Waste Management

Chapter 12 in textbook (Keller, 2000)

For this section, and all sections in this course, look up
and study all concepts and terms in various resources:
• other textbooks
• library books
• journal articles
• websites (in addition to the links in this presentation)
NOTE: Always be prepared to discuss any of the concepts in
class. Focus on highlighted terms.
Diagrams in this presentation are from various sources:
• Keller (2000) textbook
• Idaho Virtual Campus -- Environmental Geology course
• others by S. Hughes

S. Hughes 2000

Waste Management
What is the need for waste
management?
On Staten Island, New York, a mountain
of trash is growing, entirely manmade.
• Each day: 11,000 tons of municipal
and corporate waste disposed of at
Fresh Kills Landfill
• Facility: 3,000 acres (>1200 ha), and
by the year 2005 the mountain of trash
is expected to reach 150 to 200m
• New landfills are constructed each year; some are many
kilometers away from where the trash was generated.
• What is the greatest contributor (by volume) to solid waste
at a landfill? Answer:
S. Hughes 2000

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Waste Management Concepts and Problems
• Many people live in areas where concentration of toxic
pollutants exceeds standards (e.g. 25% of people in Russia)
• In 1991, 90% of countries had uncontrolled dumping of
industrial hazardous waste, >60% had hazardous chemicals
disposed of in uncontrolled sites
• Urban areas produce more waste than there is space for
disposal (1/2 of U.S. cities running out of landfill space) and the
costs for treatment and disposal are increasing dramatically
• Siting of new landfills depends on:
Î favorable environment for disposing waste
Î cost of land, transportation and disposal
Î social justice -- economic and social status of citizens
Î environmental justice -- healthy disposal
• Resources are depleted, health problems are growing, and
widespread environmental damage is occurring
• Waste disposal sites may become the mines of the future.
S. Hughes 2000

Philosophy of Waste Disposal and Management

The search for safer methods of waste management and
disposal has begun. This search is exemplified by the
paradigm shift occurring in the field of Waste Management
• Philosophy #1 -- Out of sight out of mind: widespread
environmental damage, the philosophy persists, and
continues to pose serious problems
• Philosophy #2 -- Dilute and Disperse (“the solution to
pollution is dilution”): First century of Industrial Revolution,
no longer suitable for waste disposal; many environments
have reached their maximum compensation points
• Philosophy #3 -- Concentrate and Contain: the most
popular today, very energy intensive and expensive
• Philosophy #4 -- Resource Recovery: waste converted to
useful material, requires technology, and volumes too large
• Philosophy #5 -- Integrated Waste Management:
Complex set of alternatives: source reduction, recycling,
composting, landfill, and incineration
S. Hughes 2000

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Integrated Waste Management (IWM)
Trend to develop new methods of waste management that
will not cause health problems or become a nuisance
Î waste products = resources out of place
Reduce, Recycle, Reuse -- the three “Rs” of IWM;
difficult to have a balance of all three, also add Eliminate to
the list
Technological Advances -- increase the efficiency of
manufacturing processes, minimize waste generation
• Resource Recovery -- reuse and recycling is on the rise
• Sequential Land Use -- establish new developments
over old
• Alternative Methods of Waste Treatment
NOTE: ONE THIRD of all waste in the United States is
packaging! S. Hughes 2000

Materials Management -- Part of IWM, but provides

a new goal: Zero Production of Waste
• Eliminate subsidies for extracting virgin materials
(timber, minerals, oil, etc.)
• Establish “green building” incentives that use
recycled materials in new construction
• Establish financial penalties for production of products
that do not meet objectives of material management
• Establish financial incentives for industrial practices
that benefit the environment by enhancing sustainability
• Provide incentives for producing new jobs in
technology of materials management and practice of
reducing, recycling and reusing resources

