Supplementary Cementitious Material

AUTHOR: AU YONG THEAN SENG
www.madisonvelocity.blogspot.com
Topic Highlighted
What Are Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM)?
Fly Ash
Introduction
Production
Classification
Advantages
Disadvantages
Ground Granulated Furnace Blast Slag
Introduction
Classification
GGBFS Production Growth
Advantages
Disadvantages
Silica Fume
Introduction
World demand for silica fume
Advantages
Disadvantages
Natural Pozzolans
Introduction
Metakaolin
Rice Husk
Standards Governing The Use Of SCM
ACI Documents
ASTM Documents
British Standards
What Are Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM)?
Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water. The key to
concrete’s success is its versatility and no other sector of the construction
industry utilizes this attribute more than the manufactured concrete products
industry. Concrete can be designed to withstand the harshest environments while
taking on the most inspirational forms. Engineers are continually pushing the
limits with the help of innovative chemical admixtures and supplementary
cementitious materials.
The use of SCMs dates back to the ancient Greeks who incorporated volcanic
ash with hydraulic lime to create a cementitious mortar. The Greeks passed this
knowledge on to the Romans, who constructed such engineering marvels as the
Roman aqueducts and the Coliseum, which still stand today. Early SCMs
consisted of natural, readily available materials such as volcanic ash or
diatomaceous earth.
Nowadays, most concrete mixture contains supplementary cementitious material

that forms part of the cementitious component. These materials are majority
byproducts from other processes or natural materials. The major benefits of SCM
is its ability to replace certain amount of Portland cement and still able to display
cementitious property, thus reducing the cost of using Portland cement. More
recently, strict air-pollution controls and regulations have produced an
abundance of industrial byproducts that can be used as supplementary
cementitious materials such as fly ash, silica fume and ground granulated blast
furnace slag. The use of such byproducts in concrete construction not only
prevents these products from being land-filled but also enhances the properties
of concrete in the fresh and hydrated states.
The SCMs can be divided into two categories based on their type of reaction:
hydraulic or pozzolanic. Hydraulic materials react directly with water to form
cementitious compounds, while pozzolanic materials which by themselves do not
have any cementitious property but when used with Portland cement, react to
form cementitious combination. It chemically reacts with calcium hydroxide (CH),
a soluble reaction product, in the presence of moisture to form compounds

possessing cementing properties. The word “pozzolan” was actually derived from
a large deposit of Mt. Vesuvius volcanic ash located near the town of Pozzuoli,
Italy. Example of SCM that will be discussed further in this context are fly ash,
ground granulated blast furnace slag, silica fume and natural pozzolans.
Fly Ash
Introduction
A primary goal is a reduction in the use of Portland cement, which is easily

