Spintronics in 2DEG Systems

Spintronics in 2DEG Systems

M. B. A. Jalil , S. G. Tan, and T. Fujita,

Information Storage Materials Laboratory, Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore 117576. Data Storage Institute, A*STAR (Agency for Science, Technology and Research) DSI Building, 5 Engineering Drive 1, Singapore 117608.

by incorporating tunneling barriers and/ or utilizing the spin-orbital interactions (SOI). The most natural setting to implement this is a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) heterostructure due to the long mean free path (for ballistic transport) and large SOI effect. Semiconductors are also much more versatile material compared to existing ferromagnetic metal elements and alloys. Their conductance property can be varied by changing its carrier concentration externally by either electrical or optical means. Thus, for instance, the magnetic properties (such as coercive field and Curie temperature) of dilute magnetic semiconductors can be controlled either electrically [19, 20] or optically. The ability to couple the spin and charge conductance property to light opens the possibility of the convergence of electronics, photonics and spintronics in semiconductors. For a full-fledged spintronics device, we require a mechanism to manipulate the spin orientation of carriers within the device. This spin manipulation may be performed either magnetically (by means of an applied magnetic field or local magnetic moments) or more conveniently by electrical means. The latter can be effectively achieved by SOI, which is enhanced in semiconductors due to bulk inversion asymmetry (BIA) [21] or structure inversion asymmetry (SIA) [22, 23]. These are respectively known as the Dresselhaus and Rashba SOI. The well-known Datta-Das spin field-effect transistor [24] utilizes the Rashba SOI to modulate the spin orientation of conduction electrons in a 2DEG channel. In the Datta-Das transistor, the gate voltage is used to modulate the strength of the Rashba SOI and hence the spin orientation. This, in turn, is translated 9

M. B. A. Jalil

S. G. Tan

T. Fujita

We give a brief overview of some of our recent works on spin-related phenomena and spintronic applications based on two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) semiconductor heterostructure. We first focus on spin-orbital interactions (SOI) which play an important role in the transport and manipulation of electron spins in 2DEG channel. The utilization of the SOI interaction in spin filtering and spin transistor applications is theoretically discussed. Finally, we explain the underlying theory of the spin Hall effect (SHE), especially the intrinsic SHE mechanism, which gives rise to a transverse spin current in the presence of external electric field and SOI effects.

its manipulation are therefore not utilized in GMR and TMR devices. Semiconductor spintronics constitutes [10, 11] the next stage in the development of spintronic technology. Its main advantage over ferromagnetic metalbased spintronics is its integrability with the extensive semiconductor fabrication technology. Furthermore, electron spins are relatively robust with respect to coherence in semiconductors. Kikkawa et al. have shown that the spin relaxation time can be as long as 100 ns in bulk n-GaAs 16 -3 with a doping density of 10 cm , and have demonstrated spin-coherence over macroscopic length-scales of 100 m [12, 13]. Another prerequisite for the viability of semiconductor-based spintronics is high-efficiency spin-injection from a spin-polarized material into a semiconductor material [14, 15]. In the diffusive regime, direct spin injection into a semiconductor from ferromagnetic metals into a semiconductor is extremely inefficient because of the large difference in conductance [16]. However, this can be overcome by the incorporation of a tunnel or Schottky barrier [17, 18]. Alternatively, it has also been suggested theoretically that a high spin polarization can be achieved in a semiconductor in the ballistic regime,

1. INTRODUCTION

The initial development of the emerging spin-based electronics is based on the success of magnetoresistive devices, especially giant magnetoresistive (GMR) [1-3] and tunneling magnetoresistive (TMR) devices [4-6], which are composed primarily of ferromagnetic metal multilayers. The magnetoresistive response is a macroscopic (semiclassical) effect [7, 8] which arises from the collective spin-dependent scattering [9] experienced by electrons in the bulk and at the interfaces. The quantum nature of an individual electron spin and

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Celebrating 20 Years of GMR Past, Present, and Future (I)

into a conductance modulation by incorporating a ferromagnetic source and drain electrode into the 2DEG structure, to act as the injector and detector of the electron spins. In addition, SOI within a tunnel barrier can be utilized to achieve efficient spin filtering [25], whilst in combination with Landau states created by a vertical magnetic field, can induce spatially localized spin accumulation across a 2DEG plane [26]. Recently, there has been much interest in using the SOI effect to induce a pure spin current, i.e. without any net charge transport, in the transverse direction. This so-called spin Hall effect (SHE) can thus provide an alternative for generating a spin polarized current in semiconductors. There are two main types of SHE: (i) The extrinsic mechanism, which was first proposed by Dyakonov and Perel and expanded by others [27, 28], relies on the interaction between electron spins and impurities in the presence of SOI. However, it is difficult to quantitatively control or characterize the extrinsic SHE due to the random nature of the impurities; (ii) The intrinsic SHE mechanism, which requires SOI but not impurity scattering (in fact impurity scattering is detrimental and may even completely cancel the intrinsic SHE). The intrinsic mechanism is predicted to arise in a number of semiconductor systems, e.g. in p-type bulk semiconductors like p-GaAs [29], and in n-type semiconductors in 2DEG heterostructures [30]. The interest in SHE was heightened by recent experimental demonstrations: Kato et al. [31] detected a signature of SHE, i.e. an edge spin accumulation in the transverse direction in an n-type GaAs by means of Kerr, while Wunderlich et al. [32] confirmed the existence of SHE in p-type semiconductor by measuring a net circular polarization of light emitted from a lightemitting diode structure. Alternatively, the spatial variation of the out-of-plane spin accumulation arising from SHE [33] may also be probed by using quantum point contacts [34].

as follows: In Section 2, we introduce the SOI which underpins most of the spin phenomena and spintronic applications in 2DEG heterostructures. In Section 3, we discussed the generation of spin polarized current by means of magneto-electrical barriers in the presence of SOI. We will also analyze how the combined effect of the barriers and SOI can be used to achieve a spin transistor function over a channel length which is substantially shorter than that of the well-known Datta-Das spin-FET. Finally, in Section 4, we will discuss the SHE in a 2DEG structure in the presence of Rashba SOI and chiral B-field configuration. We will end this survey with an analysis of the SHE effect in 2DEGs from the novel perspective of non-Abelian gauge theory.