S. Hughes 2000

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Solid-Waste Disposal -- primarily an urban
problem, common methods include:
• On-site Disposal: most common in households (grinding
of kitchen food waste), disposal in sewage treatment plant
• Composting: a biochemical process, organic materials
decompose to humus-like material
• Incineration: the reduction of combustible waste to inert
residue; burns at high temperatures (900 to 1000 °C)
Î convert large volume of waste to small volume of ash
Î combustion used to supplement other fuels for power
• Open Dumps: oldest and most common way to dispose of
solid waste, without regard to safety, health, or aesthetics
• Sanitary Landfills: defined by the American Society of
Civil Engineering as a method of solid-waste disposal that
functions without creating a nuisance or hazard to public
health or safety -- This is an important geological problem.
S. Hughes 2000

Solid Waste Disposal

Types of materials or refuse commonly transported to a
disposal site.

Source: Keller, 2000, Figure 12.1 S. Hughes 2000

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 Solid Waste Disposal
Generalized composition of urban solid waste (by weight)
for 1986 and projected for 2000
Material 1986 (%) 2000 (%)
Paper 36 39
Yard Waste 20 19
Plastics 7 9
Metals 9 9
Food Waste 9 7
Glass 8 7
Wood 4 4
Other 7 6

(source: Keller, 2000, Table 12.1)

S. Hughes 2000

Sanitary Landfills
Engineering principles used to:
• confine waste to smallest practical area
• reduce waste to smallest practical volume
• cover waste with layer of compacted soil (or tarps) each
day (finishing cover is ~50 cm or more of compacted clay-
rich soil)
Two types of sanitary landfills:
• area landfill on relatively flat site
• depression landfill in natural or artificial gullies or pits
NOTE: Compaction and subsidence will continue after site is
closed; any further development must be able to accommodate
these potential problems.
Potential Hazards:
• leachate -- obnoxious, highly concentrated mineralized
liquid capable of transporting bacterial pollutants
• uncontrolled production and escape of methane gas
S. Hughes 2000

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 Sanitary Landfills -- Site Selection
Best sites have natural conditions to ensure reasonable safety
in disposal of solid waste: little (or acceptable) pollution of
groundwater and surface water.
Î Must consider: climate, hydrology, geology, & human
conditions (or combinations of all)
Factors controlling the feasibility of sanitary landfills:
• Topographic relief
• Location of the Groundwater table
• Amount of precipitation
• Type of soil and rock
• Location of the disposal zone in the surface-water and
groundwater flow system
NOTE: The best sites are in arid regions, above water table.
S. Hughes 2000

Sanitary Landfills -- Site Selection

Arid Regions
• Relatively safe, regardless of whether burial material is
permeable or impermeable, little or no leachate.
Humid Regions
• Some leachate always produced, need to establish
acceptable level of leachate production
• Need to consider local water use, local regulations,
and ability of natural hydrologic system to disperse,
dilute and degrade the leachate to make harmless
• Most desirable to bury waste above water table in clay
and silt soils having low permeability
• Use substrate as a natural filtering system, even if
water table is high (typical in humid climate)
NOTE: It is very important to consider the geology of the
landfill site, type of aquifer, types of soils, etc.
S. Hughes 2000

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Sanitary Landfills -- Site Selection
Geologic mapping is critical -- must be at least 10 meters
between the base of the landfill and the top of the water table at
its shallowest point - this includes anomalous shallow aquifers
such as “perched aquifers”. An event of high infiltration may
cause the main aquifer to become hydraulically connected with
the perched aquifer.
Important factors to consider:
• Natural filtration of the subsurface - contaminants may
be removed from leachate before they reach the water table.
Filtration can also occur by ion exchange or sorption.
• Dispersion possibilities - migration will occur as a result
of both physical and chemical gradients. It is also
important to determine subsurface fractures.
• Precipitation possibilities - heavy metals may precipitate
out of leachate, or will they remain suspended
S. Hughes 2000

Example #1: Waste disposal site where the refuse is buried

above the water table over a fractured rock aquifer.
Î Low potential for serious pollution because leachate is
partially degraded by natural filtering as it infiltrates through
the unsaturated zone down to the water table.
Î Dispersion of contaminant confined to fracture zones.