achieved by partially replacing it with various cementitious materials, preferably
those that are byproducts of industrial processes. Fly ash is by far the most
widely used supplementary cementitious material in the manufactured concrete
products industry because of low cost (about half that of cement), availability and
property-enhancing characteristics. Fly ash is a byproduct of the combustion of
ground coal for use in electric power plants. It’s a fine residue of mineral
impurities that melt and recrystallize within the air stream moving through the
combustion boiler. The material is then collected from exhaust gases using
electrostatic precipitators or filters.
Fly ash was first used in large-mass concrete structures such as dams to reduce
cost and minimize the heat of hydration. Additional research revealed property-
enhancing benefits of fly ash, including resistance to certain harmful chemicals,
sulfate attack and alkali silica reaction (ASR). The oil crisis during the 1970s also
led to the construction of additional coal-burning power plants throughout the
United States creating an abundance of fly ash. Fly ash is a variable material and
its composition is determined by the chemical composition of the coal used by
the power plant. As a byproduct of coal combustion, it would be a waste product
to be disposed of at great cost, if we don’t make good use of it. By utilizing its
cementitious properties, we are adding value to it as we “beneficiate” it as a
major aspect of green building construction.
Besides that, fly ash has an adverse effect on maintaining a stable air-void
system, especially for higher carbon content like Class F fly ashes. The carbon
content of fly ash is often given by the Loss on Ignition Value (LOI) shown on
the material certification report. This value is obtained by drying the sample of
ash and then massing it. The sample is then ignited at 750 oC in a muffle
furnace. The loss in weight represents the quantity of unburnt carbon present in
the material and is often a good indication of how it will affect the air content of
the concrete.
Trial batches should always be cast prior to using a new material. The air content
of the concrete should be measured regularly when using a fly ash with a LOI
value greater than 3 percent. Either type of fly ash can be used as a cement
replacement to reduce production costs. Class F fly ashes have also been
found to improve sulfate resistance better than Class C fly ashes. However,
some ashes with high alumina contents are not as effective in improving sulfate
resistance.
Production
As shown in graph below, the utilization rates vary greatly from country to
country, from as low as 3.5% for India to as high as 93.7% for Hong Kong. The
relatively low rate of 13.5% in the US is an indication that there is a lot of room
for progress.
Fly Ash Production and Utilization (1995)
100.0 91.1
90.0
80.0
Weight (Tonne)
70.0 62.0
60.0
60.0 57.0
Utilized
50.0 Produced
40.0
30.0
20.0 13.8
8.1
10.0 0.4 1.3 0.6 0.6 2.0 2.8
4.7 4.3
0.0
China Denmark Hong Kong India Japan Russia USA
Country
The following chart shows the global production and utilization of fly ash based
on data from the Minerals Yearbook (MYB). For the year 2002, data were
recorded from Coal Ash Association’s 2002 Coal Combustion Product (CCP)
FLY ASH GLOBAL PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION
80,000,000
70,000,000
60,000,000
50,000,000
TONNE
Ultilization
40,000,000
Production
30,000,000
20,000,000
10,000,000
0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2002
YEAR
Classification
The four main constituents are silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3),
iron oxide (Fe2O3) and calcium oxide (CaO). ASTM C 618 classifies fly ash
based on the sum of the first three constituents (SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3). When
this sum exceeds 70 percent the Class F designation is given to the material
while their sum must exceed only 50 percent to be classified as a Class C fly
ash. Class C fly ashes also contain higher levels of calcium oxide usually
exceeding 20 percent. Class F fly ashes are pozzolanic in nature while Class C
fly ashes react both pozzolanically and hydraulically. Class F fly ashes have
lower calcium contents and are typically derived from higher-ranked coals
containing clayey mineral impurities.
The principal reaction product of Class F fly ash is suggested to be more gel-like
and denser than that from Portland cement hydration. Class F fly ashes react
slower than Portland cement, compromising the initial strength gain of the fly ash
concrete. Longer set times can be expected as the quantity of fly ash increases,
therefore finishing operations may need to be delayed. When using fly ash in the
manufactured concrete products industry, accelerated curing methods and
extended moisture curing should be used to initiate the pozzolanic reaction and
improve initial strength gain.
Advantages
o Fly ash is still less expensive than Portland cement.
o Fly ash is also widely available, namely wherever coal is being burned.
o Fly ash can improve certain properties of concrete, such as durability.
o It generates less heat of hydration, well suited for mass concrete

applications.
o The amount of water can be reduced by 2 to 3 percent for every 10

percent of fly ash used to replace cement.
o Depending on how fine the fly ash and the content of unburnt carbon, the
water reduction can reach up to 6-10 % with a 25 % cement replacement.
o It’s possible to replace 100% of Portland cement by fly ash theoretically,

but it requires chemical activator. Optimum replacement level is 30%.
o Since fly ash is spherical in shape, it greatly improves the workability of

fresh concrete acting like small ball bearings during the mixing and placing
process.
Disadvantages
o There is the relatively slow rate of strength development. But this is

irrelevant in applications where high early strength is not required.
o More significant is the wide variability of its chemical composition and

