Class 9 Metamorphic Rocks and Metamorphic Deposits - Notes

• Metamorphic Rocks
• Metamorphic Deposits

Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphism

Metamorphic rocks are the product of “metamorphism”, which is the partial or complete
recrystallization of rocks. The original rock (called the “protolith”) is either an igneous or
sedimentary rock. The protolith is subjected to a change, over time, in the physical and chemical
conditions surrounding it, resulting in the growth of new minerals at the expense of the old ones.
The physical conditions include the temperature, lithostatic pressure, hydrostatic pressure,
directed pressure, vapor pressure, and other forces. They are “solid state” changes, which
means that they do not occur as a result of magmatic crystallization, but instead occur much
later.

Changes in chemical conditions do occur, but are typically restricted to just those changes
involving local components (minerals and pore fluids). Generally these changes are When large
amounts hydrothermal fluids become involved, bringing in new components or metals and
causing more or less wholesale replacement, the process is called “metasomatism”. A skarn
(see Class 5 Notes) is an example of a metasomatic rock. Metasomatism usually causes near-
complete destruction of the original fabric of the rock due to the growth of new minerals. In
contrast, metamorphism usually retains the original fabric, called “relict”.

The two biggest variables in metamorphism are the temperature and pressure. The general
temperature and pressure conditions at a given point in time are called the “metamorphic facies”.
Eskola (1915) created a scheme to describe these conditions (Figure 9 – 1). The scheme is
based on “indicator minerals” - minerals which are characteristically associated with some
specific temperature –pressure parameters. For example, at low pressures, the minerals albite
and epidote are stable at low temperatures (300 – 450 deg. C), but give rise to the formation of
hornblende at higher temperatures (500 – 600 deg. C). Facies conditions such as the zeolite,
prehnite-pumpellyite, greenschist, albite-epidote and hornblende facies may be conducive to
growth of hydrous minerals (those containing water in their crystal structure). Other higher
temperature/pressure facies conditions cause dehydration reactions to occur, and therefore favor
the growth of anhydrous minerals such as pyroxene and garnet.
Figure 9 –1. Metamorphic facies as a function of temperature and pressure.

There are many ways that rocks can be subjected to new physical and chemical conditions.
These ways mostly involve plate tectonic activity over long periods of geologic time. Movement
along plate boundaries results in subduction, shearing or rifting. In the subduction zone
environment, several different metamorphic facies conditions are present in different portions of
the system (Figure 9 – 2). Zeolite and prehnite-pumplellyite facies occur at shallow crustal levels
near the interface of the ocean and sediments, in a trench setting. At greater depths (higher
pressures) and higher temperatures, regional metamorphism occurs (greenschist, amphibolite
and granulite facies). Magmas formed by partial melting ascend towards the surface where they
eventually form plutonic or volcanic rocks. The igneous rocks intrude portions of the crustal
rocks, at lower lithostatic and hydrostatic pressures. As the plutons shoulder aside the adjacent
rocks during ascent towards the surface, they generate thermal changes in these adjacent rocks,
called “country rocks”. These high temperature, generally low pressure conditions of
metamorphism are called “contact metamorphism”. Contact metamorphism occurs in a restricted
aureole surrounding the igneous intrusion. The temperature gradient of the contact aureole
decreases outward from the pluton in a series of concentric or irregular-shaped zones.
Figure 9 – 2. Subduction zone setting showing locations of metamorphic facies, including: 1)
zeolite, 2) prehnite-pumpellyite, 3) glaucophane schist, 4) eclogite, 5) greenschist, 6) amphibolite,
7) granulite, 8) pyroxene hornfels, 9) hornblende hornfels, and 10) albite-epidote hornfels.

Metamorphic Zones

The heat source involved with a metamorphic event will typically set up a gradient in the country
rocks which decreases outward away from the source of heat. The heat source can be can be an
igneous pluton, a large-scale igneous batholith, a small-scale dike, or just the normal geothermal
gradient of the earth which increases with depth. As a volume of the rock is subjected to the new
temperature conditions, the minerals comprising the rock become unstable and react with
adjacent minerals to create new minerals which are stable at the higher temperatures. Some of
the reactions which are known to occur are summarized in the Figure 9-3.

