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Prey,grab,confess,bullied,poop.dumb.nauseous ,swear,nuisancecowardlyMONOPOLE ANTENNA

DEFINITION:
A monopole antenna is a type of radio antenna consisting of a straight rod shaped conductor mounted perpendicularly over some type of conductive surface called a ground plane. The driving signal from the transmitter is applied or for receiving antennas the output voltage is taken between the lower end of the monopole and the ground plane. Common types of monopole are the whip, rubber ducky, helical, mast radiator and ground plane antennas.

PROCEDURE:

Step1: Define the following variables freq=c0/lambda (operating frequency) R=3*lambda/(2*pi) (radius of ground plane) Lambda=4 (free space wavelength) Step2: Create the ground using ellipse primitive. The default material type is PEC.Set the radii equal to defined variable R and label to ground. Step3: Create a ground between (0, 0,0) and (0,0,lambda/4) and rename as monopole Step4: union the wire and ground Step5: Add a wire segment port on line. The port preview should show the port located close to ground, if this is not so, change the port position between start and end. Step5: Add a voltage source to the port (1v, 0) Step 6: Set the total source power (no mismatch) to 2W. Step7: Set the frequency equal to c0/lambda Requesting calculations: Two planes of magnetic symmetry defined at x=0 plane and y=0 plane. The solution requests are One vertical far field pattern is calculated. (-180180) and =0) A full 3D pattern is also calculated All currents are saved to allow viewing in POSTFEKO

Meshing information: Triangle edge length: lambda/10 Wire segment length: lambda/40 Tetrahedral edge length: not applicable Wire segment radius: lambda*1e-5

EM validate After the model has been meshed run EM validate

RADIATION PATTERN:
Monopole has an omni directional radiation pattern that is radiation is equal in all azimuthal direction but varying with elevation with radiation dropping off to zero on antenna axis.

A full 3D plot of the radiated E-field.

3D view of the current on the ground plane of the monopole antenna GAIN: Since it radiates only into the space above the ground plane, or half the space of a dipole antenna, a monopole antenna will have a gain of twice (3 db over) the gain of a similar dipole antenna. Gain is given by G( 2)=D( Where G=gain D=directivity +

APPLICATIONS:
The monopole antenna is commonly used in radio broadcasting; the radio frequency power from the broadcasting transmitter is fed across the base insulator between tower and ground system. The ground system normally comprises of 120 buried copper wires. These are then bonded to reduce corrosion

ADVANTAGES: Omni directional pattern in the horizontal plane, easy design procedure and lightweight

DIPOLE ANTENNA

INTRODUCTION:
A dipole antenna is a straight electrical conductor measuring 1/2 wavelength from end to end and connected at the center to a radio-frequency (RF) feed line. This antenna, also called a double, is one of the simplest types of antenna, and constitutes the main RF radiating and receiving element in various sophisticated types of antennas. The dipole is inherently a balanced antenna, because it is bilaterally symmetrical. Ideally, a dipole antenna is fed with a balanced, parallel-wire RF transmission line. However, this type of line is not common. An unbalanced feed line, such as coaxial cable, can be used, but to ensure optimum RF current distribution on the antenna element and in the feed line, an RF transformer called a balun (contraction of the words "balanced" and "unbalanced") should be inserted in the system at the point where the feed line joins the antenna. For best performance, a dipole antenna should be more than 1/2 wavelength above the ground, the surface of a body of water, or other horizontal, conducting medium such as sheet metal roofing. The element should also be at least several wavelengths away from electrically conducting obstructions such as supporting towers, utility wires, guy wires, and other antennas.

Dipole antennas can be oriented horizontally, vertically, or at a slant. The polarization of the electromagnetic field (EM) radiated by a dipole transmitting antenna corresponds to the orientation of the element. When the antenna is used to receive RF signals, it is most sensitive to EM fields whose polarization is parallel to the orientation of the element. The RF current in a dipole is maximum at the center (the point where the feed line joins the element), and is minimum at the ends of the element. The RF voltage is maximum at the ends and is minimum at the center.