quality, which is the main reason for the low utilization rates.
o Customers generally prefer a consistently uniform color. One concrete

manufacturer had to discontinue the use of fly ash, because he could not
control the color of his product.
Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS)
Introduction
Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) is another excellent cementitious

material. It’s a byproduct of industrial process, in this case the steel industry.
GGBFS is formed when molten iron blast furnace slag is rapidly chilled by
immersion in water. It has limited crystal formation, highly cementitious in nature
and, ground to cement fineness, hydrates like Portland cement.
Although Portland blast furnace slag cement, which is made by intergrinding the
granulated slag with Portland cement clinker (blended cement), has been used
for more than 60 years, the use of separately ground slag combined with
Portland cement as admixture did not start until late 1970s. For many
applications it is now recommended to use a blend of Portland cement, fly ash,
and GGBFS. Yet, slag is not as widely available as fly ash. The US steel
industry is only a faint image of what it was only a few decades ago, and as a
result, the slag marketed in some East Coast states is being imported from Italy.
Because of its excellent attributes, the cost of slag is comparable to that of
Portland cement, so that there is no advantage in this respect.
GGBFS can be substituted for cement on a 1:1 basis. In the absence of mix
specific data, the substitution of GGBFS should be limited to 50 percent for
areas not exposed to deicing salts and to 25 percent for concretes which
will be exposed to deicing salts. While substitution of GGBFS for up to 70
percent in a mix has been used, there appears to be an optimum substitution
percentage which produces the greatest 28 day strength. This is typically 50
percent of the total cementitious material but depends on the GGBFS used.
Section 4.2.3.2 of ACI 318-89, "Building Code Requirements for Reinforced

Concrete," indicates that substitution rates of up to 50 % may be acceptable for
concretes exposed to deicing chemicals. In addition, in mass concreting
operations, the heat of hydration may be an overruling factor and substitution
rates greater than 50 percent may be deemed suitable.
In general, the strength development of concrete incorporating slag is slow

at 1- 5 days compared with the control concrete. Between 7 and 28 days, the
strength approaches the same with control concrete and beyond this period,
the strength of the slag concrete exceeds the control concrete.
Classification
ASTM C 989-82 and AASHTO M 302 were developed to cover ground GGBFS
for use in concrete and mortar. The three grades are 80, 100, and 120. The
grade of a GGBFS is based on its activity index. Activity index is the ratio of
the compressive strength of a mortar cube made with a 50 percent GGBFS-
cement blend to that of a mortar cube made with a reference cement.
For a given mix, the substitution of grade 120 ground granulated blast furnace
slag for up to 50 percent of the cement will generally yield a compressive
strength at 7 days and beyond equivalent to or greater than that of the same
concrete made without GGBFS.
Substitution of grade 100 GGBFS will generally yield an equivalent or greater