The mineral assemblage present in the metamorphic rock provides the most important evidence
about the temperature and pressure conditions of the past. Careful analysis of the mineral
composition of the rock, or petrologic evaluation, is required, often requiring the use of
petrographic microscope or electron microprobe to determine the exact composition of the
individual minerals. Key indicator minerals are used to identify the metamorphic zone. The
metamorphic zone is the manifestation of a certain set of physical and chemical conditions. For
example, look at the minerals which form by contact metamorphism of an impure limestone
(mostly calcite, but with impurities of quartz and clay)(Figure 9 – 3). Calcite, quartz and clay
minerals react to form talc at low temperature. With increasing temperatures, talc becomes
unstable and reacts to form tremolite. Further temperature increase causes tremolite to become
unstable and react to form diopside.
Figure 9 – 3. Chart of metamorphic facies showing mineral reactions and indicators for impure
limestone, pelitic and mafic igneous protoliths (modified from Brownlow, 1979).

Metamorphic Fabrics

The mineralogy of the a metamorphic rock is not the only line of evidence to determine its
history. The fabric of a metamorphic rock also tells of its history. Typically metamorphic rocks
develop some kind of metamorphic fabric during the metamorphic event(s). The fabric can be
either a planar fabric, called “foliation”, or a linear fabric, called “lineation”.

figure will be added pending permission

Figure 9 – 4. Metamorphic rock fabrics. A. Schistosity formed by muscovite and biotite. B.
Lineation formed by stretching of round clasts. C. Lineation formed by elongate mineral growth
within schistosity plane (from ).

The fabric develops because during recrystallization, the new minerals which grow have a
preferred sense of orientation with respect to directional forces of pressure at work. The pressure
may be static, as in the lithostatic pressure which results from the weight of the overlying rocks.
Pressure may also be directed by tectonic forces, which can be tensional, compressional or shear
forces. The new minerals can grow in a number of different orientations with respect to the lines
of force, ranging from perpendicular to parallel.

Planar fabrics, called “foliations”, develop in one of two ways: 1) by growth of planar minerals, or
2) by development of compositional layering. The most common planar minerals are the mica’s,
but these are hydrous minerals and generally occur in lower grade metamorphic rocks. This type
of fabric is called a schistosity, because it is characteristic of the metamorphic rock called
“schist”. Mica’s grow perpendicular to the directions of force in most situations involving non-
directed pressure, such as simple burial metamorphism. In this situation the micas grow
horizontally, with the flat sides facing up, perpendicular to the pressure from the overlying column
of rock. Micas and other minerals also grow in conditions of directed pressure, such as in
environment in which there is compression and shearing. In these situations, the micas grow with
their flat sides parallel to the direction of shearing. At very high grade metamorphic conditions,
close to the melting temperature of the rock, there can be larger scale movement of chemical
constituents, leading to the development of compositional layering or banding. The effect is to
create alternating mafic-rich and quartz-feldspar-rich bands.

Metamorphic Lithologies

Metamorphic rocks are classified on the basis of their mineralogy and texture:

special texture mineralogy rock name

Example: porphyroblastic garnet-mica-quartz schist

It is known that at higher grades of metamorphism, rocks tend to recrystallize into coarser-grain
sizes than at lower grades of metamorphism. Arbitrary grain size ranges used to classify
metamorphic rocks are < 0.1 mm (fine-grained), 0.1 – 1.0 mm (medium-grained) and > 1.0
mm(coarse-grained). The grain size of the rock is specified in the rock name itself, for example
phyllite is medium-grained, schist is coarse-grained, and gneiss is very coarse-grained (Figure 9
– 5). The most abundant mineral is listed last, so garnet is least abundant and quartz is most
abundant. Porphyroblastic is a special textural name for metamorphic rocks that have larger
crystals forming bumps or knots, which disrupt the primary foliation due to formation late in the
metamorphic event.
 Figure 9 – 5. Metamorphic rock classification based on grain
size and protolith composition (from Mason, 1978).

Metamorphic Deposits

Metamorphic ore deposits are those which form as a result of metamorphic processes and are
hosted in metamorphic rocks. This group does not include previously existing ore deposits which
are later altered or deformed during a metamorphic event. It is not always clearcut whether a
deposit is of the former or the later category. The distinguishing feature all of these deposits do
have in common is the lack of a clear link to a causitive pluton, ie, a pluton which provided both
the metals and the fluids which generated the deposit. Instead, the metals and hydrothermal
fluids were derived from the metamorphic rocks during the metamorphic process.