B (p E), 2m0c2

(3)

where B = (e / 2m0) is the Bohr magneton. From Eq. (3), we find that the effective field to SOC interaction can be expressed as: BSO = pE . 2m0c2 (4)

2. SPIN-ORBITAL COUPLING IN 2DEG SYSTEMS

Spin-orbital interaction (SOI) is a relativistic effect experienced by a Dirac electron, which is moving under the influence of an electric field E =V. Essentially, an electric field in the lab frame can be regarded as a magnetic field in the frame of the moving electron. The Dirac equation of an electron is given by: i = (c p + 0m0c2 + eV ) , (1) t where and 0 are the usual Dirac matrices. The stationary solution to the Dirac equation can be expressed in terms of the positive and negative energy components, i.e. = (X, O)T exp(it / ), where = 2 c p2 + m0c2 eV , and that O = c( p) . In the non-relativistic m c + eV X limit, i.e. pc m0c2, the negative energy component can be approximated to be c( p) O 2m c X. Substituting this relation into the Dirac Hamiltonian, the (4 4) Dirac Hamiltonian is reduced to a (2 2) Schrodinger equation: i X = HX, where: t
0 2 0 2

Because of the large mass gap = 2m0c2 ~ 1 MeV between electron and positron in vacuum, the SOI field is usually negligible. A large SOI field can be obtained in two circumstances, either (i) in the presence of a large E field, or in (ii) materials where the mass gap is reduced. The first situation occurs in an atom, where the Coulomb field from the nucleus is sufficiently large to give rise to an L S energy shift in the energy levels of an electron bound to the nucleus. A large field can also arise in semiconductor heterostructures due to BIA or SIA. In the BIA or Dresselhaus SOI case [21], the large internal field occurs along specific crystal axis due to asymmetry in the crystal lattice. In the SIA or Rashba case [22, 23], the large electric field is mainly due to the macroscopic field, due to the band-bending and band discontinuity which gives rise to the 2DEG confinement well at the heterostructure interface. The second condition occurs to some extent in III-V semiconductor materials with low effective electron mass, e.g. InSb (effective electron mass m* = 0.013m0) and InAs (m* = 0.023m0) [35].

It has been demonstrated that the electron transport near the Fermi level of monolayer and bilayer graphene can be modeled by the Dirac equation [36-39]. Interestingly, from the perspective of SOI effects, the effective Dirac mass gap in graphene is much smaller than that in vacuum. For instance, it has been experimentally shown that the energy gap experienced by effective Dip2 H= + HSO + eV + ie 2 (E p), (2) rac fermions in bilayer graphene grown 2 4m0c 2m on SiC is only 0.26 eV [40], which where HSO is the spin-orbital coupling means that the strength of pseudo-SOI 6 (SOC) term, and is given by: in graphene is about 10 times greater than the SOI in vacuum [41]. Note that e (p E) The contents of this paper are organized HSO = 2 2 the spin property in graphene does 4m0c AAPPS Bulletin October 2008, Vol. 18, No. 5

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Spintronics in 2DEG Systems

not refer to electron spin, but rather the electron occupancy of the two sublattices in graphene. Hence, it is termed as pseudo-spin, and the corresponding SOI is known as pseudo-SOI effect, which is potentially useful in the emerging field of pseudo-ferromagnetism in graphene [42]. In this review, however, we will be restricted to real SOI effects which have influence on electron spin. We will now consider the different forms of SOI Hamiltonian term in bulk and 2DEG semiconductors. In bulk semiconductors with a zinc-blende structure, the Dresselhaus Hamiltonian due to BIA yields a cubic-k term in the Hamiltonian, i.e. [21]:
bulk 2 HD = [xkx(ky kz2) + c.p.],

(5)

where is the Dresselhaus coefficient and c.p. represents the other two cyclic permutation terms. In the case of electron transport which is primarily along one direction z (say), or tunneling transport such that the kinetic energy of electrons is substantially smaller than the barrier height, then the Hamiltonian of Eq. (5) simplifies to [35]:
tun HD = kz2 (xkx yky ),

electric field at the hetero-junction interface [43, 44]. The strength of the Rashba interaction can be controlled by application of a gate bias [45] which changes both , by modifying the band-bending of the valence and conduction bands, the electron probability density within the confinement well, and the macroscopic electric field. Thus, the Rashba SOI gives rise to an inplane magnetic field BR = ( p ez ), which can be controlled electrically. If we inject an electron whose spin is perpendicular to the 2DEG plane, the electrons spin will then precess about BR by an angle = 2m*L as it traverses a distance L across the 2DEG, assuming the Rashba SOI is small enough such that interband transition within the 2DEG well can be neglected [46]. This gate-voltage modulated spin precession via the Rashba SOI coupled to the differential transmission into a ferromagnetic collector electrode is the basis of the Datta-Das transistor.