strength at 28 days. However, concrete made with grade 80 GGBFS will have a
lower compressive strength at all ages. It is advisable only grades 100 and
120 GGBFS should be used. However, the use of grade 80 slag may be
appropriate in mass concrete where the heat of hydration may be an overriding
factor. Therefore, grade 80 GGBFS should be avoided unless in unusual
circumstances.
GGBFS Production Growth
Since the late 1800s, ground granulated blast furnace slag has been used as a
component of blended hydraulic cement. In Europe, typical applications include
traditional structures and those exposed to seawater; in the U.S., its use extends
to general construction. As a result of granulated blast furnace slag's high quality
and the efforts of all manufacturers to conserve energy, the use of blast furnace
slag has grown significantly in the U.S. since the 1970s.
According to the Slag Cement Association, slag cement consumption has almost
tripled since 1996 and is growing faster than any other product in the
cementitious materials industry. Association statistics show that in 2003, 3.1
million metric tons of slag cement was shipped for use in construction
projects. The tonnage is a combination of slag cement shipped as a separate
product (conforming to ASTM C989) and as a component of blended cement
(conforming to ASTM C595). The term slag cement refers to 100% ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) in North America.
Actual ferrous slag production data in the United States do not exist because
the iron and steel industry does not routinely measure slag output. Slag
outputs in iron and steel production are highly variable and depend, for the most
part, on the chemistry of the raw materials and the type of furnace. Typically, for
an ore feed with 60% to 66% iron, blast furnace slag production ranges from
about 220 to 370 kilograms per metric ton of pig iron produced. Steel slag
outputs are approximately 20% by mass of the steel output.
According to statistics reported by the International Iron and Steel Institute (IISI),
Brussels, the U.S. pig iron production was about 53 million and 55 million metric
tons (Mt) in l998 and l997, respectively. Thus, the iron slag production for these
years was about 12.5 and 13 Mt in 1998 and 1997, respectively. United States
steel production for l998 and l997 was reported to be 108 and 107 Mt,
respectively. The expected steel slag production was about 17.2 and 17 Mt in
1998 and 1997, respectively. As with the United States, no data are available on
world slag production. The IISI reported the world pig iron output to be about 544
Mt and crude steel production to be 783 Mt in 1998. The estimated figure for
ferrous slag production from this output was approximately 200 Mt.
Advantages
o Reduce expansion caused by alkali-aggregate reaction.
o Like fly ash, GGBFS improve mechanical and durability properties of

concrete and generates less heat of hydration.
o The rate and quantity of bleeding is less because of the relatively higher
fineness of slag.
o The higher fineness of slag also increases the air-entraining agent

required, compared to conventional concrete.
o GGBFS improves workability and decreases the water demand due

to the increase in paste volume caused by the lower relative density of
slag.
o Flexural strength is usually improved by the use of slag cement, which

makes it beneficial to concrete paving application.
o Slag unlike fly ash does not contain carbon, which cause instability
and air loss in concrete.
o Helps in the transformation of large pores in the paste into smaller pores,
resulting in decreased permeability of the matrix and of the concrete.
o Significant reduction in permeability is achieved as the replacement level

of the slag increases from 40 to 65% especially by mass.
o Because of the reduction in permeability, it requires less depth of cover

than conventional concrete requires to protect the reinforcing steel.
o Air-entrained slag concrete specimens performed excellently in freeze-

thaw tests, with relative durability factors greater than 91%.
o Setting times of concretes increases as the slag content increases.

This delay can be beneficial in large pours and in hot weather
conditions where it prevents the formation of "cold joints" in successive
pours.
o Slag is effective in preventing damage due to ASR (alkali silica

reaction) due to reduction of total alkalies in the cement-slag blend, the
lower permeability of the system, and the tying up of the alkalies in the
hydration process.
Disadvantages
o Scaling resistance of concretes decreases with GGBFS substitution

rates greater than 25 %.
o The necessity of proper curing should be emphasized with the use of

ground granulated blast furnace slag.
o Concretes containing ground granulated blast furnace slag may be more

susceptible to cracking caused by drying shrinkage.
o At low temperatures, the strengths are substantially reduced up to 14

days, and the percentage of slag used is usually reduced to 25-30%.
o Setting times of concretes increases when the slag content increases.

Increase of slag content (35 to 65%) can extend the setting time by 60
minutes.
o Additionally, the set retardation caused by ground granulated blast furnace

slag is temperature sensitive and becomes more pronounced at lower
temperatures.
o In the absence of special circumstances, the use of ground granulated

blast furnace slag as a cement replacement limited to grades 100 and
120 GGBFS.
o In the absence of special circumstances or mix specific data, the

substitution of GGBFS limited to 50 percent for areas not exposed to
deicing salts and to 25 percent for concretes exposed to deicing salts.
Silica Fume
Introduction
Perhaps the greatest success story in

