Heat Exchanger Design

To increase the rate of heat transfer, what can be done?

Fins (Method 1)

Q=U
Flow rate (velocity) (Method 2)

Tln

U = (hi, kwall and ho) 1 Uo

Nu

h dh kf

do 1 di h i

do Ri di

kw

do d ln

Ro

1 ho

Nanofluids (Method 3)

Nu k f dh

How?, Then answer may be micro-channels (Method 4)

Microfluidics channel sizes

Microchannel Technology

Flow channel classification

Channel classification based on hydraulic diameter is intended to serve as a simple guide for conveying the dimensional range under consideration. Channel size reduction has different effects on different processes. Deriving specific criteria based on the process parameters may seem to be an attractive option, but considering the number of processes and parameters that govern transitions from regular to microscale phenomena (if present), a simple dimensional classification is generally adopted in literature.

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Fig. 1.1. Ranges of channel diameters employed in various applications, Kandlikar and Steinke (2003).

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Table 1.1 Channel dimensions for different types of flow for gases at one atmospheric pressure.

The classification proposed by Mehendale et al. (2000) divided the range:

from 1 to 100 m as microchannels, 100 m to 1mm as meso-channels, 1 to 6 mm as compact passages, and greater than 6 mm as conventional passages.

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Table 1.2: Channel dimensions for different types of flow for gases at one atmospheric pressure.
Channel dimensions (m) Gas Air Helium Hydrogen Continuum flow > 67 > 194 > 123 Slip flow 0.6767 1.94194 1.23123 Transition flow 0.00670.67 0.01941.94 0.01231.23 Free molecular flow < 0.0067 < 0.0194 < 0.0123

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Table 1.3: Channel classification scheme.

Channel Description Conventional channels Value > 3mm

Minichannels
Microchannels

3 mm D > 200 m
200 m D >10 m

Transitional Microchannels
Transitional Nanochannels Nanochannels
D: smallest channel dimension

10 m D > 1 m
1 m D > 0.1 m 0.1 m D

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Non-circular channels
In the case of non-circular channels, it is recommended that the minimum channel dimension; for example, the short side of a rectangular cross-section should be used in place of the diameter D. We will use the above classification scheme for defining minichannels and microchannels.

This classification scheme is essentially employed for ease in terminology; the applicability of continuum theory or slip flow conditions for gas flow needs to be checked for the actual operating conditions in any channel.

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Table: Fanning friction factor and Nusselt number for fully developed laminar flow in ducts, derived from Kakac et al. (1987).

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 The effect of hydraulic diameter on heat transfer and pressure drop is illustrated in Figs. 1.2 and 1.3 for water and air flowing in a square channel under constant heat flux and fully developed laminar flow conditions.
The heat transfer coefficient h is unaffected by the flow Reynolds number (Re) in the fully developed laminar region, since the Nu is constant in laminar flow regime. It is given by:
h Nu k Dh

Basic heat transfer and pressure drop considerations

Eq. 1

where k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid and Dh is the hydraulic diameter of the channel.

The Nusselt number (Nu) for fully developed laminar flow in a square channel under constant heat flux conditions is 3.61.

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 Figure 1.2 shows the variation of h for flow of water and air with channel hydraulic diameter under these conditions.

Fig. 1.2. Variation of the heat transfer coefficient with channel size for fully developed laminar flow of air and water.

The dramatic enhancement in h with a reduction in channel size

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 On the other hand, the friction factor f varies inversely with Re, since the product f Re remains constant during fully developed laminar flow. The frictional pressure drop per unit length for the flow of an incompressible fluid is given by: pf 2 f G 2 Eq (2)
L

where pf /L is the frictional pressure gradient, f is the Fanning friction factor, G is the mass flux, and is the fluid density. For fully developed laminar flow, we can write: f Re = C Eq (3) where Re is the Reynolds number, Re=GDh/, and C is a constant, C =14.23 for a square channel.

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 Figure 1.3 shows the variation of pressure gradient with the channel size for a square channel with G =200 kg/(m2 s), and for air and water assuming incompressible flow conditions. These plots are for illustrative purposes only, as the above assumptions may not be valid for the flow of air, especially in smaller diameter channels. It is seen from Fig. 1.3 that the pressure gradient increases dramatically with a reduction in the channel size. The balance between the heat transfer rate and pressure drop becomes an important issue in designing the coolant flow passages for the high-flux heat removal encountered in microprocessor chip cooling.

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Fig. 1.3. Variation of pressure gradient with channel size for fully developed laminar flow of air and water.