(6)

whilst in 2DEG heterostructures, the Dresselhaus SOI term assumes a linear-k form of: HD = (kxx kyy).
2D

(7)

assuming the growth direction of the heterostructure is along the [001] or the zdirection. The corresponding Rashba SOI term due to SIA in 2DEG heterostructure is also linearly dependent on k , and is given by: HR = ( p )ez = (kxy kyx ), (8) where is the Rashba SOI coefficient. From the (kp) perturbation theory, it was found that the Rashba parameter consists of two terms, i.e. a field contribution due to the potential gradient of the band-bending and an interfacial contribution due to the

conduction channel [47-49]. The high electron mobility and long mean free path ensures ballistic transport within the 2DEG. Theoretically, it was found that the use of magneto-electric barriers in the ballistic regime can help overcome the problem of conductance mismatch, which strongly suppresses the spin injection efficiency in the diffusive transport regime [18]. The barriers result in a large differential transmission for spin-up and down electrons, which constitutes a high spin polarization (P) of the current. The presence of SOI due to either SIA [50, 51] or BIA [21, 52], can further enhance the magnitude and controllability of the spin polarization P in the 2DEG system. These SOI effects result in the formation of eigen-subbands with different spin orientation. In the 2DEG system under consideration, we calculate P by applying the single particle approximation, and the concept of transmission probability of free electrons through the In the next section, we will discuss magneto-electric barriers [53]. the role of the Rashba and Dresselhaus SOI in spin filtering and spin transistor We consider a device model which is applications. In the spin filtering func- based on the Datta-Das spin-FET [24] tion, a differential spin transmission is but incorporating multiple ferromagnetic induced across a 2DEG channel by having gates which produce in-plane magnetic a spin-split in the eigenstates due to SOI fields, as shown in Fig. 1. A similar lateral interaction, in conjunction with spatially ferromagnet-semiconductor devices with localized (-function like) in-plane mag- such gate stripe configuration has also neto-electric barriers. In the spin transistor been used recently for electrical detection function, a modified spin-FET structure of spin transport in semiconductors [54]. is proposed in which a gate controllable The carriers flow within a 2DEG under Rashba SOI on a 2DEG channel is com- the influence of fields, and SOI effects bined with -function like (out-of-plane) are modulated through a gate electrode. fringing B-fields at the contacts to modu- To maximize P, multiple gates are used late the transmission over a much shorter in order to produce a periodic system of channel length compared with the typical magneto-electric barriers. Each repeating Datta-Das device. unit [Fig. 1] consists of four magnetic and two electrostatic barriers, whose height 3. SOI AND MAGNETO-ELEC- and orientation are such that an electron TRIC BARRIERS IN 2DEG passing through will require net zero SYSTEMS kinetic energy in the transverse direction 3.1. In-plane Magneto-Electric Barri- [55]. This condition enables the enhanceers in Linear Rashba System ment of P by having multiple barriers, In a III-V 2DEG heterostructure, the without the undesired effect of reducing combination of externally applied mag- the electrons transmission probability netic and electric fields can be used to at energies close to the Fermi level. We modulate the spin-dependent transport investigate the effect of Rashba SOI on in the ballistic regime across the 2DEG an electron spin whose polarization axis 11

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Celebrating 20 Years of GMR Past, Present, and Future (I)

The confining potential in the z-direction results in quantization of energy and thus formation of discrete sub-bands. If we approximate the confining potential as having a half-triangular profile, then the solution to the bound wave function (z) is given by a linear combination of Airy functions, i.e.: (z) = ebz/2a Ai
Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of a hybrid ferromagnetic (FM)-2DEG device with multiple FM and nonmagnetic (NM) metallic gates deposited on top of the 2DEG channel. The FM gates produce magnetic fields in the transverse y directions, while the NM gates produce electrostatic U barriers along the conduction path.

ebz/2a Bi

lies along an in-plane direction (y) of the 2DEG. The in-plane polarization is induced by a magnetic field from the gate, which is approximated as a delta function of strength By. Choosing the Landau gauge, the corresponding magnetic vector potential is given by A = (0, 0, Az). The Hamiltonian which describes electron transport in the above 2DEG in the presence of Rashba SOI is given by: H = H0 + HC + HR + HZ + HU
2 = 1 + ezFz + (kyx kxy) 2m* eg + y B (0) + eU, (9) 4m0 y

where H0, HC, HR, HZ, and HU are terms corresponding to the kinetic energy, the intrinsic confining potential of the 2DEG, the Rashba effect, the Zeeman split, and the applied electric potential, respectively. = (p + eA) is the covariant momentum under the vector potential A = (0, 0, Az). x = 0 is the position of the By field, while m*(m0) is the electrons effective (real) mass, g the Lande factor, and Fz is the confining electric field perpendicular to the 2DEG plane. The eigenspinors of H can be obtained by solving the (2 2) matrix equation in Eq. (18), and is given by: ky + i[kx ( / )] X = k 2 + [k ( / )]2 , (10) y x 1 12

where C1 and C2 are constants and a = 2 2 2 /2m*, b = ieAz /m*, c = (kx + ky2) /2m* + 2 2 U + s + HR + e Az / 2m*, and d = eFz. We where = (eg / 4m0)By. The correspond- set C2 = 0 in order that the above solution be well-behaved as z . By considering ing eigenvalues are given by: the roots of Ai(x), it was found that the E = H0 + HC + HU ky2 + [kx ( / )]2 . lowest subband energy is given by: (11) (2/3) (1/3) E0 = 2.338(eFz) /(2m*) . (15) The eigenspinors X are oriented in the Note that the sub-band energy is index y plane. For simplicity, we apply a unitary transformation such that the ei- pendent of the gauge Az and can thus be genspinors are parallel/antiparallel to the absorbed into the electrostatic potential reference spin (z) axis (n.b. spin z axis in U to give Ueff. The application of a strong the rotated frame differs from the lab z highly-localized B-field (approximated by axis). In this rotated frame, we can express a function) has been proposed as a means the x-dependence of the total wavefunction of inducing high spin polarization in a in region I (outside the electrostatic bar- 2DEG system [47, 49]. On the other hand, rier) as a linear combination of four plane the presence of multiple barriers tend to suppress the transmission probability T, wavefunctions: because each barrier will contribute to the + ik x + iq x 1 transverse Lorentz force. This results in 1(x) = A e 1 + B e 0 0 an increase in Ay and effectively reduces the kinetic energy in the propagation di iq x 0 ik x 0 +Ae +Be , (12) rection. However, in the Rashba 2DEG 1 1 system under consideration, the propawhere (k1, k1, q1, q1) are the x-wave- gation wave vector kx is independent of vectors corresponding to the degenerate the strength or configuration of the -By eigenfunctions of Eq. (11). The y-de- fields. Thus, unlike the case for a 2DEG pendence of the wave function is simply system without any SOI, one can increase ik y given by ky = e y , due to the translation the individual strength or multiplicity of invariance in y, while the z-dependence the -By barriers to enhance P of the spin (z) of the wave function is determined current without significantly lowering the by considering the confining potential of device conductance. the 2DEG, i.e.: In region I of Fig. 1 (where Ueff = 0), after considering the eigen-energy relation + ik x + iq x ik y 1(x, y, z) = e y (z) A eiq x+ B eik x .(13) in Eq. (11), the four degenerate wave-vecAe +Be tors of Eq. (12) are given by:
1

b2 4ac 4aEn + 4adz C1 + 4a4/3d2/3

b2 4ac 4aEn + 4adz C2, (14) 4a4/3d2/3

()