Problems if:
• Higher water table
• Thinner cover
material
• Cover material has
moderate to high
hydraulic
conductivity
Source: Keller, 2000, Figure 12.2 S. Hughes 2000

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Example #2: Solid-waste disposal site where waste is buried
above the water table in permeable material with high
hydraulic conductivity.
Î Leachate can migrate down to fractured bedrock
(limestone)
Î High potential for groundwater pollution -- many open
and connected fractures in the rock.
Leachate
Moves quickly
through sand & gravel
Enters limestone,
transported through
open cavities and
fractures
Has little degradation
Source: Keller, 2000, Figure 12.3 S. Hughes 2000

Sanitary Landfills -- Site Selection Guidelines

Poor or Unacceptable Landfill Sites:
• Limestone or highly fractured rock quarries, and sand
and gravel pits (because they are good aquifer materials)
• Swampy areas, unless properly drained
• Floodplains, absolutely not acceptable
• Areas near coast; trash or leachate will pollute beaches
and coastal marine waters
• Any area with high hydraulic conductivity and high WT
Acceptable Landfill Sites:
• In rough topography, areas near heads of gullies, where
surface water is at a minimum
• Clay pits, if kept dry
• Flat areas, if a layer with low hydraulic conductivity
(aquitard, clay and silt) is present above any aquifer
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Design of Sanitary Landfills -- complex, with multiple
barriers: clay liner, leachate collection system, and a
compacted clay cap
Idealized diagram of a landfill with a double liner of clay and
plastic, and a leachate collection system:
Map View Cross Section

Source: Keller, 2000, Figure 12.4 S. Hughes 2000

Monitoring Sanitary Landfills

Must begin monitoring the movement of groundwater before
operating the site, then continued monitoring of movement of
leachate and gases
Hazardous pollutants can enter the environment many ways:

1. Gases CH4, NH3,

H2S, N2 go to the
atmosphere
2. Heavy metals Pb,
Cr, & Fe are retained
in the soil
3. Soluble chlorides,
nitrates, & sulfates
go to groundwater
4-7. More pathways
Source: Keller, 2000, Figure 12.6 S. Hughes 2000

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Hazardous Waste Management
Î ~1,000 new chemicals created and marketed each year
Î ~50,000 chemicals are currently on the market
Many are beneficial to humans, tens of thousands are
classified as definitely or potentially hazardous to human health
Î The U.S. generates more than 150 metric tons of
hazardous waste each year
Uncontrolled dumping in the past, and illegal dumping in the
present has polluted soil and groundwater:
• Barrels of chemical waste
eventually corrode
• Liquid chemicals often
dumped into unlined ponds
• Liquid waste dumped
illegally in deserted fields
or along dirt roads
Source: Keller, 2000, Figure 12.7 S. Hughes 2000

Hazardous Waste Management

Examples of products in use and the potentially hazardous
waste generated.
Products Used Potential Hazardous Waste
Plastics Organic chlorine compounds
Pesticides Organic chlorine compounds, organic
phosphates
Medicines Organic solvents and residues, heavy
metals (e.g. Hg and Zn)
Paints Heavy metals, pigments, solvents, organic
residues
Oil, gasoline, etc. Oil, phenols, organic compounds, heavy
metals, ammonia salts, acids, caustics
Metals Heavy metals, fluorides, cyanides, alkaline
and acid cleaners, solvents, pigments,
abrasives, plating salts, oils, phenols
Leather Heavy metals, organic solvents
Textiles Heavy metals, dyes, organic chlorine
compounds, solvents
Source: Keller, 2000, Table 12.2 S. Hughes 2000

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 Hazardous Waste Management -- How did it
begin? What events made humans aware of problems?
• Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring
Rachel Carson's book "Silent Spring" discussed the bioaccumulation of DDT (a
pesticide). DDT was discovered in the reproductive tissues of numerous species of
birds. This chemical causes thinning of eggshells such that when the female attempts
to brood her eggs she ends up crushing them. Ms. Carson's work described for the
first time how all things are connected, and clearly demonstrated that the Out of Site,
Out of Mind philosophy was no longer valid.