beneficiating an industrial byproduct is that
of condensed silica fume or microsilica, a
byproduct of the semiconductor
industry. Silica fume is an industrial
byproduct of high-purity quartz with coal
or coke and wood chips in an electric arc
furnace during the production of silicon
metal or ferrosilicon alloys. Silica is
removed from exhaust gases as it cools
and condenses into ultra fine droplets of
silica glass. Silica fume has a high content of amorphous silicon dioxide (92 to
94% SiO2).
Silica fume is regularly used in high-strength concrete applications or in

concrete products that will be subjected to abrasive or corrosive
environments such as coastal applications, bridge decks or water conveyance
structures. Silica fume is available in a variety of forms. In fact, it is now available
not only as a byproduct of the semiconductor industry, but also produced
specifically for the concrete industry.
Silica fume is spherical in shape and is extremely small, having an average

diameter of about one-tenth of a micron (0.1 um). An average silica particle is
roughly one one-hundredth the size of a cement grain. Silica fume is usually
used as a 5 percent to 10 percent replacement by mass for cement. Research
has found that when silica fume is used at a 15 percent replacement level, there
are roughly 2 million silica fume particles for each grain of cement present.
Silica fume is densified by putting it into a silo and blowing compressed air from
the bottom. The particles tumble and stick together. Densified silica is available in
bags or bulk and mixing times may need to be increased to ensure that the
particles break down adequately. Slurry silica is a water-based material
containing roughly 42 percent to 60 percent by mass of silica fume.
Since silica fume is a pozzolan and consumed roughly 50 percent of the calcium
hydroxide present in the first 28 days when used at a 10 percent replacement
level under normal curing conditions. The pozzolanic reaction is extremely
sensitive to temperature and greatly accelerated by steam curing and other
accelerated curing methods.
World demand for silica fume
Worldwide demand for silica fume was projected to rise 4.1% annually through
2006 to 2.1 billion metric tons, although advances were expected to be less
robust in more developed areas such as the United States, Japan, and Western
Europe.
Advantages
o It improves both strength and durability of concrete to such an extent

that modern designs rule call for the addition of silica fume.
o Silica fume can be used to increase the compressive strength of

lightweight concrete as well as conventional concrete
o It reduce the wall thickness or other dimensions product and overcome

transportation limitations
o Silica fume particles pack around the aggregate more efficiently, modifying
the paste structure and preventing bleeding.
o Silica fume ultimately reduces the porosity of the hydrated cement

matrix through improved particle packing.
o Silica fume fills the voids between cement particles just as cement fills
the voids between sand and coarse aggregate.
o It fills up a critical region known as the interfacial transition zone (ITZ)

and in conventional concrete is characterized by a massive calcium
hydroxide layer laden with voids (weak link between the paste and
aggregates)
Disadvantages
o Silica fume is typically more expensive than cement
o The material is difficult to handle because of its extreme fineness.
o It’s easy to become airborne, thus raising health issue concerns.
o Silica fume concrete is slightly darker in color and has been reported
being “sticky” during finishing.
o Due to its small size and high surface area (20,000 m2/kg), silica fume
minimizes bleeding, which may lead to plastic shrinkage cracking.
o Water demand is higher because of its high surface area.
o Dispersing agent need to be used to overcome surface forces and

ensuring adequate particle dispersion.
Natural Pozzolans
Introduction
Various naturally occurring materials possess, or can be processed to possess