()

()

()

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Spintronics in 2DEG Systems

k1 = (f + g)2 ky ;
2

q1 = (f g)2 ky ,
2 2

(16)
2 2

where f = m*/ and g = (m*/ ) + 2 (2mE/ ). In region II, i.e. within the electrostatic barrier, g is replaced by g= (m*/2)2 + [2m(E Ueff )/2]. The coefficients in the wave-function of Eq. (12) are determined by (i) matching the amplitude of the wave function and (ii) ensuring flux continuity at the boundaries delineated by the -By fields (see Fig. 1). To derive the flux continuity relation for each spin across a -By boundary, the one-dimensional Schrdinger equation is integrated over a small interval [+ , ] along x, on either side of the boundary. This yields:
+ + 2 2 kA qB i k2C q2D + i q1 A k1B 2m* q2C k2D 2m* 1 1

+ (0) = 0, (0)

) (

(17)

where C , D , q2 are the electron wavefunction coefficients and wavevectors in region II (i.e. with non-zero Ueff ). Having solved the boundary conditions, one would then obtain the transfer matrices linking regions I and II, and hence the transmission probabilities T for the two eigenspinors. The spin polarization of the transmitted current is then given by P = T T . Numerical calculations based on T +T realistic material and device parameter values yield a reasonable polarization P of up to 20% [53].
+ +

the transmission probability of electron across the barriers. This is because in the case of the in-plane -B fields, the energy dispersion equation (see Eq. (11)) is independent of By and the corresponding magnetic vector potentials of Az ; (ii) An in-plane B-field configuration also reduces the required number of FM gates. This is because the decoupling of Az from the wave-vector eliminates the need for a zero-A55 gate configuration, which requires multiple barriers. Thus, the active device length can be significantly reduced, making it easier to achieve ballistic transport; (iii) The spin current induced by the inplane field is also more resistant to the Dyakonov-like spin scattering effects, which has a detrimental effect on the spin polarization P of current in a 2DEG system with an out-of-plane field Bz. This is because the effective magnetic field due to the Rashba SOI is in the in-plane direction and will cause the electron spin (polarized along z ) to precess in the region outside the -Bz field, leading to spin dephasing [56]. By contrast, if an in-plane -By field is used, the eigenspinor direction and the effective Rashba field direction can at most differ by only an azimuthal (in-plane) angle. Hence, even if the spin undergoes a precession in the region outside of the -Bz field, the expectation spin value will still have a net component in the eigenspinor direction. (iv) Finally, our analysis shows that in the presence of an

in-plane -By field, the spin polarization P is a function of the Rashba spin-orbit strength and the electric potential. On the other hand, the strength of the -By field modifies the spin quantization axis (the stronger the -By field strength, the closer is the quantization axis to the transverse y axis). Thus, the interplay between Rashba SOI and -By fields allows us to modulate different aspects of the spin current in the 2DEG, in terms of its magnitude and spin orientation, thus conferring versatility for possible spin filtering and other spintronics applications. 3.2. Vertical -Magneto-Electric Barriers in Linear Rashba-Dresselhaus System The combined effect of SOI and magneto-electric barriers (incorporating -B fringe field barriers) can be utilized to achieve a spin-FET device based on a FM2DEG-FM trilayer structure. A FM gate is deposited on top of the 2DEG in order to induce the out-of-plane -Bz fields, as shown in Fig. 2. In this device, the spin polarization and spin orientation of the transmitted current can be modulated by modifying the Rashba SOI coupling strength via the application of a gate bias [57]. The underlying mechanism in our spin-FET device is the modulation of the ballistic transmission characteristics of the spin eigenstates across the structure by variation in and -Bz field strength.

We have conceived and theoretically described the ballistic spin-dependent transport in a 2DEG under the combined influence of in-plane magnetoelectric barriers and Rashba spin-orbit coupling. This set-up have several distinct advantages compared to the previously analyzed 2DEG structure with out-of-plane -B magnetic fields: (i) The application of multiple magnetic barriers or increasing the strength of By will result in a higher spin polarization P, but without lowering

Fig. 2: Schematic diagram of proposed spin-FET which utilizes the Rashba and Dresselhaus SOI within the 2DEG channel and highly (spatially) localized fringe fields at the 2DEG-FM electrode inter faces emanating from a longitudinally magnetized (along M) gate electrode. The in-plane spin orientation of the transmitted electrons can be modulated by varying the Rashba parameter, resulting in a spin-FET-like operation.

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Celebrating 20 Years of GMR Past, Present, and Future (I)

Compared to the case of the Datta-Das transistor, the in-plane (azimuthal) spin orientation of the transmitted electrons in the collector of this device is well-defined and robust to a spread in the wave-vector of the injected electrons. This is especially so under conditions of (i) strong -B fringe fields, and (ii) the choice of a 2DEG channel material with a high g*m* factor to enhance the effective SOI field strength. Another advantage is that the optimal channel length for transistor action is found to be only ~ 5 nm for our device. This contrasts which a much longer channel length requirement for the Datta-Das device (of the order of a few microns), in order to accommodate at least one complete precessional cycle across the conduction path. We consider spin-dependent electron transport under the combined influence of Rashba and Dresselhaus spin-orbit coupling in a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG), with in-plane orientation ^ coplanar to x y = [100] [010], in the presence of delta-type external magnetic fields in the = [001] direction, as illustrated in Fig. 2.

interfaces: Bz(x) = B0[(x) (x L)], where L is the 2DEG channel length. Choosing the Landau gauge, the above magnetic field gives rise to a magnetic vector potential A(x) = (0, Ay(x), 0) in which A y(x) = B 0[(x) (x L)], where (x) is the Heaviside step function.

