Sequence Stratigraphy: Definition and basic concepts:

The definition of sequence stratigraphy used by Emery and Myer (1996), subdivision of sedimentary basin fills into genetic packages bounded by unconformities. These genetic packages are chronostratigraphic markers that describe periods of relative sea-level changes. The pioneer works in sequence stratigraphy (Vail et al., 1977, Mitchum et al., 1976) were restricted to siliciclastic sediments and the idea was to characterize the deposition of these depositional packages as the result of sea-level changes. The geological disciplines that influenced the conception of the sequence stratigraphy model were: seismic stratigraphy, chronostratigraphy, biostratigraphy and sedimentology. The term sequence was defined by Mitchum (1977) as a stratigraphic unit composed by relative successions of genetically related strata, bounded at its base and top by unconformities. These sequences represent different episodes of deposition occurring in relative periods of falling and rising of the sea level. The depositional architectures of these sequences are affected by the rate of sediment supply subsidence and the relative sea level change. The goal of sequence stratigraphy is to relate the deposition of strata across a developing tectonic basin to three primary variables: 1. Eustacy change in sea surface elevation 2. Subsidence rate of creation of accomodation space by depression of the basin floor. 3. Sediment supply amount of sediment being deposited in a basin Accomadation space can be created by subsidence, by transgression, or by both occuring together. Subsidence Subsidence is usually modeled as continuously producing accomodation space at a uniform rate. This is because changes in subsidence rate occur over longer periods of time than most sea level changes. Sediment supply Sediment supply fills accomodation space. Sediment supply is episodic at short time scales but more predictable at longer time scales. Clastic sedimentation can also behave differently than carbonate sedimentation due to the different sources of sediment. Relative vs Eustatic Sea Level Water depth determines what types of depositional environments are possible and therefore, what the characteristics will be of the sediments deposited. Water depth varies depending on the relative rates of subsidence and sediment supply, as well as eustacy. Keep in mind the difference between relative and eustatic sea level. Eustatic sea level is the absolute elevation of the ocean surface, which rises and falls over time. Relative sea level is water depth as seen by a crab on the sea floor.

The major architectures recognized are progradational, aggradational, and retrogradational geometries (Emery and Myer, 1996). Progradational geometry occurs with high sedimentation in a static sea level scenario, and the facies belt migrate basinward. Aggradational geometry occurs when the sediment deposition and the sea level change are in balance, consequently the facies belt stack vertically. Retrogradational geometry occurs when the sediment deposition is less than the rate in which the relative sea level raise and the facies belt migrate landward. The deposits associated with these sequences occur in depositional packages known as systems tracts (Emery and Myer, 1996). System tracts are characterized bydifferent phases of deposition in a third order sea level change. The three main systems tracts are; lowstand system tract (LST), transgressive system tact (TST) and highstand system tract (HST). Lowstand systems tract (LST): During a relative fall in sea level, valleys are eroded into the coastal plain and shelf and submarine canyons are eroded into the slope. Sediment bypasses the shelf and slope and is deposited as turbidity currents in submarine fans on the basin floor. Sediment fans can also be deposited on the slope. As relative sea level stops falling sediments may begin to fill the valleys carved on the shelf, creating a lowstand wedge. Together, the lowstand wedge, slope fan, and basin-floor fan deposits form the LST. . Transgressive Systems Tract (TST): As sea level starts to rise, base level increases and fluvial deposits form in incised valleys. The shelf becomes flooded again, creating a transgressive surface. The TST is characterized by one or more retrogradational parasequence sets, meaning that each subsequent cycle of lower order sea level change results in the shoreline stepping landward. Landward of the initial shoreline, where there are no deposits from the lowstand wedge or the transgressive surface, these parasequences will onlap directly onto the sequence boundary. Seaward of the initial shoreline the TST deposits are often thin due to sediment starvation as clastic sediments become trapped in estuaries. This causes the deposition of a condensed section, which includes the maximum flooding surface stratigraphic level of maximum relative sea level. Above the MFS parasequences change from retrogradational to aggradational.

Highstand system tract: is characterized by deceleration rate of sea level raise resulting initially as aggradations that becomes later a progradation.Shallow marine sediments are usually arranged in upward-coarsening units with shoaling-upward facies succession separated by fine sediments that represent a deeperfacies succession (Emery & Myer, 1996). These depositional sequences are known as parasequences and represent the smallest building blocks of the system tracts. The parasequence sets were described by Van Wagoner (1990) as; progradational parasequence set, aggradational parasequence set and retrogradational parasequense set. The progradational parasequence set are typical in highstand system tract and lowstand prograding wedge. The aggradational parasequence set are distinctive in shelf margin system tract. While the retrogradational parasequence set are characteristic in transgressive system tract.

Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy

The sequence stratigraphy model was modified and applied to carbonates rocks by Sarg (1988). He described the depositional sequences of platforms and carbonate shelf margins. Subsequent carbonates sequence stratigraphy models were developed by Calvet et al. (1990), Tucker and Wright (1990), Hunt and Tucker (1993) and Tucker et al. (1993). Although the general concepts remained the same, their fundamental difference is influenced by sediment supply. Carbonate sediments are generated by the "carbonate factory" which is dependent on the following: 1. Shallow, clear, tropical water environment 2. Area of shallow water environment Carbonate sedimentation is strongly influenced by environmental factors governed by biogenic production. The rate of carbonate production depends of water depth, temperature, and water chemistry.Carbonate sequence stratigraphy records the sea-level fluctuation, changes in the carbonate sedimentation and different environmental factors (Flgel, 2004). The model of sequence stratigraphy for limestone is similar to that for siliciclastic rocks, where an ideal sequence is divided by system tracts (Fig. 1.3); Highstand system tract (HST), Transgressive system tract (TST) and Lowstand system tract (LST) (Flgel, 2004). Most carbonate sedimentation has been reported in the TST and HST. The carbonate deposition in the lowstand system tract (LST) is restricted to narrow areas and is characterized by abundant siliciclastic input and exposure surface of carbonates platforms. The TST is characterized by deepening-upward successions with progressive open marine condition. The HST produces thick bedded or massive carbonate deposition often light rock colored, with abundant marine biota, shoaling upward patterns and changes from open to restricted marine conditions. Parasequences consists of small scale (<1 to >10 m) shallowing upward successions (Flgel, 2004). As in siliciclastic sediments, the parasequence are often organized in parasequence sets that indicate trends of shallowing, deepening or no change in the sea level. The parasequences in shallow marine environment are composed by shoaling upward successions with an upper boundary that indicates rapid flooding or

increase in the water depth. The inner carbonate platform parasequences consists of shallow lime sands or muds, capped by tidal flat deposits and exposure surfaces. In slightly deeper water, parasequences show coarsening upward changing from lime mud deposit to interbedded mud and sand. It should be emphasized that, as has been shown by Fischer (1964), Pomar & Ward (1999), Goldhammer,et al, (1990), and D'Argenio et al (1997), that though shallow cycles of carbonate are composed of a relatively conformable succession of genetically related beds or bedsets these cycles are often truncated and incomplete so that maximum flooding and trangressive surfaces can be missing. This means that these cycles are not, in the strictest sense, a match for the clastic models of parasequences described by Van Wagoner et al, (1999). However as one analyzes the cycles we argue that they can be used like parasequences to propose and build process/product oriented depositional models. However should they exhibit truncated cycles and miss the sediments of an initial transgression or maximum flooding event one should consider them as high frequency carbonates cycles, not parasequences.

Differences between carbonates and clastics

Carbonates have some similarities to clastics but major differences in the sequence stratigraphy of the two sediments exist. While both respond to changes in base level and both can be subdivided by similar surfaces ,Carbonates have several unusual features relative to siliciclastics that
make their response to relative sea-level changes and their expression of sequence stratigraphic elements somewhat different.

1.When subaerially exposed, carbonates are much more prone to dissolution than erosion like siliciclastics. Consequently, sequence boundaries in carbonates are more commonly expressed as karst surfaces with solution relief, collapsed breccias, paleosols, and silicification. 2.Carbonate sediment production is largely in situ rather than transported from outside the basin as in siliciclastics. Whereas relative sea-level rise can trap siliciclastic sediments in estuaries and coastal lagoons, moderate rates of relative sea-level rise allow the carbonate factory to produce at much higher rates. Consequently, transgressive systems tracts in carbonate settings can be extremely thick. 3. Highstand systems tracts in carbonate settings can be much thinner, because, unlike siliciclastic settings, much of the accommodation space generated during the transgressive systems tract is continually filled. Consequently, highstand sediments only fill space generated during the highstand systems tract and not unfilled space generated during the previous transgressive systems tract.

4.Extremely rapid rates of relative sea-level rise can cause a total shutdown in carbonate production, leading to the formation of spectacular condensed sections with extensive hardground formation as well as pyrite and phosphate mineralization. 5.As carbonate production can often keep pace with moderate rates of relative sea-level rise, some carbonate settings are characterized by extremely thick sections of peritidal cycles, carbonate parasequences that shallow upwards to supratidal depths. Identifying depth trends over hundreds of peritidal cycles can be difficult or impossible, so stacking patterns can alternatively be recognized by vertical trends in the thickness of peritidal cycles. Upward thickening of successive parasequences without a net water depth change would indicate progressively greater rates of relative sea-level rise while sediment production was always able to keep up with the rise. Such upward thickening of cycles would be interpreted as retrogradational stacking. Upward thinning of peritidal cycles would indicate slowing rates of relative sea-level rise and would be interpreted as progradational stacking. Except for the above mentioned differences, application of sequence stratigraphic principles in terms of intepreting beds and bedsets, recognizing parasequences, stacking patterns and parasequence sets, and identifying significant stratal surfaces and systems tracts is nearly identical in approach for carbonates and siliciclastics.

Economic significance of study of sequence stratigraphy

These events have economic significance because these changes in sea level cause large lateral shifts in the depositional patterns of seafloor sediments. These lateral shifts in deposition create alternating layers of good reservoir quality rock (porous and permeable sands) and poorerquality mudstones (capable of providing a reservoir "seal" to prevent the leakage of any accumulated hydrocarbons that may have migrated into the sandstones). Hydrocarbon prospectors look for places in the world where porous and permeable sands are overlain by low permeability rocks, and where conditions are right for hydrocarbons to be generated and migrate into these "traps".