pozzolanic properties. These materials are also covered under the standard
specification ASTM C618. Natural pozzolans such as
metakaolin and calcined shale or clay are manufactured diatomaceous earth
A light soil consisting
by controlled calcining (firing) of naturally occurring of siliceous diatom
minerals. Metakaolin is produced from relatively pure remains and often
kaolinite clay and it is used at 5% to 15% by mass of the used as a filtering
cementitious materials. Calcined shale or clay is used at material
higher percentage by mass. Other natural pozzolans
include volcanic glass, zeolitic trass or tuffs, rice husk ash and diatomaceous
earth.
The ancient Greeks and Romans used a combination of lime and volcanic ash to
make a cementitious mortar to construct many of the impressive monuments
which still stand today. The earliest known use of a pozzolan actually dates back
to about 4500 BC. It consisted of a mixture of lime and diatomaceous earth from
the Persian Gulf. ACI defines natural pozzolans as “either a raw or calcined
natural material that has pozzolanic properties.” Calcining is the process of
altering the composition or physical state by heating a material below the
temperature of fusion. Sources of natural pozzolans that do not require calcining
to increase their reactivity are typically located west of the Mississippi River. The
price and availability of raw or processed natural pozzolans is dependent on the
location of such materials.
Metakaolin
Research has indicated that most natural pozzolans

produce hardened concrete properties similar to
industrial byproduct pozzolans. Some investigators have
even reported that natural pozzolans are more effective in
controlling alkali silica reaction than fly ash. More
reactive pozzolans such as metakaolin and rice husk ash
are often used in the same manner and proportions as
silica fume. Metakaolin is
a calcined or “thermally
activated” clay and is
produced with high purity
kaolin-containing clay that
is purified by water processing prior to low
temperature thermal activation between 600 and
900 oC. The material is then ground to a very
high fineness (0.5 to 20 um) and marketed as
high-reactivity metakaolin. Research has shown that calcium hydroxide

produced during cement hydration will be completely consumed when high-
reactivity metakaolin is used at a 20 percent replacement level. Metakaolin will
increase the concrete’s strength, reduce permeability and improve
workability when a water reducing agent is used. Metakaolin is white in color
and ideal for use in architectural concrete.
Rice Husk
Rice husk ash (RHA) is a natural byproduct from the processing of paddy rice.
The husks, which are approximately 50 percent cellulose, 30 percent lignin and
20 percent silica, are incinerated by controlled combustion leaving behind an ash
that predominantly consists of amorphous silica. Rice husk ash is highly
pozzolanic due to its extremely high surface area (50,000 to 100,000 m2/kg).
Research has shown that higher compressive strengths, decreased
permeability, resistance to sulfate and acid attack, and resistance to
chloride penetration can all be expected when a high-quality RHA is used in
amounts of 5 percent to 15 percent by mass of cement.
Global production of rice, the majority of which is grown in Asia, is

approximately 550 million tonnes/year. The milling of rice generates a waste
material - the husk surrounding the rice grain. This is generated at a rate of about
20% of the weight of the product rice, or some 110 million tonnes per year
globally. The husk in turn contains between 15 and 20% of mineral matter the
majority of which is amorphous silica. There is a growing demand for finely
divided amorphous silica in the production of high strength, low permeability
concrete, for use in bridges, marine environments, and nuclear power plants.
This market is currently filled by silica fume. Limited supply and high demand has
pushed the price of silica fume to as much as US$1,000/tonne in some markets.
Rice husk has the potential to generate 16.5 to 22 million tonnes of ash
containing over 90% amorphous silica that could be used as a substitute for
silica fume.
Standards Governing The Use Of SCM
ACI Documents
ACI 211.1, “Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal, Heavyweight
and Mass Concrete”
ACI 232.1, “Use of Raw or Processed Natural Pozzolans in Concrete”
ACI 232.2, “Use of Fly Ash in Concrete”
ACI 234, “Guide for the Use of Silica Fume in Concrete”
ASTM Documents
ASTM C989-05, “Standard Specification for Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace

Slag for Use in Concrete and Mortars”
ASTM C 618, “Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined
Natural Pozzolans for Use in Concrete”
ASTM C 1240, “Standard Specification for Silica Fume Used in Cementitious