The coefficients ai in Eq. (24) are determined by applying the boundary conditions for the electron wavefunction (x) and its derivative x(x). The electron wavefunction is continuous across both of the FM-2DEG interfaces. However, there are two complications in deriving the corresponding boundary condition T The eigensolutions = (u, v) to the for x(x), due to (i) the presence of the Hamiltonian of Eq. (18), satisfy the fol- -B fields, and (ii) the need to consider lowing spinor equation: the spinor formulation in obtaining the particle flux continuity condition. One k ) + i (k k ) u obtains the required boundary condition H0 (ky x x y (ky kx) i(kx ky ) H0 v by integrating the Schrdinger equation H = E over an infinitesimally narrow u = E , (20) region about each interface. For instance, v at the left interface x = 0, we have: 2 2 + where H0 = kx /2m* + Ueff is the energy 2 (x) = [k + e A (x)] of the free electron, and ky H (x)dx = y y 2 m*(x) is the transverse wave-vector under the chosen gauge, and the off-diagonal terms eg* B (0) 4m0 0 z are the spin-dependent Rashba and Dresselhaus coupling terms. The solution to is given by: i y(0) + x(0) . (25) 2 2 u i (k) = 1 = 1 e X , (21) From Eq. (25), one obtains the flux match2 1 2 1 ing condition of:

()

)( )

[ ] ]

()

( )

where the phase factor X(k) depends on The Hamiltonian describing the electron the electron momentum: transport is given by [57]: kx ky tan X(k) = . (22) 2 ky kx eg* H = 2 + Ueff(x) + Bz(x)z 2m* x 4m0 For a fixed electron energy E, there e A (x)] +i ) + ([ky + are four distinct values of the propagatx y x y ing wave-vector kx, since the symmetry e A (x)] + i ), + ([ky+ (18) between +kx and kx for the two spiny x x y split subbands is broken under Rashba where g* is the effective Land factor of and Dresselhaus coupling [58]. These the 2DEG channel layer medium, i are kx values are solutions to the equation: the Pauli spin matrices, and and are 2 the Rashba and Dresselhaus interaction H 0 (kx + ky2 )(2 + 2) 4kxky = E. parameters, respectively. The effective (23) potential barrier in Eq. (18), In the 2DEG region (region II) where the 2 2 Ueff(x) = U0 + [ky + e Ay(x)] , (19) spin-orbit coupling effect is present, the 2m* traveling wavefunction can be written as is the sum of the electrostatic barrier U0 a linear combination of eigenspinors i = T ^ and the kinetic energy in the transverse y (ui, 1) , each corresponding to wave-vecdirection, whilst the out-of-plane fring- tor kx = ki : ing magnetic field Bz(x) from the FM 4 4 u gate on top of the 2DEG [see Fig. 2] is II (x) = aiieik x = ai i eik x. (24) i=1 i=1 1 modeled as a -field at the 2DEG-contact

(+)/m*(+) ()/m*() = eg* B (0) 2m0 0 z

2

+ i/ [y(0) + x(0)], (26) where = (+) () and = (+) () are the discontinuities in the Rashba and Dresselhaus coupling parameters across the interface, and m*(+) [m*()] is the effective electron mass on the right [left] side of the interface. By a similar argument, the flux matching equation for the other interface at x = L can also be obtained. We confirm that the continuity in (x) and the boundary condition of Eq. (26) lead to the conservation of particle flux across the three regions. The particle flux in the source and collector (regions I and III) was based on the standard opera tor, j(x) = /(2mi)(x x ). For the particle flux in the 2DEG (region II), the flux operator is obtained from the classical Hamiltons equation of motion [30, 59]:

()

14

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Spintronics in 2DEG Systems

^ = vx = H (p )/px

spin rotator within this range of values. dependence of the spin precessional rates. The more crucial quantity is the spin polarization of the transmitted electrons, which is proportional to the magnitude |Sxy|. We analyze the spin polarization as a function of for channel lengths in the range of 2nm L 20nm. The spin polarization is found to increase almost linearly with . The greatest sensitivity of |Sxy| to occurs at channel length of L 4 to 6 nm. This means that for this range of channel length, we will obtain the most sensitive spin-FET like operation if we set the collector magnetization parallel or antiparallel to the optimal orientation . Crucially, the required channel lengths are in the nanometer range, rather than the micrometer range of the spin-FETs which rely primarily on spin precessional effects. We summarize the key differences between our proposed device with that of the well-known Datta-Das spin-FET [24]: (i) our device relies on both SOI (Rashba and Dresselhaus) and -B fringing fields to modulate the transmission characteristics of the eigenspinors of the system; (ii) The typical precession rate in the Datta-Das spin-FET requires a long channel length of the order of ~ m for spins to precess a full radians [24, 46, 61], while in our proposed device, a short channel length of < 10 nm suffices. This is because in the latter, the effect of spin precession is incidental, since the device relies on the -dependence of electron transmission across the 2DEG and -B barriers; (iii) the collector in our device detects the azimuthal spin component, which is perpendicular to the reference axis of the injected electrons, while the Datta-Das device detects spins parallel or antiparallel to the reference axis; (iv) The use of a sufficiently strong -B field ensures that the transmitted spin orientation in our device is robust to the wavevector distribution ky of the injected spins. This obviates the need for elaborate schemes for wave-vector restriction of the injected electrons [62, 63]. However, in the Datta-Das device, ky will translate directly into a corresponding spread of the transmitted spin orientation, due to the k-