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Delphi Micro Channel Evaporator

Aquaforce Aircooled chiller microchannel coil

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Microchannel Reactor Concept

Close integration of the exothermic synthesis and steam generation

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Micro-scale heat exchangers - Introduction

Micro-scale heat exchangers or micro structured heat exchangers are heat exchangers in which a fluid flows in a lateral direction in a confined area such as a tube or small cavity that dimensions are below the size of 1mm.

Typically the fluid flows through a cavity which is called a mirochannel.

This technology exploits enhanced heat transfer resulting from structurally constraining streams to flow in microchannels, which reduces thermal resistance to transferring heat.

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 Fluid flowing through the channels on a plate evaporates or condenses, and heat is transferred. Micro heat exchangers have been demonstrated with high convective heat transfer coefficients ranging form 10,000 to 35,000 W/(m2-C), or about one order of magnitude higher than typically seen in conventional heat exchangers with very low pressure drops, typically 1 or 2 psi. The basic operating principle of these devices goes back to the convective heat transfer within the flows of the microchannels.

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 The convective heat transfer equation is

Nu

h De kf

De kf

(1)

or, h

In this equation h is the heat transfer coefficient of the microscale heat exchanger, Nu is the Nusselt number which is about 3.66 (for circular channels), kf is the thermal conductivity of the working fluid, and de is the equivalent diameter of the microchannel which the fluid flows through. From this equation one can tell see how the size of the channel directly affects the heat transfer coefficient of the heat exchanger, as the diameter is decreased, the heat transfer coefficient increases.

kf Nu De

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Different Types of Microscale Heat Exchangers

The different types of microscale heat exchangers are the same as the different classifications of conventional heat exchangers. They have either one or two passages for the fluid to flow through. One fluid: When there is only one fluid and one passage in the heat exchanger the fluid is used to transfer the heat to another location.

Application of this kind of heat exchangers is usually found in electronics to transfer heat into the fluid and out of the electronic device.

Two Fluids: When there are two fluids and two passages they are usually classified by the direction in which the fluids flow by each other.

Microscale heat exchangers can either be cross flow or counter flow heat exchangers.

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 Counter Flow

Counter flow micro scale heat exchangers work the same way as macro-scale counter flow heat exchangers. In a counter flow heat exchanger the two fluids flow in opposite directions of each other. The fluids enter the heat exchanger at opposite ends.

The cooler fluids exits the counter flow microscale heat exchanger at the end where the hot fluid enters therefore the cooler fluid will approach the inlet temperature of the hot fluid.
Counter flow microscale heat exchangers are more efficient than cross flow microscale heat exchangers.

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Figure 2: Schematic of Counter Flow Heat Exchanger

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 Cross Flow

Cross Flow microscale heat exchangers work the same way as cross flow macro-scale heat exchangers. In a cross flow heat exchanger one fluid flows perpendicular to the second fluid. One fluid flows through tubes or channels and the second fluid passes around the tubes or channels at a 90 angle. Cross flow micro heat exchangers are usually found in applications where one of the fluids changes state therefore having a two-phase flow.

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Figure 4: Schematic of a Cross Flow Heat Exchanger

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 To concurrently achieve the goals of high mass flow rate, low pressure drop, and high heat transfer rates, the microscale cross flow heat exchanger comprises numerous parallel, but relatively short microchannels.

The performance of these microscale heat exchangers is superior to the performance of previously available macro-scale heat exchangers.
Typical channel heights are from a few hundred micrometers to about 2000 micrometers, and typical channel widths are from around 50 micrometers to a few hundred micrometers.

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 The use of microchannels in a cross flow microscale heat exchanger decreases the thermal diffusion lengths, allowing substantially greater heat transfer per unit volume or per unit mass than has been achieved with other heat exchangers. The cross flow microscale heat exchangers have performance characteristics that are superior to state of the art macro-scale heat exchanger designs.

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Advantages over Macro-Scale Heat Exchangers

Substantially better performance Improves heat transfer coefficient with large number of smaller channels Size Smaller size allows for an increase in mobility and uses

Light Weight Lower weight reduces the structural and support requirements
Cost Lower costs due to less material being used in fabrication

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Disadvantages of Microscale Heat Exchangers

One of the main disadvantages of microchannel heat exchangers is the high pressure loss that is associated with a small hydraulic diameter. This prevents the uniform flow of the cooling material along the channel. Microchannels are sometimes fairly long and absorb most of the heat along the first section of the channel.

This makes them less able to absorb heat along later sections.
In order to get the maximum performance out of a microchannel heat exchanger, there needs to be a balance between the desirable high heat transfer coefficient and the undesiarable pressure loss.

