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Current
costs of
processequlpnnent
Capital costs for key process equipment are represented in over 50 graphs. Among the equipment included are tanks, heat exchangers, columns, pumps, compressors, centrifuges and filters. These are mostly f.o.b. costs, up to date as of January 1982.
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101
Richard S. Hall, Richard S. Hall and Associates, Jay Matley and Kenneth J. McNaughton, Chemical Engineering
D Estimates of the capital costs of projects are made for a variety of purposes, including: gauging the economic viability of projects, evaluating alternative investment opportunities, selecting from alternative designs the process likely to be the most profitable, planning capital appropriations, budgeting and controlling capital expenditures, and tendering competitive bids for building new plants or remodeling existing ones. The accuracy required of estimates generally follows the foregoing listing in the presented order-that is, the least accuracy for the first, the greatest for the last. Of course, the purpose of the estimate determines the accuracy required and in turn how much time and money is spent on it. Estimates have long been given a variety of names and classified in different ways. To standardize the names and numerical designations, the American Assn. of Cost Engineers has drawn up the following list of estimate types and probable accuracies:
Type
Accuracy, %
40
25
The purpose of this report is simply to provide estimators with up-to-date purchase costs of process equipment, suitable for making study or order-of-magnitude estimates of total plant costs, without having to extend available plant-construction-cost indexes beyond acceptable extrapolation ranges (generally set at a maximum of five years). Fabricated equipment (tanks, heat exchangers, etc.) constitutes the largest category of capital expenditure in most process plants - a representative figure being 37%. Next largest is process machinery (including pumps and compressors) at about 21 %. Thus, equipment costs for the two largest categories are presented in this article. (Cost data on the third largest category, piping at 20%, are furnished elsewhere in this book.) All the graphs are based on January 1982 data, unless otherwise stated. All the cost curves yield shopfabricated f.o.b. costs, except in the cases of fired heaters (Fig. 46 and 47) and butterfly valves (Fig. 54), for which installed costs are provided.
Order-of- magni tude (ratio estimate) Study (factored estimate) Preliminary (budget authorization estimate) Definitive (project control estimate) Detailed (firm estimate)
12
Most of the capital cost estimates of equipment that may be derived from the cost curves in this report should range in accuracy between -+-10%and -+-25%.In some instances, however, the error probability may range up to -+-35%.In this report, the probable accuracy of each equipment cost curve will be noted when it is discussed.
103
correlated against estimated capital costs. This correlation depends on a base curve that is prepared by determining the costs of individual pieces of equipment for several plants. The complexity factor is a function of: the number of major operating steps in the process, a correction factor for pressure level and materials of construction, the ratio of raw material to product, an average-throughput correction factor, and the fraction of major operating steps handling solid-fluid mixtures. Both the Lang and Hand methods are only suitable for order-of-magnitude and, at .best, study estimates. The accuracy of the Viola method should be higher, and that of the Guthrie method still higher. However, the latter two methods require more work.
104
Heat exchangers
The most versatile equipment for process heat transfer is the shell-and-tube heat exchanger. Curves are presented for the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Assn. (TEMA) Class C, as well as the ASME code for unfired pressure vessels, Section VIII, Div. 1. TEMA classifies this equipment as "unfired shell-and-tube heat exchangers for the generally moderate requirements of commercial and general process applications." The curves all represent f.o.b. costs for carbon-steel single-pass shells, two-pass carbon steel and stainless steel tubeside exchangers. Tubes are % in. a.D. and design temperature and pressure are 400F and 75 psi, respectively. Three categories are dealt with: Thefixed-tubesheet design has straight tubes secured at both ends in tubesheets welded to the shell. This type is moderate in cost and cleanable on the tubeside. In the U-tube design, both ends of the U-shaped tubes are fastened to a single tubesheet, thus eliminating the problem of differential thermal expansion because the tubes are free to expand and contract. This exchanger is low in cost and the removable bundle makes it easy to clean the shellside manually. However, it is difficult to clean the tubes. With the floating tubesheet, straight tubes are secured at both ends in tubesheets, but one tubesheet is free to move, thereby providing for differential thermal expansion between the tube bundle and the shell. This type is the highest in cost, but both the tubes and the shell are easily cleaned. Fig. 13 through 24 show f.o.b. co~tversus surface area of the heat exchanger, and are presented in two ranges, o to 240 ft2 and 300 to 1,500 ft2, in tube lengths of8, 12 and 16 ft. Example: Let us estimate the f.o.b. cost of a TEMA Class C shell-and-tube exchanger with stainless steel tubes for use at 75 psi and 400F. The shell is to be single-pass and made of carbon steel. The tubes will be two-pass, % in. a.D. Calculations indicate that a heatexchange surface area of 200 ft2 will be required. Space is limited and the exchanger should be as short as possible. The nature of the process dictates a fixedtubesheet design, to minimize the possibility of leaks. Fig. 15 shows that this exchanger would cost about $6,050 in Type 304 stainless steel, using an 8-ft tubelength. Using the 1.1 multiplier for 316 stainless steel gives $6,655. Cost estimates derived from Fig. 13 through 24 should be accurate to -+-10%as of January 1982.
