conduct blood back toward the heart. o Contractions of skeletal muscles help squeeze the veins and force blood to return to the heart. Arterioles control distribution of blood flow Muscular arteriole walls contract and relax to redirect blood flow and regulate blood pressure. Capillary blood flow controlled by precapillary sphincter muscles. Lymphatic system Returns fluids to blood. As interstitial fluid accumulates, its pressure forces the fluid through the openings between the cells in the lymph capillaries. The lymphatic system transports this fluid called LYMPH back to circ system. Thymus and spleen are part of lymph system. Transports fats from small intestine to bloodstream

Contribute to immunity. Lymph vessels are similar to veins with having one way valves Muscle contractions drive lymph flow. Elephantiasisa disease caused when parasitic roundworms colonizes lymph vessels Lymph system fights diseases Tonsilspatches of connective tissue containing lymphocytes o Destroy bacteria and viruses Lymph nodeskidney shaped structures found connecting lymph vessels Thymusfound above heart, important site for lymphocyte development Spleenin abdominal cavity. It filters blood instead of lymph and destroys old red blood cells.

Chapter 29 Respiration Cellular respiration converts the energy in nutrients into ATP that can be used by body cells. Respiration depletes O2 and increases CO2, creating concentration gradients that favor the diffusion of CO2 outside of cells and the diffusion of O2 into them. Blood transports CO2 from tissue to lungs CO2 released from lungs during exhalation. Respiratory systems have 3 features The respiratory surface must remain moist because gases must be dissolved in water when they diffuse in or out of cells. Cells lining respiratory surface are thin to optimize gas diffusion The respiratory surface area must be large to allow for adequate gas exchange. Some animals in moist environments lack specialized respiratory structure Low energy demands translate into larger animals that rely on their moist body surface for gas exchange. o Larger size possible bc less O2 needed by cells o Ex: jellyfish

Some animals bring the environment close to all their cells o Allows greater exposure O2 o Ex: sponges Resp systems facilitate gas exchange They more effectively exchange gases between the environment and an animals body. Resp systems alternate BULK FLOW of air/water and diffusions of gases. BULK FLOWdescribes when fluids or gases move through spaces from high pressure to low pressure. It contrasts with diffusion, which is when individual molecules move from high concentration to lower concentration. Stages of gas exchange in mammals: Air moves past resp surface by bulk flow O2 and CO2 are exchanged by diffusion gases transported to/from tissues by bulk flow gases exchanged with tissues by diffusions. Gills in aquatic environments Gills are external projections of the body that exchange gases. Gills are branched or folded to maximize surface area. Have many capillaries to bring blood to body surface for gas exchange Protected by bony flap OPERCULUM Gills cant support themselves without water. Terrestrial animal resp system Gas exchange is optimized across moist surfaces because gases must be dissolved in water to diffuse across membranes. Have tracheae and lungs Tracheae: elaborately branched internal tubes that deliver air to body cells. Used by insects. Branch into smaller tubes called tracheoles. Air enters through SPIRACLES. Are internal chambers containing moist respiratory Developed to allow ancestral fish to survive in stagnant (O2 poor water)

Lungs

Many amphibians use the skin as a supplemental respiratory surface, ex: a bullfrog In reptiles: Scales reduce body water loss Scales reduce gas exchange through skin Lungs have more resp surface Ex: mangrove snake In birds: Exclusively lung breathers Bird lungs filled with thin walled tubes (parabronchi) Human resp system Divided into two parts: Conducting portionconsists of a series of passageways that carry air into and out of the gas exchange portion. o Warms and moistens air on way to lungs o Debris in air sticks to mucus that lines resp passages o Air passes through nose or mouth into the PHARYNX and travels through the LARYNX (voice box). The opening of the larynx is guarded by the EPIGLOTTIS (a flap is tissue). Within the larynx is the VOCAL CORDS (bands of elastic tissue controlled by muscles). Inhaled air travels past larynx and into the TRACHAE (a flexible tube whose walls are reinforced with semicircular bands of cartilage). The trachea then branch into 2 BRONCHI, each one leading into a lung. Inside the lungs, each bronchus branches repeatedly into even smaller tubes called BRONCHIOLES. They lead finally to the microscopic ALVEOLI which are tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs. Alveoli are made of a layer of ENDOTHELIAL cells that facilitate diffusion (like capillaries) SURFACTANTan oily secretion lining alveolar walls. Reduces surface tension of alveolar walls preventing collapse during exhalation. Gas exchange portionwhere gases are exchanged in tiny sacs in the lungs. CO2 diffuses from lung blood into alveoli. o Metabolically active tissue release CO2 into blood and is transported to alveolar capillaries.