Due to the small scale of microchannel passages, wall roughness can be very important in determining how high the heat transfer coefficient is.

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Applications of Microscale Heat Exchangers

Microscale heat exchangers are being used to help along the development of fuel cells. The compact microchannel fuel vaporizer (CMFV), which is a microscale heat exchanger, is a main component of a microchannel fuel processor that will hopefully enable fuel cell powered vehicles. Conventional heat exchangers are too large to be used in this application, nor can they deliver the kind of performance needed in this application. The microscale heat exchanger is also making possible a portable fuel cell power supply. This power supply could make batteries obsolete.

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 It will have a longer run time than a battery of comparable weight. It could also be used in place of portable generators that operate with an internal combustion engine. These fuel cells would operate more quietly and with a greater efficiency than an engine driven generator.

Problems with refueling a generator in a remote location could also be solved be this new portable fuel cell.

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Currently used in these Industries

Automotive vehicles Commercial and Residential Heating/Cooling systems Aircrafts

Manufacturing industries
Cooling Electronic devices

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Fundamentals of Liquid Cooling

Thermal Management of Electronics San Jos State University Mechanical Engineering Department

Air as a Coolant

PROS: Simplicity Low Cost Easy to Maintain Reliable CONS: Inefficient at heat removal (low k and Pr) Low thermal capacitance (low and Cp) Large thermal resistance

Using Alternate Coolants

As electronic components get smaller and heat transfer requirements increase air becomes a less efficient coolant Liquid cooling provides a means in which thermal resistance can be reduced dramatically

Types of Liquid Cooling

Indirect The coolant does not come into contact with the electronics. Direct (Immersion) The coolant is in direct contact with the electronics.

Fluid Selection
Is the fluid in direct contact with the electronics?

No.

Water will normally be used due to the fact that it is cheap and has superior thermal properties.

Yes. A dielectric must be used. Consideration must be given to the thermal properties of different dielectric fluids.

Microchannels
Microchannels are most commonly used for indirect liquid cooling of ICs and may be: Machined into the chip itself. Machined into a substrate or a heat sink and then attached to a chip or array of chips.

Microchannels
Example: Thermal Conduction Module used on IBM 3080X/3090 series Heat is transmitted through an intermediate structure to a cold plate through which a coolant is pumped
Incropera, pg. 3

Incropera, pg. 155

Microchannels

Rth,h Conduction Resistance through the chip Rth,c Contact Resistance at the Chip/Substrate Interface

Rth,sub 3-D Conduction Resistance in the substrate (spreading resistance) Rth,cnv Convection Resistance from the substrate to the coolant

Note that this network ends with the mean fluid temperature. If we use the inlet fluid temperature, we also need to include Rcaloric

Contact Resistance
Contact resistance is proportional to roughness, and inversely proportional to pressure.

Contact resis tan ce

Roughness Pr essure

Contact resistance depends on several factors Surface roughness Pressure holding the two surfaces together Type of the fluid in the void space between two surfaces The interface temperature Keeping the viscous liquid like glycerin in the interface, reduces the contact resistance between two aluminum surfaces by a factor of 10 at a given pressure. As a thumb rule, the typical contact resistance is approximately equal to 5 mm of additional thickness. Contact resistance may be reduced by use of special bonding greases or insertion of a soft metal foil between the two surfaces.

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Motivating Example
Laminar flow through a rectangular channel:

Kandlikar and Grande, pg. 7

Kandlikar and Grande, pg. 8

Pressure Drop in Microchannels

The pressure drop due to forcing a fluid through a small channel may produce design limitations.
Limitations may include:

2f L V 2 Dh

1) Pumping Power 2) Mechanical Stress Limitation of the Chip Material

V is the mean flow velocity L is the flow length is the fluid density f is the friction factor, depends on the aspect ratio.

Pressure Drop Example

.

Q c p ( Tw ,o Tw ,i )

If chip power increases mass flow rate must increase If mass flow rate increases pressure drop increases

Kandlikar and Grande, pg. 9

Optimization of Microchannels

Kandlikar and Grande, pg. 9

How should the channels in the silicon substrate be designed for optimal heat transfer? Should the channel be deep or shallow? Make sure to give a valid reason.
The channels should be deep so that the hydraulic diameter is small but the channel surface area is large. Caution: Making the channels too small may result in unreasonable pressure drop.