• The Love Canal incident

Love Canal is located near Niagara Falls, New York. During the 1940s and 1950s
indiscriminate dumping of hazardous wastes by companies such as Hooker Chemical
Co. occurred. Eventually the site was filled in and sold to the Niagara Falls School
District. Although instructed on the nature of the site, and told not to engage in
excavation or underground construction, the school district built an elementary school
in the area, and a neighborhood of houses grew around it - complete with basements.
In the 1970s strange odors could be detected indoors and people began experiencing
symptoms of chemically induced illnesses. Investigation by reporter Michael Brown
(he won the Pulitzer Prize for this) uncovered the truth and the U.S. government
purchased the entire Love Canal site.
S. Hughes 2000

• Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation

and Liability Act (CERCLA) or SUPERFUND
The Love Canal incident was the catalyst for the passing of the two most important
pieces of waste legislation. The first is the Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) or SUPERFUND.
Although the danger was never as great as the public perceived it to be, Love Canal
was the impetus for the passage of CERCLA in 1980. This legislation was designed
to provide funds and technical ability for the clean up of hazardous waste sites
contaminated by past generation, transport, and disposal activities. CERCLA aims at
finding the Potentially Responsible Parties (PRPs) and making them pay for clean up,
however funds exist in case no PRPs can be found. Site selection is done by a
simple site assessment, after which a priority number is assigned. If the number is
high enough the site is placed on the National Priority List (NPL) and becomes a
Superfund site. Once CERCLA got underway, it quickly became apparent that a
tremendous amount of Superfund sites existed. There were 100 sites on the NPL by
1988.
CERCLA also makes emergency provisions for responding to current releases of
hazardous substances. In 1994, SUPERFUND was extended by the Superfund
Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA). An important part of SARA is Title
III - known as the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-know Act
(EPCRA). Superfund was extended again in 1994 by the Superfund Reform Act.

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 • Limitations of CERCLA
CERCLA has a number of limitations. Most of its funds have been soaked up by
legal battles attempting to assign liability and responsibility. Also, CERCLA's testing
methods may not be stringent enough. Unfortunately this law deals with such huge
problems that it is not possible to be rigorous. A number of the CERCLA treatment
technologies are in themselves environmentally disruptive. Methods such as
excavation and removal of contaminated soil, structures etc. are widely used in
order to minimize time and money expenditures. Of course, they then have to
face the problem of what to do with the CERCLA material!

• Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)

The second of the two major pieces of waste legislation also stemmed from the
Love Canal incident. The RESOURCE CONSERVATION AND RECOVERY ACT
(RCRA) passed in 1976 in response to the problem of determining liability and
responsibility at Love Canal. The Act was intended to provide a regulatory
framework for waste management that would prevent this type of uncertainty in the
future. It consists of comprehensive legislation dealing with all aspects of current,
ongoing waste production and disposal - particularly of hazardous material. It also
assigns "CRADLE-TO-GRAVE" responsibility to generators of hazardous wastes.