DEFINITION:
A dipole antenna may be defined as a symmetrical antenna in which the two ends are at equal potential relative to the midpoint. A half wave antenna is the fundamental radio antenna of metal rod or tubing or thin wire which has a physical length of half wavelength in free space at the frequency of operation.

PROCEDURE:
STEP 1 : Start the FEKO software. STEP 2 : Define variables =4 , f=C0 and h= 2 STEP 3 : Create the port for feed with startics & end co-ordinates as(0,0,-h/2) to (0,0,h/2). STEP 4 : Add voltage source to the wire port. STEP 5 : Define the frequencies. STEP 6 : Request far field calculations.

=-180 to +180 STEP 7 : Perform meshing Wire segment l= 20 & Wire segment r=2e-3. STEP 8 : Run the CAD tool or model. STEP 9 : Save the results. STEP 10: To view impedence click on out button.

RADIATION PATTERN:

The radiation pattern of a dipole is similar to that of the doublet . Increasing the length of the doublet to 1/2 wavelength has the effect of flattening out the radiation pattern. The radiation pattern in the horizontal plane of a dipole is a larger circle than that of the doublet. The vertical-radiation pattern lobes are no longer circular. They are flattened out and the radiation intensity is greater.

GAIN:
Dipoles have an omnidirectional radiation pattern, shaped like a toroid (doughnut) symmetrical about the axis of the dipole. The radiation is maximum at right angles to the dipole, dropping off to zero on the antenna's axis. The theoretical maximum gain of a Hertzian dipole is 10 log 1.5 or 1.76 dBi. The maximum theoretical gain of a 2-dipole is 10 log 1.64 or 2.15 dBi.

APPLICATIONS:
The antenna most used for shortwave applications is, the Half Wave Dipole. This antenna is simple and very economical to construct. It is used for radio astronomy purposes.

ADVANTAGES:

A dipole antenna is a basic antenna that receives radio frequency, or RF, signals. It has the basic two-pole design that meets in the middle. According to The name dipole means two poles and the antenna does in fact consist of two "poles" or sections. These are normally equal in length, making the antenna what is termed a centre fed antenna. Sometimes a dipole may not be fed in the centre, although this is not normally done in most antenna designs.

The power is applied to the dipole antenna itself through a feeder. Conversely if the dipole antenna is used for receiving, the received signals are taken away to the receiver through a feeder. The feeder serves to transfer the power to or from the antenna with as little loss as possible.

Search Mobile Computing, it is balanced due to the antenna's symmetry, which is bilateral. Antennas are used in a variety of devices such as a radio, TV or cell phone. A dipole antenna is one of the antenna options available to pick up signals.

DISADVANTAGES:
Small Coverage Area Depending on its size, a semi-directional antenna can have a very long range of signal transmission. This makes semi-directional antennas ideal for use in libraries, where rows of bookshelves create long corridors, as well as in hospitals with their long hallways. However, semi-directional antennas have a fairly small coverage area with a limited width when compared with omnidirectional antennas, according to the Cisco website. Omni-directional antennas are designed to have a coverage area of 360 degrees. Semidirectional antennas, on the other hand, have coverage areas ranging from 30 to 180 degrees for patch and panel antennas and 30 to 78 degrees for Yagi antennas. Satellite dish antennas average four to 25 degrees coverage range, according to the Wireless Computing and Communications website. Signal Interference

Another disadvantage with semi-directional antennas is the potential for signal interference. Trees, walls or any objects located within the line of sight of the antenna signal can be a potential source of interference. This is especially true when semi-directional antennas are mounted outdoors, according to. In the case of interference from trees, the problem often becomes worse as trees grow taller and block more of the line of sight between the antenna and the signal source, according to the Wireless Computing and Communications website.

Limited Mounting Options A third disadvantage for semi-directional antennas is that they must face the signal source in order to be effective. This can severely limit the mounting options for the antenna, according to the Cisco website. This is especially true when the antenna must be mounted in a congested urban areas or indoors, and even more so when the antenna itself is large. Yagi antennas, which protrude from the mounting location, can be a particular challenge to mount in a constricted space.

ANTENNA ARRAY

DEFINITION:
A transmitting antenna has limited gain. Same can be increased by increasing the effective length of antenna up to some extent.Therefore, in order to meet the large gain requirement, an assembly of radiating elements in electrical and geometrical elements is used to form new antenna. The new antenna comprised of multi-elements is called as an Array.