Dimple-jacketed
reactors
In terms of control efficiency and product quality, jacketing provides the optimum method of heating or cooling process vessels. Most liquids, as well as steam and other high-temperature vapors, can be used as the heat transfer fluid. The jacket allows accurate control of both circulation temperature and velocity of the heat transfer media. In many cases, the jacket may be fabricated from a material less expensive than the vessel material. A dimple jacket is made by pressing a pattern of depressions, or dimples, into sheets of lightgage metal. When these sheets are wrapped around the vessel, the dimples are welded to the vessel wall to give protection against pressure and vacuum. This design is considerably cheaper than other jackets. The curves in Fig. 27 are for stainless-steel baffled reactors as shown, with one 18-in. manway, one vapor nozzle, one agitator nozzle, four flanged nozzles and one flanged drain nozzle. The reactors are designed for 75 psi and 350F. The stainless-steel dimple jacket is designed for 125 psi and 350F. Curves are shown for 316 and 304 stainless steel. Example: Estimates are required on a 6,000-gal reactor of this description, for both Type 316 and Type 304 stainless steel. Fig. 27 shows prices of $43,000 (Type 304) and $48,500 {Type 316) for these two vessels. Costs should be accurate to -+-10% as of January 1982.
Tank-vent condensers
Coolant is circulated through the tubeside of the vent condenser, and vapors that would normally be vented to atmosphere are passed over the extended fin surface. This causes the vapors to condense and drip back into the tank. If more surface is required than that provided by a single unit, additional condensers can be installed in parallel. The housing can be obtained in aluminum, galvanized steel, and stainless steel. The fins and tubes may be of aluminum, copper or stainless steel. Vent diameters of 3-12 in. may be fitted with ASA standard flanges.
105
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Capacity,
8
1,000 gal
10
12
14
Storage tanks-vertical,
atmospheric, capacities to 10,000 gal, stainless steel, flat top and cone bottom
Fig. 3
106
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Fig.8
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Capacity,
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16
18
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stamped
Fig. 9
61--4---t--t---t----+--t---+----+--t---+----t--t---+----t--t----t
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300
400
Fig. 10
stamped
110
COSTS OF EQUIPMENT-DATA
AND ESTIMATING
METHODS
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Fig. 12
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20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
:;
Heat transfer
su rface, ft2
Heat exchangers-fixed
tubesheet, tubes of carbon steel, area 0-240 ft2, carbon steel shell
Fig. 13
151---+--+_---1--+_---I---+---f----+--+---+--+_---I---+---f---__+---------I
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Fig. 14
112
of 1.1
.,..:
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40
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. 80
100
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280
Heat transfer
Heat exchangers-fixed
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Fig. 15
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1,200
1,500
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tubesheet, tubes of stainless steel, area 300-1,500 ft2, carbon steel shell
Fig. 16
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surface, ft2
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180
200
220
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260
280
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Fig. 19
of 1.1
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280
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head, tubes of carbon steel, area 0-240 ft2, carbon steel shell
Fig. 21
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....:
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1,500
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head, tubes of carbon steel, area 300-1,500 ft2, carbon steel shell
Fig. 22
116
of 1.1
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o o
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'Ill!