Mixtures”
British Standards
BS 6610:1996 Specification for Pozzolanic pulverized-fuel ash cement
BS 3892-2:1996 Pulverized-fuel ash. Specification for pulverized-fuel ash to be

used as a Type I addition
BS 3892-1:1997 Pulverized-fuel ash. Specification for pulverized-fuel ash for

use with Portland cement
BS 3892-3:1997 Pulverized-fuel ash. Specification for pulverized-fuel ash for

use in cementitious grouts
BS EN 14227-3:2004 Hydraulically bound mixtures. Specifications. Fly ash

bound mixtures
BS EN 14227-4:2004 Hydraulically bound mixtures. Specifications. Fly ash for

hydraulically bound mixtures
BS EN 450-1:2005 Fly ash for concrete. Definition, specifications and conformity

criteria
BS EN 450-2:2005 Fly ash for concrete. Conformity Evaluation

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AUTHOR: AU YONG THEAN SENG

What Are Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM)?

Ground Granulated Furnace Blast Slag

Standards Governing The Use Of SCM

What Are Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM)?

Nowadays, most concrete mixture contains supplementary cementitious material

a soluble reaction product, in the presence of moisture to form compounds

A primary goal is a reduction in the use of Portland cement, which is easily

Fly Ash Production and Utilization (1995)

FLY ASH GLOBAL PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION

o Fly ash is still less expensive than Portland cement.

o Fly ash can improve certain properties of concrete, such as durability.

o It generates less heat of hydration, well suited for mass concrete

o The amount of water can be reduced by 2 to 3 percent for every 10

o It’s possible to replace 100% of Portland cement by fly ash theoretically,

o Since fly ash is spherical in shape, it greatly improves the workability of

o There is the relatively slow rate of strength development. But this is

o More significant is the wide variability of its chemical composition and

o Customers generally prefer a consistently uniform color. One concrete

Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS)

Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) is another excellent cementitious

Section 4.2.3.2 of ACI 318-89, "Building Code Requirements for Reinforced

In general, the strength development of concrete incorporating slag is slow

Substitution of grade 100 GGBFS will generally yield an equivalent or greater

GGBFS Production Growth

o Reduce expansion caused by alkali-aggregate reaction.

o Like fly ash, GGBFS improve mechanical and durability properties of

o The higher fineness of slag also increases the air-entraining agent

o GGBFS improves workability and decreases the water demand due

o Flexural strength is usually improved by the use of slag cement, which

o Significant reduction in permeability is achieved as the replacement level

o Because of the reduction in permeability, it requires less depth of cover

o Air-entrained slag concrete specimens performed excellently in freeze-

o Setting times of concretes increases as the slag content increases.

o Slag is effective in preventing damage due to ASR (alkali silica

o Scaling resistance of concretes decreases with GGBFS substitution

o The necessity of proper curing should be emphasized with the use of

o Concretes containing ground granulated blast furnace slag may be more

o At low temperatures, the strengths are substantially reduced up to 14

o Setting times of concretes increases when the slag content increases.

o Additionally, the set retardation caused by ground granulated blast furnace

o In the absence of special circumstances, the use of ground granulated

o In the absence of special circumstances or mix specific data, the

Perhaps the greatest success story in

Silica fume is regularly used in high-strength concrete applications or in

Silica fume is spherical in shape and is extremely small, having an average

World demand for silica fume

o It improves both strength and durability of concrete to such an extent

o Silica fume can be used to increase the compressive strength of

o It reduce the wall thickness or other dimensions product and overcome

o Silica fume ultimately reduces the porosity of the hydrated cement

o It fills up a critical region known as the interfacial transition zone (ITZ)

o Silica fume is typically more expensive than cement

o The material is difficult to handle because of its extreme fineness.

o It’s easy to become airborne, thus raising health issue concerns.

o Water demand is higher because of its high surface area.

o Dispersing agent need to be used to overcome surface forces and

Various naturally occurring materials possess, or can be processed to possess

Research has indicated that most natural pozzolans

high-reactivity metakaolin. Research has shown that calcium hydroxide

Global production of rice, the majority of which is grown in Asia, is

Standards Governing The Use Of SCM

ACI 232.1, “Use of Raw or Processed Natural Pozzolans in Concrete”