Linear array - antenna elements arranged along a straight line.

N- element array Uniform N-element array- A uniform array is defined by uniformly-spaced identical elements of equal magnitude with a linearly progressive phase from element to element. Circular array - antenna elements arranged around a circular ring. Planar array - antenna elements arranged over some planar surface. (Example - rectangular array). Conformal array - antenna elements arranged to conform to some non-planar surface Phased array - an array of identical elements which achieves a given pattern through the control of the element excitation phasing. Phased arrays can be used to steer the main beam of the antenna without physically moving the antenna PROCEDURE: Step : 1 : Start the FEKO software. Step : 2 : Define following Variables . Lambda = 4 f = c0/lambda h = lambda/2

Step : 3 : Create five ports for feed as shown in the diagram with random selction of co ordinates. Step : 4 : Step : 5 : Add voltage source to each wire port. Define the frequencies

Step : 6 : Request far field calculations. =-180 to +180,=0 Step : 7 : Perform meshing Wire segment l= 20 Radius of wire r=2e-3. Meshing four more line in the same segment. Step : 8 : Run the CAD tool or model.

RADIATION PATTERN:
Radiation pattern of the individual antenna elements in the receiving array.

GAIN:

The gain of an array antenna in polar form is shown below:

YAGI UDA ANTENNA

INTRODUCTION:
The Yagi-Uda antenna was invented in 1926 by Shintaro Uda of Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan, with the collaboration of Hidetsugu Yagi, also of Tohoku University. Yagi published the first English-language article on the antenna in 1928 and it came to be associated with his name. However, Yagi always acknowledged Uda's principal contribution to the design, and the proper name for the antenna is, as above, the Yagi-Uda antenna (or array).

DEFINITION:
A Yagi-Uda Antenna consisting of an array of a dipole and additional parasitic elements. The dipole in the array is driven, and another element, slightly longer, operates as a reflector. Other shorter parasitic elements can be added in front of the dipole as directors. This arrangement gives the antenna directionality that a single dipole lacks. Yagis are directional along the axis perpendicular to the dipole in the plane of the elements, from the reflector through the driven element and out the director(s). A Yagi

antenna, also known as a Yagi-Uda array or simply aYagi, is a unidirectional antenna commonly used in communications when a frequency is above 10 MHz.

PROCEDURE:

Step-1: Creating the model The steps for setting up the model are as follows: Define the following variables: freq = 400e6 (Operating frequency.) lambda = c0/freq (The wavelength in free space at the operating frequency.) lr = 0.477*lambda (Length of the reflector.) li = 0.451*lambda (Length of the active element.) ld = 0.442*lambda (Length of the directors.) d = 0.25*lambda (Spacing between elements.) h = 3 (Height of the antenna above ground.) epsr = 10 (Relative permittivity of the ground.) sigma = 1e-3 (Ground conductivity) tannd = sigma/(freq*2*pi*epsr*eps0) (Loss tangent of the ground.)

 Create the active element with Start point as (0, -li/2, h) and the End point as (0, li/2, h). Set the label as Active element. Add a port on a segment in the centre of the wire. Add a voltage source on the port. (1 V, 0) Create the wire for the reflector. Set the Start point as (-d, -lr/2, h) and the End point as (-d, lr/2, h). Set the label as reflector. Create the three wires for the directors. Director Director1 Director2 Director3 Start point (d, -ld/2, h) (2*d, -ld/2, h) (3*d, -ld/2, h) End point (d, ld/2, h) (2*d, ld/2, h) (3*d, ld/2, h)

Create a dielectric called ground with relative permittivity 10 and conductivity 1e-3. Define a infinite multilayer substrate with layer0 set to free space and layer1 set to ground. Remove the conducting plane from the bottom of the substrate a thickness is then not required since this layer extends to infinity. Set the frequency to freq.

Syep-2: Requesting calculations A single plane of electrical symmetry on the y=0 plane is used in the solution of this problem. The solution requests are: Create a vertical far field request above the ground plane. (9090, with =0 and 2 increments)

Step-3: Meshing information

 Triangle edge length Wire segment length Wire segment radius

: Not applicable. : lambda/15.