o As CO2 diffuses into the air in the alveoli, O2 diffuses from the air, where its concentration is high, into the blood where its concentration is low. Mechanism of O2 transport. In blood, O2 binds loosely with hemoglobin (a large iron containing protein in the res blood cells). Each hemoglobin can bind up to 4 O2 molecules (8 O2 atoms) Hemoglobin is cherry red color when O2 is bound to it., it is a maroon red color when O2 is not bound to it. Transport of O2 1. O2 diffuses through lung capillary wall 2. O2 is carried to tissues bound to hemoglobin 3. O2 diffuses through tissue capillary walls. Mechanisms of CO2 transport Transported in 3 diff ways: 1. CO2 transport as bicarbonate ions (HCO3-). 70% of CO2 reacts with water to form bicarbonate, which is then transported in the plasma. 2. CO2 transport bound to hemoglobin20% of CO2 binds to and is carried by hemoglobin 3. CO2 transported dissolved in plasma10% of CO2 done this way Transport of CO2 1. CO2 diffuses through tissue capillary wall 2. CO2 is carried to lungs 3. CO2 diffuses through lung capillary walls. Air is inhaled actively and exhaled passively Breathing occurs in 2 stages: 1. Inhalationwhen air is drawn into the lungs 2. Exhalationwhen air is passively expelled from the lungs breating control rate respiratory centera cluster of nerve cells located in the medulla of the brain. It generates impulses that cause contraction of respiratory muscles. Sets baseline breathing rate. Chemoreceptors in medulla detect elevated CO2 levels and stimulate the resp center. Resp center causes an increase in breathing rate and depth.

Chapter 30 Nutritionprocess of acquiring and processing nutrients into a usable form. Nutrients are in 5 categories: Lipids, carbs, proteins, minerals, and vitamins. Energy in nutrients is measured by a caloriewhich is the amt of energy required to raise the temp of one gram of water by 1 degree Celsius. The calorie content of food is measured in units of 1000 calories, which is a Calorie. Lipids Include fat (triglycerides), phospholipids, and cholesterol. o Fats are used as energy. o Phospholipids are important components of all cellular membranes o Cholesterol is used in the synthesis of cellular membranes, sex hormones, and bile (for fat breakdown) Some animals acquire lipids from essential fatty acids from their Avg human burns 70 Calories per house.

food. Humans obtain lipids from fatty acids. Lipids are hydrophobicdont mix with water. Adipose tissue Cells that store fat. Adipose cells produce leptin. Cholecystokinin may promote appetites that sometimes endanger health. 3600 Calories are stored in each pound of fat. Carbohydrates Energy source They are broken down sugars used to make energy Consist of: o Monosaccharide sugars (glucose) o Disaccharide sugars (sucrose) o Polysaccharides (starches, glycogen and cellulose)

Proteins Composed of amino acids

Humans synthesize 11 of the 20 amino acids needed to make protein The remaining amino acids must be obtained in the diet through essential amino acids. Protein breakdown produces the waste product urea which is filtered from the blood by the kidneys.