= px /m y / x/. (27) Based on Eq. (27), the particle flux in region II is calculated as follows: jII(x) =

|a | (x)|v | (x),
4 i=1 i 2 i ^ x i

(28)

where the i(x) are the four degenerate eigensolutions of Eq. (24), and ai are their respective coefficients obtained after applying the boundary conditions. It can be numerically verified that the wavefunctions obtained via the boundary matching do indeed satisfy the conservation of particle flux across the entire trilayer structure, i.e. jI = jII = jIII. In our numerical calculations, we consider a 2DEG channel made of a zincblende semiconductor indium antimonide (InSb) due to its favorably large g*m* factor, which ensures strong coupling of the electron spin to the the -B fringing fields. Unless otherwise stated, we assume standard material parameters for InSb [60]: m* = 0.0136m0 , g* = 50.6, = 5 11 12 10 eVm and = 4.14 10 eVm. We have also assume typical values for the following parameters: Fermi level EF = 2.5 meV and electrical potential U0 = 1.7 meV. We consider the injection of electrons in the spin-up +|z state from the source electrode, and analyze their spin orientations after ballistic transmission across the 2DEG and -B field barriers and into the collector. The expectation value of the transmitted electron spin is S = III III /2 |(x , y , z )| . We study the tunability of S as a function of the Rashba coefficient , which may be adjusted externally via a gate electrode VG placed above the 2DEG channel. Our analysis is focused on the azimuthal spin component Sxy = (sx , sy), which is the component arising from the spin-orbital interactions. The azimuthal spin orientation = arctan (sy /sx) is strongly dependent on the Rashba parameter , especially at the low values of < 0.15. Thus, the device can potentially function as a voltage-controlled

4.1. Spin Hall Effect in Combined Chiral 2DEG System with SOI Effect The spin Hall effect (SHE) is the generation of a pure spin current (i.e. without concomitant charge current) in the transverse direction in the presence of SOI and a longitudinal electric field. In a 2DEG heterostructure with Rashba SOI, Sinova et al. [30] showed that in the ballistic limit, electrons which are accelerated in the longitudinal direction will simultaneously undergo a spin precession. The sense of the precession is dependent on the sign of the transverse component of the electrons velocity. Thus, the net result is a spin separation in the transverse direction. On the other hand, the out-of-plane spin polarization along the lateral direction of ballistic 2D spin-Hall systems was studied. This out-of-plane spin component here is driven by edge precession effects [64], rather than the electric field induced precession of Ref. [30]. A distinct SHE mechanism has also been described in bulk p-type semiconductors [65] and two-dimensional-hole gases (2DHG) [66], where the SOI effect in the valence band-structure gives rise to the Luttinger Hamiltonian. In these systems, the SOI terms give rise to an effective magnetic field B (k ) in k -space. If the electron spins adiabatically relax to the local B (k ) along the k -space electron trajectory, then a gauge term A (k ) arises in the potential energy term [29]. The curvature of A (k ) gives rise to a Dirac monopole-like field (k ) in k -space. The monopole field in turn gives rise to a Lorentz-like force in k -space, which may be interpreted as the KarplusLuttinger anomalous velocity term [67] which has previously been invoked to describe SHE in doped semiconductors [29] and anomalous Hall effect (AHE) in ferromagnets [68, 69]. However, Inoue et al. [70] showed that for the Rashba SOI system, the SHE requires a clean sample and does not survive when impurity scat15

4. SPIN HALL EFFECTS IN 2DEG SYSTEMS

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Celebrating 20 Years of GMR Past, Present, and Future (I)

tering is introduced. Theoretically, they found the spin Hall conductivity vanishes when vertex corrections are introduced to model the effects of impurity scattering. The suppression of SHE due to impurities is, however, not generally true. In both the p-type semiconductor and 2DHG cases, it had been shown that the SHE persists in the presence of impurities [65]. Spin transverse separation due to SOI can arise in yet another context. The SOI effect on spin/charge dynamics can be treated in the framework of non-Abelian gauge [71-75]. In particular, Shen [73] applied the nonAbelian gauge method to obtain the spindependent transverse force acting on a spin-polarized current in a ballistic 2DEG system with Rashba SOI, whose spins are aligned in the vertical direction. It is, however, unclear at this point if the different SHE mechanisms are at all related. The only common thread amongst them is that all predict some form of transverse spin separation due to SOI interactions. In the following we propose a spin Hall transistor which combines two of the SHE mechanisms, i.e. a monopole field arising from adiabatic relaxation to a chiral local field reminiscent of Murakami et al. [29], and a spin transverse force arising from SU(2) non-Abelian gauge field following from Shen [73]. There are two motivations for combining these two mechanisms in a single device: (i) We will show that the two spin transverse forces can be made to act in the opposite directions, and that the strength of the spin gauge field can be controlled externally (since it arises from Rashba SOI). Thus, we have a device capable of controllable SHE. (ii) In order to achieve a significant transverse spin current [73], one requires the injected spin to be polarized in the vertical direction, whilst applying a large electric E-field perpendicular to the 2DEG plane so as to generate a strong SU(2) gauge (Rashba SOI) field. However, these two requirements are incompatible with one another. The requisite vertically spinpolarized state is not an eigenstate of the system, so that the large E-field will hasten the relaxation of the initial vertical spins to 16