Metamorphic deposits are formed in different types of metamorphic conditions, ranging from low
to high temperature and low to high pressure. The generation of fluids to transport and
precipitate metals is critical. This means one might expect more deposits to form in metamorphic
conditions which generate water as a by-product of dehydration reactions. In a regional
metamorphic setting these conditions are most likely to be met in the greenschist facies of
metamorphism. Further metamorphism into the amphibolite facies tends to drive all water from
the system. This is why many metamorphic deposits form in greenschist facies rocks and
relatively few form in high grade metamorphic rocks. Brittle, massive rocks often become good
host rocks in areas affected by dynamic metamorphism because shearing causes the rocks to
shatter, thereby developing fluid pathways and sites for mineralization. Mineralization may
transcend across different rock lithologies, indicating that bulk composition of the host rock is a
less important factor. Further evidence for syn-metamorphic ( formation is the fact that the ore
and gangue minerals comprising the cross-cutting features are often compatible with the regional
metamorphic grade, indicating they did not form during a post metamorphic event of higher or
lower temperature. Three general types of metamorphic deposits are known: 1) copper-rich, 2)
gold-rich, and 3) lead-zinc-silver-rich.

Copper-Rich Types:

These metamorphic deposits are characteristically associated with very low grade to low grade
metamorphism. Most often they form in terrains where mafic or ultramafic basement rocks are
overlain upsection by organic-rich sedimentary rocks. Background copper values of the mafic
rocks are low, nevertheless they are believed to provide the source of the copper by liberation
during a leaching process caused by passing of low temperature hydrothermal fluids. The fluids
move upwards above local hot spots, and especially along fractures and faults. Richest zones
are usually in close proximity to a fault or other structure where fluids migrate. When the fluids
encounter the rock layers containing the organic matter, precipitation results.

Examples:

Kennicott, Alaska: Ore = Chalcocite + Bornite. Average grade 6 % copper, 14

opt silver. High grade veins were the Jumbo and Bonanza-Mother Lode veins.
Ore localized in the lower of the Chitistone Limestone formation, which has high
organic content. Source of copper = Nikolai Greenstone = subaerial mafic
volcanic flows. The flows have naturally high copper values. Doming of the rock
layers caused fracture systems which localized the ore. Local flat faults. (Figure
9 – 6)

White Pine, Michigan: Ore = chalcocite + bornite + chalcopyrite + minor

sphalerite Proterozoic subaerial basalts overlain by sandstone-shale sequence.
Shales contain high organic content and are host rocks for the ore. Native
copper occurs in the basalts, which are altered to chlorite and zeolites.

Figure 9 – 6. Cross section of Kennicott copper deposit (source unknown).

Gold-Rich Types:
Gold-rich metamorphic deposits are of two general types: 1) Archean iron formation types, and
2) quartz-carbonate veins.

Archean Iron Formation Types: Occur mostly in Precambrian shield areas. Vein morphology but
most veins apparently concentrated in peculiar iron-rich shales and sandstones which are
upgraded by at least one and usually several metamorphic events. Iron-bearing minerals form a
mineral zonation down dip from oxides (hematite, magnetite), to silicates (including Fe-rich clays
& chlorite), to carbonates (siderite), to sulfides (pyrite, pyrrhotite). The zonation is thought to
result from differences in water depth during diagenesis. Gold occurs in quartz veins in the
silicate or sulfide facies host rocks.

Examples:

Precambrian of Wyoming

Jardine, Montana

Quartz-Carbonate Types: Often associated with greenstone belts in shield areas. Serious
deformation of host rocks. Ore formed in structural zones/shear zones which are regional in
scale. The districts usually contain large scale folding as well. Typically dismembered.
Associated with greenschist facies rocks, namely greenstone. Also hosted in deformed
metaigneous rocks, particularly where they intrude shaley rocks. Moderately high temperature
fluids with significant CO2 content. Boiling (when CO2 exsolves from fluid) thought to be
important mechanism in the precipitation of gold. Typical mineralogy is quartz + carbonate +
sericite (or chlorite) + pyrite (or arsenopyrite) + native gold.

Examples:

Valdez Creek District, Alaska

Conn Mine, Eastern Canada

AJ Mine, southeast Alaska

Lead-Silver-Rich Types:

Lead-silver-rich types of metamorphic deposits typically contain galena, sphalerite, and locally
tetrahedrite and chalcopyrite as ore minerals. The gangue is typically quartz and siderite (iron
carbonate). Mineral zoning is from galena + sphalerite in the lower portion of the veins to galena
+ siderite in the upper portion of the veins.

Example:

Coer de Lane district, Idaho