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
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su rface, ft2
Heat exchangers-floating
head, tubes of stainless steel, area 0-240 ft2, carbon steel shell
Fig. 23
of 1.1
a '" 0 U....: ..
q +h
c:i ..a
18 12
300
1,200
1,500
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head, tubes of stainless steel, area 300-1,500 ft2, carbon steel shell
Fig. 24
117
18
15
12
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W
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0,
9
ci
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300
600
900
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1,200
surface, ft2
1,500
1,800
2,100
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Fig. 25
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10
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600
900
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1,200
surface, ft2
1,500
1,800
2,100
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Fig. 27
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300
Fig. 28
119
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.,..: 1;;' ..ci
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Blending tanks-liquid and slurry, atmospheric, jacketed for heating and cooling, agitated
Fig. 29
100
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..., ./'
r
./
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a a
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1,000 Capacity
100,000
1,000,000
Centrifugal pumps and drivers-ANSI pump, TEFC driver, coupling and base, 30-300,000 gpm
Fig. 30
120
"'
100
100
1,000
Brake horsepower
10,000
Fig. 31
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W
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.0
....: Q;
';:
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co
>
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100
1,000
Brake horsepower
10,000
bhp
Fig. 32
121
0, u 0 0 +.; 0 W ..0
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'+-'
Distillation columns-25-tray,
2-12 ft dia., 57% and 68 ft shell heights tot; 0,100 and 300 psig
Fig. 33
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o
'+-'
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160 140
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Column dia., ft
Distillation columns-50-tray,
2-12 ft dia., 95 and 118 ft shell heights tot; 0, 100 and 300 psig
Fig. 34
- ~~ -./ ~
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----'
o psig
\~
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6
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8 ft
10
12
14
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4-12 ft dia., 170 ft shell height tot; 0,100 and 300 psig
Fig. 35
u
....:
.0
360 260 0. 220 0 200 0 t;~ 240 ;;;; 0 100 120 160 140 280 300 340 180 320
P'O<luCl
99"t.melhll'lol
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
Fig. 36
123
39 36
QuantiL
factor
I
15 1.25 16 1.20
17
30
~.-.-~V
27 -
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 1.80
9 1.65
10 11 12 13 14
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.,..:
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3 69 0
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Tray dia., ft
10
12
14
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ft dia., carbon, 304 and 316 steel; quantity factors also apply to valve trays
Fig. 37
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10
12
14
Valve trays-1-12
ft dia., carbon, 304 and 316 steel; cost date is November 1981
Fig. 38
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Fig. 39
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Fig. 40
125
.n
ci ....:
u 60 0 ~. 30
W
20
50 ~ 40
10
0.1
'---
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Fig. 41
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....:
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0.01
Air-cooled exchangers-capacities
0.1
1
Heat transfer surface,
10 1,000ft2
100
1,000
Fig. 42
126
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Fig. 43
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80 70 60 100
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supply waler
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Gtycolsupply
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waler
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rtlurn
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~-
90
u
..c:i
:3 ....: ..
0 0, 0 ~
50
40 o
6
Capacity, million Btu/h
12
Fig. 44
127
Feed
decolorizationchar kaolin 185 221 605 63 Bauxite Calcined Charcoal 9-31,536 and/or used of ofwastewater used to 3,111 10-9 6-0 Regenerationdescription adsorbant sand 437 14-3 890 16-9 22-3 122 26-9 18-9 1.5-2.5 Bone 121868 375 353 958 506 99 51 621 305 831 87 adsorbant 389 110 269 732 75 1452,053 carbon sludgeoilsofand wastes treatment 449 1,740 4,078 Regeneration 6-12 3-5 1,411Active 286 1,185 964 4,386 andProcess 1,719 2,642 2313,063 Ib/h/ft2 5-10 cellulosic waxes fromcarbon 718 1,385 2,755 Manufacture recalcination-sludge wood 1,969 2003,417 feedappl473tertiaryfor kaolinProductpigmentsludge 1,202 1,705 rates 255 792 2,173 1.9-3.8 176717 547 1,051 1,236 4,740 Calcination 2,907 Foundry 2--4 1,284 3,725 plantsications of 0.0., Limeactivated3,376 2,438 15-25 1,870 1,032 2,402 Limeother 1,432 1,057 2,094 decolorize 1,501 granular bauxite Biological ft-in. for charcoal
Regeneration
Typical sand
product
rates,
.,..:
'" 0 u o. 0 ..,'
.D
300
200
4
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Number of hearths
Fig. 45
0 0.33
Fp
o 0.15 0.20
100------+----b6"=-t--+-:,~'-+-+-H-----+---+1
501------+-7flC---+---+--+-j-+-+-H-----+---+_
30 L-
..L-__
..L-_..L---...JL-..L---L.--L....L-.l..-
10
..l- __
Btu!h
..l-_--L._.l..---L.-L-L---.LJ
50
100
Fig. 46
I'
Fired heaters-cylindrical, various steel tubes, absorbed duty 2 million-30 million Btu/h
Design pressure, psi Fp Up to o 0.10 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000
o o
0,
;:;}
1;;'
o u
'"
-0
+"
u
'"
000
~=""t.jOOOO
a 00 00 00
~
-0
~ u..