the in-plane direction, thereby suppressing H = UH U the SU(2) transverse force. Additionally 1 p + e A + U E U+ for channel lengths longer than the spin = k k i j ijk 2m 4mc2 coherence length, the spin vector will k = x,y,z precess about the in-plane relativistic 2 + eg magnetic field, causing a Zitterbewegung- + UkU + B. (29) e 4m z z like motion [76] and resulting in zero net transverse spin current. In the adiabatic approximation, the + U(1)U(1) gauge (UkU ) becomes a We can remove the competition between diagonal matrix, whose components are the SU(2) force and the spin relaxation/ the real-space monopole potential. Alterprecession due to the strong vertical E- natively, these components may separately fields in the 2DEG by applying an external be derived by applying the path-integral magnetic B-field, e.g. by means of ferro- method [82, 83] as the electron spin aligns magnetic gate stripes deposited on top of parallel/anti-parallel to the local B-field a high-electron-mobile-transistor (HEMT) along its trajectory. By considering the heterostructure device [77, 78]. The B- action S, we can derive the U(1) gauge field should be sufficiently strong relative for the case of parallel alignment to be: P to the in-plane relativistic magnetic field AU(1) = (1cos) r , where (r ) 2e so as to ensure that the two spin eigen- and (r ) are the polar and azimuthal states point in the out-of-plane direction. orientation of the local B-field. A simiA spatial non-uniformity is superimposed lar consideration is carried out for the onto the uniform vertical B field in order to anti-parallel alignment, which yields A introduce a finite chirality (see Fig. 3(a)). AU(1) = 2e (1cos)r. The effective Chiral magnetization can occur naturally magnetic field is then obtained from U(1)U(1) in several magnetic materials such as py- the curvature of the gauge A = P A rochlore ferromagnets and spin glasses AU(1) AU(1). For simplicity, we can as[79-81]. The net chirality results in an sume a crown-like B-field configuraadditional U(1) U(1) topological field tion, with a radius R and a half-angle which contributes to the spin separation of , as shown in Fig. 3(b). For such (as opposed to a U(1) gauge field for a a configuration, the field is given by normal magnetic field). bz = 2eR znz. The corresponding Lorentz force operator is given by: Theoretically, to derive the strengths of U(1)U(1) = 2 zvx. the U(1) U(1) and SU(2) gauge fields, Fy (30) 2R we apply a unitary transformation so as to align the spin reference axis to the local In the limit of small chirality (i.e. small B-field orientation. After this transforma- ), the SU(2) gauge ASU(2) and the cortion, the Hamiltonian reads as: responding field can be approximated. It

( [ ])

Fig. 3: (a) Schematic diagram of local magnetization configuration with net chirality. (b) Approximate model of a chiral magnetization by a crown-shaped configuration, radiating from a point at radius R below the 2DEG plane, with a half-angle .

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Spintronics in 2DEG Systems

Fig. 4: Schematic diagram of spin gauge transistor illustrating the competing Lorentz forces in a Rashba 2DEG with chiral magnetic texture. Spins in the vertical orientation (z) and traveling along J will encounter transverse Lorentz-like forces which separate the spin-up z from the spin-down z carriers. The transverse forces arise from two sources: (i) the Berry curvature due to adiabatic spin relaxation to the local chiral magnetization, and (ii) Rashba SOI interaction. These transverse forces act in opposing directions.

Abelian (Yang-Mills) gauge theory was developed to describe the isotopic spin rotation and gauge particle interaction in quantum chromodynamics. Recently, the Yang-Mills formalism has been extended to other contexts outside of its original high-energy physics domain, including emerging technology fields of spintronics, optics, and quantum computing. Gauge theory and Berrys phase approach have been applied to describe condensed matter and optical phenomena such as anomalous Hall [68, 69, 89], spin Hall [90], spin torque [91, 92], optical Magnus, and geometric quantum computation. We would thus like to revisit the original framework of the Yang-Mills theory to achieve a proper theoretical description of these phenomena [93]. We consider an electron traversing a 2DEG channel in a HEMT heterostructure, similar to Fig. 1. The electron experiences an effective B-field in k-space, and precesses about the effective field. Under time-reversal invariance in the non-relativistic limit, the electron spinor transforms locally, under a covariant formalism, according to Eq. (1). The electron acquires a phase factor which comprises of the SU(2) gauge group generators: U = exp

To model the effects in a practical can be shown that the magnitude of the resulting Lorentz force arising from the system, we consider 2DEG formed in an InAs/InGaAs heterostructure [45, ASU(2) is given by: 85] with material parameters: effec SU(2) Fy = (e2/8m2c4)zvxEz2. (31) tive electron mass m* = 0.05m0, charge density ne = 1013m2, Fermi wave-vector For the device configuration shown in kF = 7.9 106m1. The external B field is Fig. 4, the direction of the two Lorentz applied on the 2DEG plane such that it inscribes a crown-like distribution of raforces are opposite to one another. dius R = 5 nm, with a deviation from the The Lorentz forces due to the U(1) vertical, and a radially outward azimuthal U(1) and SU(2) gauge fields provide direction (see Fig. 3). Considering B-field a heuristic indication of possible spin orientations such that is in the range of separation. This may be confirmed by 0.5 to 2, we find that the total average U(1) SU(2) deriving the position operator in the transverse force |Fy + Fy | can Heisenberg picture in the two-dimen- be modulated to switch on and off spin sional Rashba semiconductor system. separation for a gate E-field strength corThe derivation of the position/velocity responding to a typical range of Rashba operators by means of the Heisenbergs coefficient of the order of ~ 1012 eVm equation has been applied in previous [86]. Thus, it is theoretically possible to works [72, 84] in order to derive the equa- achieve a SHE transistor which can genertions of motion in semiconductor systems. ate a pure spin current in either transverse To obtain a measurable spin transverse y directions or a complete cancellation of separation, we represent the electrons spin transverse separation by modulation probability amplitude with a Gaussian of the gate voltage. wave-packet of typical width d in k space, prepared in the spin up state, i.e. 4.2. Non-Abelian Gauge Description of T d Spin Hall Effect due to SOI ,k (r , t) = 2 d 2 k e1/2d (k k )eik r (1, 0) . It can be shown that the time-dependent In this section, we apply the non-Abetransverse (y) position operator is con- lian gauge field formalism [87, 88] to sistent with the Lorentz forces obtained describe the spin Hall effect in 2DEG systems due to SOI. Originally, the nonusing the heuristic arguments.
2
2 0

ie

r + r r

~ ( ).dr .(32) 2gmc2

To preserve Lagrangian (L) invariance under this transformation, it is necessary to replace the derivative by the covariant ie form of D = .. The additional gauge will have to obey the following transformation rule: D

tr ie . U

D +

= U (

= (

Invoking the above gauge transformation rule in the infinitesimal approximation, the resulting SU(2) gauge field can be 17

tr ie . +U+

ie .) U+. (33)

ie .)