Minerals No organism makes minerals, so they muse be obtained through the diet. Vitamins Are a diverse group of organic compounds that animals need in small amts. Body cant really synthesize vitamins for they must be obtained by food. Vitamins like C and E function as antioxidants. These molecules combine with free radicals to limit their damaging DNA Vitamins are grouped into 2 categories: o Water soluble vitaminsinclude C and B. they dissolve in the blood plasma and are not appreciably stored in the body. Help promote chemical reactions that supply energy. o Fat soluble vitaminsare A D E K K helps regulate blood clotting A deficiency can lead to difficulty seeing at night because A produces visual pigment. D is for normal bone formation Digestion A process that physically and chemically breaks down food. There are 5 tasks of digestive systems: o 1. Ingestionfood brought into digestive tract through and opening (mouth) o 2. Mechanical breakdownphysical breakdown of food into smaller pieces o 3. Chemical breakdowndigestive chemicals and enzymes break large food molecules into small subunits. o 4. Absorptionsmall subunits transported out of digestive system

o eliminationindigestible materials expelled from body digestion in single cells occurs in the sponges sponges are sedentary filter feeders with no specialized digestive system digestion takes place in collar cells lining water filled sponge chambers (intracellular digestion) sponge collar cells engulf food particles in water, forming food vacuoles. Food vacuoles fuses with lysosomes, which are packs of digestive enzymes and break down food. Small food molecules are absorbed by cytoplasm. Sac with one opening forms the simplest digestive system. Larger organisms evolved an internal chamber where big foods are broken down by enzymes outside of cells called EXTRA CELLULAR DIGESTION. This digestion is found in cnidarians, hydra, jellyfish. o These animals have a digestive sac called a GASTROVASCULAR cavity which has a single opening through which food is ingested and wastes are ejected. Digestion in a tube allows more frequent feeding Tubular digestive tracts allow animals to eat frequently Most animals have a tubular system with a mouth and anus Digestive specializations Ruminant animals o Herbivores that are able to break down cellulose and extract nutrients from tough plant matter o Have elaborate digestive systems which break down cellulose using cellulase enzymes. Intestinal length is correlated with diet Herbivore intestines are long. Carnivore intestines are short because proteins are easy to digest. Teeth Incisorsused for biting Canines--used for tearing Premolarsused for grinding Molarsused for crushing and chewing

Gizzards Birds have gizzards for grinding food. They swallow food whole Food enters the crop, which stores and moistens food. Food enters stomach Then enters gizzard, which is muscular with a hard lining for grinding. Further digestion is in small intestine Breakdown of food in mouth (mechanical and chemical) Saliva contains amylase which break down starches into sugars It lubricates food, carries food to taste buds Tongue pushes food into the pharynx which connects the mouth with the esophagus The epiglottis folds over the larynx, which keeps swallowed food from entering the trachea Esophagus conducts food to the stomach Swallow food into tube called esophagus Then forms waves of muscle contraction called peristalsis that carry food to stomach Stomach connects to small intestine but the pyloric sphincter muscle keeps food from entering it. Stomach Stomach glands produce several secretions Gastrinhormone that stimulates hydrochloric acid secretion by stomach cells HCImakes stomach fluids very acidic Pepsinogen (protease)inactive enzyme that is converted into active pepsin when exposed to HCI, break proteins into shorter peptides. Mucusprotects stomach wall from acids Stomach has pH of 1-3. Food in stomach is converted to a thick acidic liquid called CHYME. The pyloric sphincter opens and lets chyme enter small intestine Only water, some drugs and alcohol can enter the bloodstream through the stomach wall. Small intestine 10 ft long

 Liver

food is digested and absorbed with the aid of digestive secretions from three sources: liver, pancreas, cells of small intestine.