1 I------+---+----I~-+~I_+-,JL+-il_----+_,000
500------+----;~-+_'4--+-jI--+-+-H-----+_1
300
: 0 : 0
...I..-__
10
L..-
--L.. _ _
---'-_........J._---'----lc--..L-.L.-L....J
50
100
--L._--l..._--L.........J._L-L-LJ
500
1,000
Fig. 47
Fired heaters-box type, various steel tubes, absorbed duty 20 million-200 million Btu/h
129
1,000
I 1"--
-.
-
"'-
--...
500
ci
.......
10
10 50
100
500
Total filter area, ft2
1,000
5,000
10,000
Fig. 48
8,000
II
1,000
c===J c==::J
I I
tilting
~ <A
.ci ...:
ci
Continuous-vacuum
pan,
/r
J /~/
o u
tf
500
Horizontal
"
table (vacuum)
100 10
50
100
500
Total filter area, ft2
1,000
5,000
10,000
Filters, vacuum-horizontal-table,
Fig. 49
1,000
"""
..11)0', ....... 9la/ " ~~ra/. ........ ""i~a/sOr vstr"...... ~ ~ ~'ea!J 500
... ~
I'--rIIII
?
..........
e,.v
~O'
-:::'/Ur(J."
r--..
ff-
I I ~~
ci
N --u 0
100 50
10 10
50
100
1,000
5,000
10,000
Fig. 50
10,000
C!}ar.
........
....
.... ....... ........ .I ...... , {;" .......eel Paper-pul p ....... ...... drums ..... ",.tal,,; ....
......
"~~61 ~
5,000
....~
I) Ste"
~~
,j
-I
ci
N u 0 W
1,000 500
100 10 50 100 500 Total fi Iter area, ft2 1,000 5,000 10,000
Fig. 51
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,
..ci
/~V -l--~ ~ ~? --- ./ ---- I---V --- /~ ~~ - /" ---~~ ~ / ----~ ~ -700
II II tee' ____
<gl
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- ~/ ~~- V~oe\~
131
./ ./
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600
'" 0 u_ oci
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W 400
500 300
200
100
10
20
30
40
Solids product
50
capacity,
60
ton!h
70
80
90
Centrifuges-inorganic-chemicals
Fig. 52
-0
..ci
700
~o~
~ ~
600
c-~ ..,.,. ~
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--~
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.-'"
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200
100
10
15
Solids product
20
capacity,
25
ton!h
30
35
40
Centrifuges-organic-chemicals
Fig. 53
[]
-g o
",...""
'"
,:,';:,'0
011P
.\ 0
()-",
1/
/'
o
2
8
Size, in.
10
12
14
16
Butterfly valves-high-performance,
and 600
Fig. 54
-V
0 u o. ...: :;;0 ci 0 ;;} .0
27 69 12 36 3 33 30
tc;~:
~ ~~ ......"---@". ... ~ I ~~ I ~ I I
:--.....