S. Hughes 2000

EPA - National Priorities List = Superfund Sites

Environmental impacts at Superfund sites (NPL) and some of
the pollutants encountered at the sites:
Source: Keller, 2000, Figure 12.8

Question to think about: What does Cradle-to-Grave mean

in terms of Hazardous Waste Management?
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 Hazardous Chemical Waste
Options for Management
• Recycling
• On-site processing to recover byproducts with
commercial value
• Microbial breakdown
• Chemical Stabilization
• High-temperature decomposition
• Incineration
• Disposal by secure landfill
• Disposal by deep-well injection
Review Table 12.3 (handout) to compare hazardous waste
reduction technology in terms of treatment and disposal
Î What waste treatment technologies are important
today?
S. Hughes 2000

Secure Landfill -- Confine the waste to a particular location,

control the leachate that drains away, collect and treat the
leachate, control leaks
The figure shows a secure landfill for hazardous chemical
waste; Note impervious liners & drainage system; monitoring
in vadose zone is important -- involves collection of soil water.

Source: Keller, 2000, Figure 12.9 S. Hughes 2000

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On-Site Disposal -- The most common disposal method.
Drains, sewers, windows, pits and so on are all used to get rid of
unwanted substances. Both hazardous and non-hazardous
wastes find their way into the environment by this route.
Composting -- The decomposition of organic matter by
biological organisms. On a household scale composting can
significantly reduce the amount of garbage. Composting can
also be done on a municipal scale. For example, in 1983 the
VAM recycling and waste treatment facility in Wijster,
Netherlands produced 125,000 tons of quality compost from
discarded municipal organic waste!
Land Application -- Desirable treatment for some
biodegradable industrial wastes (microbial degradation),
usefulness is determined by biopersistence of the waste
Surface Impoundment -- Use excavations and natural
topographic depressions, natural soils, prone to leakage, NOT
good for hazardous chemicals
S. Hughes 2000

USEFUL DEFINITIONS
• LEACHATE - Leachate is a combination of infiltrated precipitation and any
liquids squeezed from the waste as it naturally compacts. Leachate will
percolate to the base of land disposal sites due to the influence of gravity.
Leachate can carry particulate matter, pollutants, biological contaminants and
other constituents with it. Leachate will travel through the subsurface
following the same flow direction as groundwater. Leachate is a potentially
major source of pollution. As such all land based disposal facilities must
incorporate a leachate collection and disposal system into their designs. Also
liners and covers must be added so as to minimize infiltration into the waste
site thereby minimizing leachate production or escape.
• LINER - Generally there are several layers of liners at the base of a land
disposal site. Layers consist of compacted clay alternating with plastic.
Leachate collection systems are placed just below the first and second (in
case the first one is breached) liner layers. The purpose of the liner is to
prevent leachate from escaping into the subsurface.
• CAP/COVER - Caps and covers are constructed (starting at the waste and
working outward) of compacted, low permeability clay. This is followed by a
flexible plastic liner (theoretically impermeable). Next comes a drainage layer
designed to transport surface water away from the waste disposal site.
Finally, this is followed by a layer of earth and then some type of vegetative
cover.

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Deep-well Disposal -- In rock (not soil), isolated from
freshwater aquifers; waste is injected into a permeable rock
layer hundreds to thousands of meters below the surface.
Deep-well injection of oil-field brine has been important to
control water pollution in oil fields for many years.

Deep-well injection
system -- disposal in
sandstone or fractured
limestone capped by
impermeable rock and
isolated from fresh
water. Monitoring wells
are a safety precaution.

Source: Keller, 2000, Figure 12.10 S. Hughes 2000

Deep-well Injection
The underground injection
of liquid wastes has been
occurring in the United
States for many decades. In
general, this technique is
used to dispose of wastes
deep below the earth's
surface in well-confined
geologic formations.
Deep well injection directly
introduces liquids into a
deep aquifer in the
subsurface environment via
pressurized wells.