Tetrahedral edge length : Not applicable. : lambda*2.5e-3.

Note that a warning may be encountered when running the solution. This is because losses cannot be calculated in an infinitely large medium, as is required for the extraction of directivity information. This warning can be avoided by ensuring that the far field gain be calculated instead of the directivity. This is set on the advanced tab of the far field request in the tree. Step-4: EM validate After the model has been meshed, run EM validate. Take note of any warnings and errors. Correct any error before running the FEKO solution kernel. RADIATION PATTERN:
Radiation pattern is the relative distribution of radiated power as a function of distance in space. It is a graph which shows the variation in actual field strength of the EM wave at all points which are at equal distance from the antenna. The energy radiated in a particular direction by an antenna is measured in terms of FIELD STRENGTH. (E Volts/m)

The radiation pattern of yagi-uda antenna in free space shown below:

The directivity of the yagi-uda antenna over a real ground without any ground.

The directivity of the yagi-uda antenna over a real ground with above ground.

GAIN:

The ratio of maximum radiation intensity in given direction to the maximum radiation intensity from a reference antenna produced in the same direction with same input power. The gain of yagi-uda antenna in 3D form is shown below:

The gain pattern of the Yagi-Uda antenna over a real ground and without any ground in Cartesian form.

The gain pattern of the Yagi-Uda antenna over a real ground and without any ground in polar form.

APPLICATIONS:
Yagi antennas continue to be used for radio-frequency reception, and are widely used for receiving broadcast television signals. A YAGI UHF antenna is made to be very directional and receive all the UHF frequencies better than any others

ADVANTAGES:
Yagi antennas are commonly used for receiving broadcast television signals.

 The simplest antenna for such is a folded dipole. You can add elements in front of or behind the dipole to help concentrate the RF energy; the more elements, the smaller the beam width but the higher the gain. The yagi-uda antenna is used in TV reception. By connecting more number of directors the gain can be increased

DISADVANTAGES:
6 to 10+ dbi gain (depending on the number of elements) Narrow bandwidth (506 to 536 MHz ) Typically 40 to 70 beam width. This antenna is ideally suited to installations in which the range of frequencies in use is fairly small. This antenna provides long range (from the front) and high rejection (from the rear). The tight RF bandwidth and narrow beam width of this antenna make it ideal for custom applications with high demand requirements.

HORN ANTENNA

INTRODUCTION:
A horn antenna or microwave horn is an antenna that consists of a flaring metal waveguide shaped like a horn to direct the radio waves. A horn antenna is used to transmit radio waves from a waveguide (a metal pipe used to carry radio waves) out into space, or collect radio waves into a waveguide for reception. It typically consists of a short length of rectangular or cylindrical metal tube (the waveguide), closed at one end, flaring into an open-ended conical or pyramidal shaped horn on the other end. The radio waves are usually introduced into the waveguide by a coaxial cable attached to the side, with the central conductor projecting into the waveguide. The waves then radiate out the horn end in a narrow beam. However in some equipment the radio waves are conducted from the transmitter or to the receiver by a waveguide, and in this case the horn is just attached to the end of the waveguide. Horns are widely used as antennas at UHF and microwave frequencies, above 300 MHz. The useable bandwidth of horn antennas is typically of the order of 10:1, and can be up to 20:1 (for example allowing it to operate from 1 GHz to 20 GHz). The input impedance is slowly-varying over this wide frequency range, allowing low VSWR over the bandwidth.

DEFINITION:
A horn antenna is used to transmit radio waves from a waveguide (a metal pipe used to carry radio waves) out into space, or collect radio waves into a waveguide for reception. It typically consists of a short length of rectangular or cylindrical metal tube (the waveguide), closed at one end, flaring into an open-ended conical or pyramidal shaped horn on the other end. The radio waves are usually introduced into the waveguide by a coaxial cable attached to the side, with the central conductor projecting into the waveguide. The waves then radiate out the horn end in a narrow beam

Figure 1. Horn Antenna

Popular versions of the horn antenna include the E-plane horn, shown in Figure 2. This horn antenna is flared in the E-plane, giving the name.