3'0'0~
,,~
/ V V,/ .//
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
Pipeline strainers-shell of carbon steel, slope-top and flat-top baskets of stainless steel
Fig. 55
Centrifugal pumps
When specifying pumps for any service, it is necessary to know the liquid to be handled, total dynamic head, suction and discharge pressures, and the properties of the fluid-temperature at operation, viscosity, specific gravity and vapor pressure. Pumps are specified at the early stages of a project when a plant layout is not completely defined and most of the equipment dimensions and elevations are sketchy. The easiest way to estimate the price of pumps is by using a current price-data book from one of the leading pump manufacturers, unless the pumping requirements are unique, and a special design or even a first-of-a-kind pump has to be created. In this case, the usual procedure is to send detailed specifications to several pump manufacturers for their bids. Fig. 30 provides costs for centrifugal pumps designed in accordance with American National Standards Institute's (ANSI) B73.1-1977, which specifies horizontal, end-suction, single-stage centrifugal pumps with centerline discharge for chemical processes. Temperatures are limited to 300F by the standard, but in practice, temperatures between 500 and 900F are not uncommon. The motors used are T-frame, National Electrical Manufacturers Assn. (NEMA) motors with a 1.0 service factor. The input required to make a cost estimate is: capacity (gpm), differential pressure (psi), suction pressure (psi), system temperature CF), and casing material. The items included in the estimate are: ANSI pumping unit, TEFC T-frame NEMA motor, coupling, and base plate. Centrifugal pump cost, $ = Base cost X Fm X Fo where the adjustment factors are: Material Cast iron Bronze Cast steel Stainlesssteel Alloy 20 Monel Nickel Hastelloy C Hastelloy B Titanium
Fm 1.00.
= 4.5 X 104 From Fig. 30, base cost = $3,500 Fm = 1.2 Fo = 1.0
Cost = $3,500X 1.2 = $4,200 Cost estimates derived from Fig. 30 should be accurate to about +-25-35% as of January 1982.
Compressors
Process gases are required in a wide range of capacities, pressures and temperatures; process gas compression is a complex operation involving either centrifugal or reciprocating machines. Commercial equipment has the following general characteristics: centrifugal-high-capacity, low-discharge pressures; reciprocating-lower capacity, high-discharge pressures. Custom-designed equipment is usually necessary for applications exceeding the above capacities and pressures. Motor, turbine or gas engine drives can also be used. For cost-estimating purposes, consider the many variables, such as volume or weight capacity (ft3/min or Ib/h), molecular weight, k-values (ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to that at constant volume), and compression ratios, as represented by the bhp parameter. These calculations are required before Fig. 31 and 32 can be used. Carbon steel construction is assumed. Example: A turbine centrifugal compressor rated at 400 bhp may be priced from Fig. 31 at $143,000. A reciprocating air compressor is required at 800 bhp and could be driven by steam or a gas engine. What would be the approximate capital investment for each type of compressor? From Fig. 32, it may be seen that the steam-driven compressor would cost $252,000 and the gas-engine version would cost $412,000. Cost estimates derived from Fig. 31 and 32 should be accurate to about +-25-35% as of January 1982.
1.35 1.41
1.94
5.71
Fa
Operating limits Suction pressure: -below 275 psig at 100F -below 350 psig at lOOF SystemTemperature: 0-500F (at ANSI allowable pressures) above 500F (at ANSI allowable pressures)
134
Distillation columns
Expenditures for distillation columns and packed towers rank high among equipment costs for process plants. Columns have become even more expensive because of a trend, brought on by soaring fuel costs, to increase their heights so as to reduce the energy costs of refluxing. Packed towers-long widely used in gas absorption, distillation and liquid-liquid contactinghave found growing application in pollution control for removing dusts, mists and odors. Fig. 33 presents costs, plotted against column diameter in feet, of distillation columns containing 25 trays. Fig. 34 does the same for columns having 50 trays, and Fig. 35 for columns with 100 trays. The parameters are operating pressures of 0, 100 and 300 psig. Costs presented are for October 1981. Column heights, actually tangent-to-tangent shell heights, noted on the graphs show those of the 25-tray column lengthening from 57]12 to 68 ft as the diameter goes from 5 to 6 ft, those of the 50-tray column extending from 95 to 188 ft as column diameter enlarges from 5 to 6 ft, and those of the 100-tray column remaining constant at 170 ft. Construction is of SA-285-C carbon steel, except for the 11 and 12-ft-dia. 25-tray columns and the 4-ft-dia. 100-tray columns, which are made of SA-515-65 lowalloy steel. Not included are tray costs, which are given in Fig. 37 and 38. Costs decline witn increasing diameter in the narrower column ranges (1-3 ft dia.) because the taller and slenderer the column, the heavier its base must be to withstand wind-load stresses. This is particularly noticeable in Fig. 34 and 35. Probable accuracies for Fig. 33, 34 and 35 are about +15%. Fairly accurate costs can be derived for fabricated vessels,such as distillation columns, on the basis of their weights (seeCorripio, et al. [1]). Although vessel weights cannot be readily obtained from process calculations, certain design standards can be used to translate volumetric data into vessel weight equivalents. A method for determining installed costs of distillation columns is presented by Miller and Kapella [7].