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Celebrating 20 Years of GMR Past, Present, and Future (I)

shown to be: ASU(2) = ( ).n. 2gmc2 (34)

Thus, the Lagrangian L = i +D 0 i 1 (D+)(D) V+ 1 (Fv)2 for 2 4 massless gauge particle will be invari~ ant under the action of U = exp [. ie ], ~ ~ where = 2 dr . By considering 2gmc the momentum conjugate to , which is L given by (D ) = i+, we can apply the usual Legendre transformation to derive the Hamiltonian density. This is given by H = 1 (D+) (D) + V+ , if we as2 sume vanishing gauge particle interaction. Thus, the many-body Hamiltonian for an SOI system can be expressed as H = + 2 ( 1 D + V )d, where = x, y, z. If we 2 disregard the many-body effects, then the Hamiltonian simplifies to a single-electron form, i.e.:
0

Fig. 5: Schematic diagram of electron trajectory around a square cell with infinitesimal sides l.

terms of a spin-dependent transverse force [73] arising in the ballistic regime due to a non-Abelian SU(2) gauge. Adapting Eq. (35) to the 2DEG heterostructure with time reversal invariance and ignoring higher order terms, the Hamiltonian can be written in a somewhat modified form: H= 1 ~ m p + (yx)i 2m +

and are both complicated functions of the gate electrical potential. Thus, the strength of the spin Hall coefficients could be tuned, such that at the point where = , we will expect the spin Hall separation to vanish. In a similar context, the non-Abelian field is associated with the wavefunction phase factor [94], by consideration of the line integral of the SU(2) phase over the electron trajectory. For simplicity, we consider an electron traveling along paths I and II around a square cell structure with infinitesimal length l, as shown in Fig. 5. By considering the SU(2) gauge field expression, the respective phase evolution of the wavefunction for paths I and II are as follows: VI = exp VI I = exp

H=

2 1 ~ e p ( ). +e (r), 2m 2gmc2

(35) where and are the Rashba and Dresselhaus coefficients, respectively. In the ( ) G( ) with where r = 2gmc above, the gauge is given by = m (y G being a time constant, E the electric x)i + m (y x)j. We consider the field and g the Lande factor. Expanding curvature of , i.e. the above Hamiltonian and ignoring the ~ ie higher order terms, we obtain the usual F = ( ), (38) SOI Hamiltonian: where the second term arises due to the ~ e 2 H = 1 p+ p( ) + e (r). non-Abelian character of . Explicitly, the 2m 2gm2c2 (36) field or curvature is given by:
2

2 m (y x)j .(37)

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ((
)

ie ie A l .exp Al , y x

ie ie A l .exp A l . (40) x y

We will now apply the above gauge treatment for the specific case of the spin Hall effect in a 2DEG system [73], where pure spin accumulation (i.e. in the absence of charge accumulation) occurs in the transverse direction in response to electric E-field applied in the longitudinal direction. The structure under consideration is similar to the spin-FET of Fig. 2, with a gate potential being applied in order to modulate the strength of the SOI effect. The spin Hall effect in a 2DEG system has been elucidated by Sinova et al. [30] as being the result of the electron spin precession being coupled to the direction of its linear momentum in the ballistic limit. We will now elucidate the spin Hall effect in

Using the lowest order Baker-CampbellHausdorff formula for an infinitesimal l, Fk can be interpreted as a vertical effective the phase difference as a result of traversmagnetic field seen by the electrons. Un- ing path I and II is given by: like a conventional Zeeman field, this field ie 2 VI+IVI = exp 2 l [Ax, Ay] . (41) is spin-dependent in the sense that it will be pointing in the +z direction for spin-up electrons and z for spin-down electrons. The phase difference arises due to the By considering the classical Lorentz force non-Abelian nature of the gauge fields. arising from Fk, we obtain the intuitive This spin- dependent phase is also known picture of the spatial separation of up and as the Aharonov-Casher phase [95], which down spins transverse to their longitudinal is often discussed in connection to the motion in the x-direction. In this theo- Berrys phase. With careful experimental retical framework, electrons experience design, on clean 2DEG samples, it might a gauge field, which can also be regarded be possible utilize this effect to obtain as its anomalous velocity. There have a spin-selective interference process to been experimental evidences [45] that generate a pure spin current. Fk = (39)

iem2 2 2 ( )z, 3

18

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Spintronics in 2DEG Systems

5. SUMMARY

We have summarized some of our recent works on spin transport phenomena and spin-tronics application in 2DEG heterostructure. We have shown that spin-orbital interactions (SOI) can be utilized in conjunction with magnetic and electrostatic barriers in 2DEG structures to generate a spin polarized current and achieve a spin transistor function. We have also analyzed the intrinsic spin Hall effect (SHE) which arises in 2DEG structures due to Rashba SOI. In the presence of a chiral magnetization, a combined U(1) and SU(2) gauge fields are induced. The Lorentz force arising from these gauge fields can be made to oppose one another, resulting in a gate-controllable SHE strength. Finally, we present the non-Abelian gauge theoretical framework to describe spintronics phenomena such as the SHE, and the generation of the Aharonov-Casher phase. Although the non-Abelian gauge framework is well-established in high energy physics, its applicability in condensed matter is only now being recognized. In particular, its use in spintronics will lead to deeper insights into the underlying physics and symmetry in phenomena such as SHE and quantum SHE.

[4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]

[11] [12] [13] [14]

[15] [16]

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank S.-Q. Shen, G. Tatara and S. Murakami for fruitful discussions. This work has been [17] supported by the AcRF Tier 1 Grant No. R-263-000-482-112 and the Agency for [18] Science, Technology, and Research (A[19] STAR) of Singapore.

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