Microchannel - Issues
Liquids + Electronics Self-explanatory

Fouling Leading to Clogging Clogging prevents flow of liquids through a channel Local areas where heat is not pulled away from components at a high enough rate are developed

Microchannel - Issues
Mini-Pumps Able to move liquid through the channel at a required rate Able to produce large pressure heads to overcome the large pressure drop associated with the small channels Tradition rotary pumps can not be used due to their large size and power consumption For information on some current solutions refer to
http://www.electronics-cooling.com/html/2006_may_a3.html

Current Research for Single Phase Convection in Microchannels

Surface Area Adding protrusions to the channels to increase surface area. Adding and arranging fins in a manner that is similar to a compact heat exchanger. Examples of different geometries:
Microstructures

Staggered Fins
Posts
Silicon Substrate

T-Shaped Fins

Kandlikar and Grande, pg. 10

Current Research for Single Phase Convection in Microchannels

Manufacturing Technology

Reducing cost of manufacturing

Producing enhanced geometries

For further information refer to article by Kandlikar and Grange

Current Research for Single Phase Convection in Microchannels

Justifying deviation from classical theory for friction and heat transfer coefficients when microchannel diameters become small Lack of a good analytical model Surface Roughness Accurate measurements of system parameters Ect.
***If you are interested in this take a look at: Palm, B. Heat Transfer in Microchannels. Microscale Thermophysical Engineering 5:155-175, 2001. Taylor Francis, 2001.

Jet Impingement

Benefits of using a jet in thermal management of a surface:

A thin hydrodynamic boundary layer is formed A thin thermal boundary layer is formed
Incropera, pg. 56

Classifying Impinging Jets

Jets can be:

Cross Sections:

Free-Surface discharged into an ambient gas Submerged discharged into a liquid of the same type

Circular Rectangular

Confinement:

Confined Flow is confined to a region after impingement Unconfined Flow is unconfined after impingement

Classify the Following Jets

Liquid jet released into ambient gas

Incropera, pg. 56

Liquid release into liquid of the same type

Incropera, pg. 65

Classify the Following Jets

Unconfined, circular, freesurface jet

Incropera, pg. 56

Unconfined, circular, submerged jet

Incropera, pg. 65

Nozzle Design
Nozzles are designed to create different jet characteristics

Example: Sufficiently long nozzles will produce both fully developed laminar or turbulent jets (Shown in b)

Incropera, pg. 58

Flow Regions
Stagnation Region Jet flow is decelerated normal to the impingement surface and accelerated parallel to it. Hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers are uniform. Wall Jet Region Boundary layers begin to grow

Incropera, pg. 62

Degradation of Heat Transfer During Jet Impingement

Splattering Droplets are eject from the wall jet region due to the distance the nozzle is from the heat source, and the surface tension of the jet fluid Hydraulic Jump An abrupt increase in film thickness and reduction in film velocity occurring in the wall jet region

Confining Fluid Flow

Adding a confining wall:

Adds low and high pressure regions Sometimes adds secondary stagnation regions Degrades convection heat transfer Decreases space needed to use jet impingement
Incropera, pg. 69

Two-Phase Boiling in Microchannels

Fluid entering microchannels is heated to the point where it boils Flow in microchannels is highly unpredictable and can produce large voids and multiple flow regimes inside of tubes

No accurate analytical models currently exist; many analytical models have errors ranging from 10% to well over 100%

Flow Regimes in Two-Phase Applications

Garimella, pg. 107

Immersion (Direct) Cooling

In direct cooling electronics are immersed into a dielectric liquid Closed loop systems (Transformer cooling with oils) are normally used due to both the cost of the liquids used and the environmental issues associated with the liquids escaping into the atmosphere

Typical Liquids Used in Immersion

Cengel, pg. 920

Boiling Used in Immersion

(Reuse of the cooling liquids)

Cengel, pg. 918

Electronics expel heat into the liquid Vapor bubbles are formed in the liquid The vapor is collected at the top of the enclosure where it comes in contact with some sort of heat exchanger The vapor condenses and returns to the liquid portion of the reservoir

Boiling Used in Immersion

Cengel, pg. 919

Electronics dissipate heat through the liquid Vapor bubbles are generated As vapor bubbles rise they come in contact with the cooler liquid produced by an immersed heat exchange and they implode *The prior example is more efficient due to the heat transfer coefficient associated with condensation

Cray-2 Supercomputer
Cold fluid enters between the circuit modules Convection occurs, pulling heat from the electronics to the liquid The heated fluid is pumped to a heat exchanger Heat is transfer from the immersion liquid to chilled water in the heat exchanger

Incropera, pg. 6

Concerns with Immersion

Introduction of incompressible gasses into a vapor space This will limit the amount of condensation that is allowed to occur and degrade heat transfer Leakage Environmental Concerns Reliability