135
Multiple-hearth
furnaces
The Nichols/Herreshoff furnace consists of a series of circular hearths, placed one above the other and enclosed in a refractory-lined steel shell. A vertical rotating shaft through the center of the furnace carries arms with rabble teeth that stir the charge and move it in a spiral path across each hearth. The material is then fed to the hearth below. Discharge takes place through one or more ports at the bottom. Hot gases flow countercurrently, heating the charge to reaction temperature and carrying on the desired reaction. In many operations, combustion of the volatiles in the charge provides the necessary heat. In other instances, heat is furnished by combustion of various fuels introduced through burners into certain hearths (direct firing), or in separate combustion chambers (external firing). Some applications with process descriptions are given in the tables in Fig. 45. Example: The decolorization of an organic acid solution produces 24,000 lb/ d of spent granular activatedcarbon. From Fig. 45, a typical product rate of 2 to 4 Ib/(h)(ft2) is obtained. The required furnace effective-area is calculated as follows: 24000 lb X _d_ X h-ft2 , d 24 h 3 lb
tures to the fluid being heated. It must be able to do so without localized overheating of the fluid or of the structural components. Fired-heater size is defined in terms of the eqUIpment's heat-absorption capability, or duty. Duties range from about a half-million Btu/h for small, specialty units to about 1 billion Btu/h for super-project facilities such as the mammoth steam hydrocarbonreformer heaters. By and large, the vast majority of fired-heater installations fall within the 10 to 350-million-Btu/h range. There are many variations in the layout, design, and detailed construction of fired heaters. Thus, virtually every fired heater is custom-engineered for its particular application. The input required to use Fig. 46 and 47 is: absorbed heat duty (Btu/h), furnace type, design pressure (psig), and radiant-tube materia!. The cost includes complete field erection and subcontractor indirects. Fig. 46 applies to cylindrical designs and Fig. 47 applies to the "box" or A-frame type of construction. Example: Two fired heaters are required in a plant. One is to be a simple cylindrical type with chromemolybdenum steel tubes, to be used at a pressure of 1,500 psi and a duty of 1.5 million Btu/h. Fig. 46 shows:
Base cost = $340,000
Fp
0.2
Cost
= 1.2 X $340,000
= $408,000
The other unit is a reformer (without a catalyst) to be designed for service at 2,000 psi and 66 million Btu/h. Radiant tubes should be of stainless steel. Fig. 47 shows:
Base cost
Fa
Fp
333 ft2
Cost
From Fig. 45, a suitable furnace size is obtained-in this case, a 10-ft, 9-in.-O.D. by 8-hearth unit, and the f.o.b. price of such a unit is estimated at $410,000. Cost estimates based on Fig. 45 should be accurate to about +10% as of January 1982.
Cost estimates based on Fig. 46 and 47 should be accurate to about +25% as of January 1982.
Fired heaters
A fired heater, for our purposes, will include a number of devices in which heat liberated by the combustion of fuel within an internally insulated enclosure is transferred to fluid contained in tubular coils. Typically, the tubular heating elements are installed along the walls and roof of the combustion chamber, where heat transfer occurs primarily by radiation, and, if economically justifiable, in a separate tube bank, where heat transfer is accomplished mainly by convection. Industry identifies these heaters with such names as process heater, furnace, process furnace and direct-fired heater, which are all interchangeable. The fundamental function of a fired heater is to supply a specified quantity of heat at elevated tempera-
Continuous centrifuges
Fig. 52 and 53 give costs of centrifuges of two basic categories, the first for inorganic chemical applications, the second for organic chemical applications. Both categories are represented in single groups of curves by the solid-bowl, screen-bowl and pusher types of centrifuges. In the inorganic chemicals applications, solids are suspended in a mother liquor of water, caustic soda, brine, or some other nonflammable liquid. Therefore, housings can be unsealed. Materials of construction can be as basic as carbon steel, sometimes as exotic as nickel, but rarely of Hastelloy. In the organic chemicals applications, it is assumed that the unit must be sealed against oxygen inflow. Such sealings add from 10 to 20% to costs. Materials of construction usually involve nothing less costly than stainless steel and sometimes require H;;J.stelloyC-276. Costs represented by Fig. 52 and 53 are for the complete but basic centrifuge, f.o.b. point of shipment, January 1982. Not included are drive motor and special structures, as well as shipping and installation. As average costs of the three basic centrifuges are presented, probable accuracies are -+-25%.