Figure 2. E-plane horn antenna. Another example of a horn antenna is the H-plane horn, shown in Figure 3. This horn is flared in the H-plane, with a constant height for the waveguide and horn of h.

Figure 3. H-Plane horn antenna.

The most popular horn antenna is flared in both planes as shown in Figure 4. This is a pyramidal horn, and has a width B and height A at the end of the horn.

Figure 4. Pyramidal horn antenna. Horn antennas are typically fed by a section of a waveguide, as shown in Figure 5. The waveguide itself is often fed with a short dipole, which is shown in red in Figure 5. A waveguide is simply a hollow, metal cavity (see the waveguide tutorial). Waveguides are used to guide electromagnetic energy from one place to another. The waveguide in Figure 4 is a rectangular waveguide of width b and height a, with b>a. The E-field distribution for the dominant mode is shown in the lower part of Figure 2.

Figure 5. Waveguide used as a feed to horn antennas.

PROCEDURE:
STEP 1 : Set the model unit in centimeters. STEP 2 : Create a cuboid with the base centre,depth,width and height definition method.Set the dimensions of width,depth and height equal to 12.96,6.48 and 30.2 respectively. Rename the label as waveguide. STEP 3 : Create a flare with base centre , width, depth, height, top width, top depth definition method. Set the dimensions of bottom width , bottom depth, height, top width and top depth as 12.96,6.48,46,55&42.8 respectively. Set the base centre value as U=0,V=0, N=30.2. STEP 4 : Select the waveguide and flare and apply union. STEP 5 : Select face selection and remove both the top and bottom portions of the antenna by right click and delete. STEP 6 : Create a feed pin as a wire at bottom of the antenna and add a segment wire port on the middle of the wire as well as a voltage source on port (1v , 0) STEP 8 : Right click on frequency & set it as 1.645e9.Select the signal frequency option. STEP 9 : By tilting the antenna, select face 2 & change its properties such as select local meshing & set the value of mesh size as 1.5. STEP 10: REQUESTING CALCULATIONS. Right click on calculations and request near fields. Set the parameters as follow.

START

END

INCREMENTS

NO.OF FIELD POINTS

-27

27

54/20

DEFAULT

-21

21

42/20

DEFAULT

76.2

76.2

DEFAULT

STEP 11:Right click on calculation and select the request far fields and set the parameters as follows. NO OF FIELD START END INCREMENT 0 0 180 360 5 5 37 73 POINTS

STEP 12:Click on models and select define symmetry planes and set the values of planes are as follows.

X=0

Magnetic symmetry

Y=0

Electric symmetry

Z=0

No symmetry

STEP 13: Hide the far field and near field. STEP 14: Create mesh and set the triangular edge length as 2.27806. STEP 15: EM VALIDATE. After the model has been meshed, run EM validate.

RADIATON PATTERN:
The waves travel down a horn as spherical wave fronts, with their origin at the apex of the horn. The pattern of electric and magnetic fields at the aperture plane of the horn, which determines the radiation pattern, is a scaled-up reproduction of the fields in the waveguide. However, because the wave fronts are spherical, the phase increases smoothly from the center of the aperture plane to the edges, because of the difference in length of the center point and the edge points from the apex point. The difference in phase between the center point and the edges is called the phase error. This phase error, which increases with the flare angle, reduces the gain and increases the beamwidth, giving horns wider beamwidths than plane-wave antennas such as parabolic dishes. The horn antenna is simulated using a commercial solver, FEKO (which runs method of moments). The radiation pattern at 2 GHz is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6. Horn radiation pattern at 2 GHz.

GAIN:
The horn geometry affects the gain of the antenna. The gain of horn antennas often increases (and the beam width decreases) as the frequency of operation is increased. This is because the size of the horn aperture is always measured in wavelengths; at higher frequencies the horn antenna is "electrically larger"; this is because a higher frequency has a smaller wavelength.Horns have very little loss, so the directivity of a horn is roughly equal to its gain. The gain of horn antennas ranges up to 25 dBi, with 10 - 20 dBi being typical. The gain G of a pyramidal horn antenna (the ratio of the radiated power intensity along its beam axis to the intensity of an isotropic antenna with the same input power) is

where

A is the area of the aperture, d is the aperture diameter of a conical horn is the wavelength, eA is a dimensionless parameter called the aperture efficiency, Figure 7.The gain of pyramidal horn antenna in Cartesian form as shown below:

Figure 8.The gain of pyramidal horn antenna in polar plot as shown below:

Figure 9: A polar plot of the entire E-plane gain is shown to illustrate the sidelobes and directivity of the horn.