For fat and card storage Regulate blood glucose level. Converts ammonia into urea. Produce BILE, a liquid that is stored in the gallbladder. o Bile is made of bile salts Pancreas Secretes pancreatic juice, which is released into small intestine. It lies between the stomach and small intestine. Pancreatic juice neutralizes the acidic chyme and digests carbs, lipids, and proteins. Contains sodium bicarbonate which neutralizes acidic chyme. The 3 digestive enzymes in pancreatic juice are o Amylasewhich breaks down carbs o Lipasewhich attacks lipids o Proteasesbreak down proteins and peptides. Small Intestines Peptidasesbreakdown peptides into amino acids Disaccharidasesbreak down disaccharides into monosaccharides Lipasesdigest lipids Inside of intestine has folds with finger like projections called VILLI to increase absorptive surface area. Each villus surface has many microvilli. Chyme is sloshed back and forth by segmentation movements in the intestine. Each villus contains capillaries and a single lacteal which is a lymph

capillary to carry off the absorbed nutrients. Large intestine 5 ft long mix of water, undigested nutrients, and fiber enters the large intestine. It has 2 main parts: o colonmost of its length o rectumthe terminal compartment 6 inch long.

o Contains bacteria that consume unabsorbed nutrients and synthesize vitamins. o After absorption is complete, any remaining material is compacted into semisolid FECES. Digestion is controlled by the nervous system and hormones Secretion of saliva Secretions of HCI and gastrin Acid secretion is regulated by negative feedback. Hormonal control of digestion Secretinstimulates pancreas to release sodium bicarbonate to neutralize acidity Cholecystokininstimulates pancreas to release enzymes and gallbladder to release bile Gastric inhibitory peptideinhibits acid production and stomach peristalsis.

3/31/2009 12:37:00 PM Key notes Hierarchy of animal organization Cells-tissues-organs-organ systems Glial cells Surround, support, and electrically insulate neurons Open circulatory system Space within the body cavity (hemocoel) Closed circulatory system Confined blood in continuous vascular network with a pumping heart Two chamber heart Earliest vertebrate hearts. Has one atrium and one ventricle. Fish hearts Three chamber heart Have 2 atria and one ventricle. Amphibians and most reptiles have this. Four chamber heart Advanced. Have 2 atria and 2 ventricles. Separates O2 rich and O2 poor blood. Birds and mammal hearts. ******** the atria is above the ventricles in 3 and 4 chambered hearts. The ventricles are V shaped below the atria in 3 and 4 chambered hearts. The ventricle is above the atria in a 2 chamber heart. When labeling a heart: The left atrium and left ventricle are on the right side of the heart in the picture (and vice versa) Blood flow steps 1. Atria contract, forcing blood into the ventricles 2. The ventricles then contract forcing blood through arteries to the lungs and the rest of the body. 3. The cycle ends and heart relaxes

the sinoatrial node (SA) is smaller and above the atrioventricular node (AV) which is a larger node. Arterioles correspond to arteries. Venules correspond to veins. In pictures other than the heart, (so in pictures of vein looking things) arterioles (arteries) are RED in color. Venules (veins) are blue in color. Arteries are much bigger than veins. In picture of heart, oxygenated blood is red in color which flow clockwise and turns into deoxygenated blood (CO2) which is blue in color and flows back up the heart on the left side. The order of through/digestive mechanisms from top to bottom is: Nasal cavityair passes through this then into the pharynx. Pharynxa common chamber with nasal cavity for air to go to Epiglottisguards the larynx. It is a flap of tissue. It I titled upward during normal breathing. Larynxthe voice box. Houses vocal cords. Esophagus Tracheaconvey air directly to the body cells. Air enters tracheae through spiracles. It splits into 2 bronchi Bronchi2 branches leading into the lung. Bronchiolesinside the lung, each bronchus branches repeatedly into even smaller tubes. Alveolibronchioles lead to the microscopic tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs.

Transport of oxygen 1. Oxygen diffuse through lung capillary wall. 2. Oxygen is carried to tissues bound to hemoglobin 3. Oxygen diffuses through tissue capillary walls. o Oxygen moves from lung side to body cell side Transport of carbon dioxide

1. CO2 diffuses through tissue capillary wall 2. CO2 is carries to lungs 3. CO2 diffuses through lung capillary walls o carbon dioxide moves from body cell side to lung side.

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