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Deep-well Injection -- Disposal wells use high pressures
to overcome existing lithologic and hydrostatic forces in deep
aquifers, thereby forcing the aquifer to accept waste loads.
U.S. Federal regulations recognize 5 types of disposal wells,
each with their own particular guidelines:
• CLASS I WELLS - used for disposal of hazardous and
non-hazardous industrial or municipal wastes.
• CLASS II WELLS - used for injection of oil field brines
and other hydrocarbon wastes.
• CLASS III WELLS - used for solution mining processes.
• CLASS IV WELLS - those which historically disposed of
radioactive wastes (this is no longer done).
• CLASS V WELLS - used for any activity not mentioned
above, such as geothermal steam mining operations.
NOTE: A major problem with deep well injection is that it can
cause earthquakes!
S. Hughes 2000

Deep-well Injection -- Multiple factors must be considered

when selecting a disposal well site:
• Aquifer response to injection rates, pressures, type of waste
• The location of confining structures above and below
• Site bounded vertically and laterally by confining strata
• The location of faults, fracture zones, patterns of seismicity
• The location of any old conduits between aquifer layers
• Physical and chemical character of the waste
• Pretreatment of the waste may be required in order to avoid
system clogging, corrosion of well casings or other problems
• Aquifers with low pressure head, high transmissivity, and
high permeability are preferred

S. Hughes 2000

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Monitoring Disposal Wells -- Essential part of any disposal
system; important to know where wastes are going, how stable,
how fast they migrate, especially if waste is toxic.
How liquid waste might enter a freshwater aquifer:

Source: Keller, 2000, Figure 12.11 S. Hughes 2000

Incineration -- ”Thermal treatment”, is the high temperature

reduction of wastes via combustion. Incineration can attain a 75-
95% reduction in waste mass, and can destroy hazardous
pollutants with efficiencies as high as 99.99%. A wide variety of
thermal treatments exist.
Plasma Furnace -- Used to treat hazardous wastes. Operate at
incredibly high temperatures (8,000-10,000 degrees Celsius)
using gaseous Argon, and everything is atomized. Gaseous
Argon is injected into the incinerator and then spun by a radio
frequency coil until it reaches operating temperatures. A spray of
hazardous waste is then injected via a nebulizer tube, and the
combustion reaction is allowed to occur.
Drawbacks are that they can only handle small amounts of
waste at any one time, and they are time consuming (in terms of
operation and maintenance) and expensive. Plasma furnaces
are extremely effective however if they are used correctly.
S. Hughes 2000

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Incineration of Hazardous Waste -- considered to be a
waste treatment rather than a waste disposal method.
High-temperature incinerator system to burn toxic waste:

Source: Keller, 2000, Figure 12.12 S. Hughes 2000

Environmental Problems with Disposal

What are some of the paths that pollutants may take? Examples
of how land disposal and treatment methods of managing
hazardous waste may contaminate the environment:

Source: Keller, 2000, Figure 12.13 S. Hughes 2000

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Radioactive Waste Management
For waste disposal, radioactive waste is grouped into two
general categories: Low-level and High-level radioactive
waste; also mine tailings, which are highly radioactive, must be
considered hazardous.

Nuclear Fuel Cycle

U235 enrichment Fabricate fuel

Uranium mines and mills assemblies
Plutonium
-concentrate ore Recovered uranium
-dispose of tailings

Reactor Low-level
Reprocessing Plant wastes
Spent fuel
High-level
solid waste
Federal repositories - geologic disposal Commercial burial

Source: Keller, 2000, Figure 12.14 S. Hughes 2000

"This we know: the earth does not belong to man, man

belongs to the earth. All things are connected like the
blood that unites us all. Man did not weave the web of life,
he is but a strand in it. Whatever he does to the web he
does to himself."
Chief Seattle, 1852

S. Hughes 2000

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Terms for Understanding
anaerobic digester point source pollution
CAA non-point source pollution
cap/cover NPL
CERCLA ocean dumping
composting on-site disposal
cradle-to-grave RCRA
CWA recycle
deep well injection sanitary landfill
generator SARA
hazardous waste secure landfill
heavy metals soluble
incineration Superfund
Industrial Ecology urban runoff
Integrated Waste Management volatile
landfill waste
leachate waste disposal
liner waste management
Love Canal zero tolerance

S. Hughes 2000

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