Figure 10: A polar plot of the entire H-plane gain is shown to illustrate the sidelobes and directivity of the horn.

APPLICATIONS:
Horn antenna is widely used as a feed horn for microwave antennas such as satellite dishes and radio telescopes. They are used as feeders (called feed horns) for larger antenna structures such as parabolic antennas. They are used as standard calibration antennas to measure the gain of other antennas. The horn is widely used as a feed element for large radio astronomy, satellite, tracking, and communication dishes found installed throughout the world. It is a common element of phased arrays and serves as a universal standard for calibration and gain measurements of other gain antennas. They are used as directive antennas for such devices as radar guns, automatic door openers. They are used microwave radiometers.

ADVANTAGES:
Their advantages are moderate directivity (gain), low SWR, broad bandwidth, and simple construction and adjustment. An advantage of horn antennas is that since they don't have any resonant elements, they can operate over a wide range of frequencies, a wide bandwidth. It provides a significant level of directivity and gain. It acts as feed for reflector and lenses. It minimizes the loss of energy in dish antennas.

DISADVANTAGES
The disadvantages of the horn antenna Antenna gain is subject to major fluctuations, particularly at low frequencies. Furthermore, the antenna gain drops to less than 0 dBi at low frequencies, such as frequencies around 1 GHz for example.

The voltage standing wave ratio in the lower frequency range is very unfavorable, with values of between 2 and 5, since it is scarcely possible to operate the horn antenna from a VSWR of 3.

Spillover efficiency is high for horn antennas.

CONICAL HORN ANTENNA DEFINITION:

Conical horn antenna is a microwave antenna in which the feed is circular waveguide.the modes with in the horn are found by introducing a spherical coordinates systems and are in terms of spherical Bessel functions and legendre polynomials.

PROCEDURE :
STEP 1:Set the model unit in centimeters. STEP 2:Create a cylinder with the width and height definition method.Set the dimensions of width and height equal to 2.5 and 30 respectively. Rename the label as cylinder. STEP 3:Create a cone with base radius,top radius, height definition method. Set the dimensions of base radius,top radius, height as 2.5,12,15 respectively. Set the base centre value as U=0.0 V=-0.5,N=0.0 Rename the label as cone. STEP 4 : Select the cylinder and cone and apply union. STEP 5 : Select face selection and remove both the top and bottom portions of the antenna by right click and delete.

STEP 6 : Right click on port & select waveguide port with rotate reference direction as 0 degree. STEP 7 : Right click on excitations & select waveguide excitation with the default settings and create it. STEP 8 : Right click on frequency & set it as 1.645e9.Select the signal frequency option.

START

END

INCREMENTS

NO.OF POINTS

FIELD

-27

27

54/20

DEFAULT

-21

21

42/20

DEFAULT

76.2

76.2

DEFAULT

STEP 9 : By tilting the antenna, select face & change its properties by type as perfect electric conductor. STEP 10: REQUESTING CALCULATIONS. Right click on calculations and request near fields.Set the parameters as follow. STEP 11:Right click on calculation and select the request far fields and set the parameters as follows.

NO OF FIELD START END INCREMENT 0 0 180 360 5 5 37 73 POINTS

STEP 12: Hide the far field and near field. STEP 13: Create mesh and set the triangular edge length as 2.27806. STEP 14: EM VALIDATE. After the model has been meshed, run EM validate.

RADIATION PATTERN:

GAIN:
The gain of the conical horn antenna varies between 10db to 25 db.

ADVANTAGES:
It exhibits more symmetric E and H plane. It exhibits reduced side lobe. It has tapered aperture distribution in E plane while operating in dominant in TE11 mode.

DISADVANTAGES:
It exhibits relative incompatibility with rectangular waveguide.