CURRENT COSTS OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT The solid-bowl centrifuge's two principal elements are a rotating bowl, which is the settling vessel, and a conveyor, which discharges the settled solids. The bowl has adjustable overflow weirs at its larger end for discharging clarified effluent, and solids ports on the opposite end for discharging dewatered solids. Feed enters through a supply pipe and passes through the conveyor hub into the bowl itself. As the solids settle out in the bowl, due to centrifugal force, they are picked up by the conveyor scroll and carried along continuously to the solids outlets. At the same time, effluent continuously overflows the weirs. In the screen-bowl centrifuge, dilute feed is concentrated in a solid bowl. The solids, substantially drained of mother liquor, are then conveyed to the screen section for washing, if required, and final discharge. Pusher centrifuges usually deliver a drier cake than other continuous centrifuges. Feed enters through an inlet pipe and accelerating cone, and is introduced on a first-stage basket, where the solids are retained. The first-stage basket, actuated by a hydraulic pushing mechanism, reciprocates under a static pusher plate to advance the cake from the first to the second stage on the back stroke. The forward stroke of the first basket pushes the cake off the second basket and into a cake chute.
137
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank the following companies and individuals for contributing cost information to this report: Bird Machine Co. (John J. Campbell), Cortech Plastics, Inc., Chuck Gurdin, Inc., Dorr-Oliver Inc. (Robert M. Talcott), Duriron Co., Durco Pump Div. (Joseph Trendy), Foster-Wheeler Energy Corp., Glitsch Packaged Plants, Monsanto Co. (Harley C. Nelson), Nichols Engineering & Research Corp. (Stuart S. Spater), PDQ$ Inc. (Gustav Enyedy, Jr.), Pakbilt Co., Papeco, Inc., Posi-Seal Intl., Inc., Rubicon Industries, Inc., Taylor Tank Co., and Xchanger, Inc.
The authors
Richard S. Hall is president of Richard
S. Hall and Associates, manufacturers' representatives, 145 Cortlandt St., ,staten
president of Chern-Pro Marketing Service for Walster Corp. and vicepresident of marketing and sales for Doyle & Roth Manufacturing Co. See
"Who's Who in Finance and Industry"
with CHEMICALENGINEERING.
.,
.
References
1. Corripio, A. B., Mulet, A., and Evans, L. B., Estimate Costs of Distillation and Absorption Towers via Correlations, Chern. Eng., Dec. 29, 198!. 2. Desai, M. B., Preliminary Cost Estimating of Process Plants, Chern. Eng.,July 27, 198!. 3. Guthrie, K. M., Capital Cost Estimating, Chern. Eng., Mar. 24, 1969. 4. Hand, W. E., From Flow Sheet to COStEstimate, Pelro/eurn Ref., Sept. 1938. 5. "Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology," Vol. 10, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1980. 6. Lang., H. ]., Simplified Approach to Preliminary Cost Estimates, Chern. Eng., June 1948. 7. Miller,]. S., and Kapella, W. A., Installed Cost of a Distillation Column, Chern. Eng., Apr. 11, 1977. 8. Pikulik, A., and Diaz, H. E., Cost Estimating for Major Process Equipment, Chern. Eng., Oct. 10, 1977. 9. Viola,]. L.,Jr., Estimate Capital Costs via a !)TewShortcut Method, Chern. Eng., Apr. 6, 198!. Kenneth J. McNaughton is an associate
editor at Chemical Engineering and editor of the "You and Your Job" department.
published technical articles on fluid flow and has edited three books for McGraw-Hill on materials.