The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, nails, glands and nerves and among these the

skin is the largest organ of the human body. Hair and nails are a part of skin extensions. You may be
aware that one of the main functions of the integumentary system is as a protective barrier, that
keeps our body free from intrusion of foreign materials, microorganisms and prevents dehydration.
The integumentary system function also helps in elimination of the waste products and in the
regulation of body temperature. Apart from this, there are many other functions of the integumentary
system and each organ involved in this system has its own particular use. Thus, it has a major role in
the maintenance of the internal body conditions, that is, homeostasis.
Functions of Integumentary System

Skin
The skin is the most important organ of the body, as it protects the delicate organs of the body. The
skin is divided into three separate layers as follows:
O 5idermis: This is the outermost layer of the skin that contains four separate layers of
epithelial tissue. The outer most layer is the stratum corneum that is about 2 to 30 cells thick.
These are keratinized and dead cells that make the skin waterproof! The second and third
layer consists of the stratum granulosum and stratum lucidum, which contain cells that are not
keratinised as yet. As these skin grows, the cells are pushed outward and come towards the
surface. The last and the deepest layer of the epidermis is the stratum germinativum. These
cells are active mitotically and have the ability to reproduce, as these cells are living, thus,
making them the manufacturing center for growing skin.
O ermis: The dermis lies immediately after the epidermis. The dermis consists of its own blood
supply and thus contains many complex structures. The sweat glandsare present in this layer
that collect waters and waste products from the blood stream. This waste is excreted from the
pores in the epidermis along with the water in form of sweat. The hair roots are also present
in this layer that help in the growth of hair. When the hair reaches outside the epidermis, the
cells are dead. The connective tissue made of collagen fibers are also found in the dermis that
help give the skin elasticity and strength.
O Subcutaneous Layer: The last layer of the skin containing the adipose tissues, carries out
the main functions of the integumentary system, that is, provision of cushioning the delicate
organs beneath the skin. The body temperature is also maintained within this layer by
insulating the body to the temperature fluctuations.
Functions of the Skin
The skin carries out the following main functions of the integumentary system.
O %ermoregulation: The thermoregulation of the skin is carried out with the help of evaporation
of the sweat and regulation of the blood flow to the dermis.
O $ensations: The cutaneous sensations like touch, pressure, vibration, pain, cold, hot, etc, are
felt by the skin.
O !rotection: The protective barrier of the skin helps prevent diseases, infections, dehydration,
etc.
O !roduction of Vitamin D: The precursor present in the skin and UV rays, helps in the
production of vitamin D, an important nutrient of the body.
O ealing: When the epidermis breaks away due to a minor cut or burn, the cells on the lower
layers of the skin migrate upwards as a sheet. When two ends of the sheet meet, the cells
stop growing due to a process called 'contact inhibition'. Thus, the epidermis is sealed and the
skin returns to normal. You can read more interesting information on skin care and skin
disorders
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Your lustrous hair has many other uses other than helping you try different hair styles. The hair,
feathers, scales, etc. are all derived from the skin. In case of humans, the hair extends to the surface
from the hair roots or hair bulbs present in the dermis. The integumentary system functions of the
hair include protection and sensation to light touch. The hair is made of dead, keratinized cells that
are bound together with the extracellular proteins. The hair is divided into the air saft that is the
superficial layer and the root that is in the dermis. The air follicle is the structure that surrounds the
hair root. The oil glands present around the hair follicles help keep the hair and the surrounding skin
moist. It also acts as a protective organ involved in temperature regulation. You can read more
information on hair care.

,ils
The nails, claws and horns are structures that are derived from the skin. The nail is a highly
keratinized structure of modified epidermal cells. The nail bed gives rise to nails, that is thickened to
form a lunula. The moon shaped structure that you observe at the base of your nails is called the
lunula. The integumentary system functions of the nails is to help in grasping and holding things. The
nails act as counter force and help increase the sensitivity of the fingertip. You can read more on nail
care

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The skin gland like sebaceous glands secrete the oil coating for the hair shaft. When these sebaceous
glands become clogged with dirt and microorganisms, they become infected and cause pimples or
acne. The sweat glands that have an opening through the skin pores, help in excretion of waste
matters from the circulatory system. Another type of sweat gland that is connected to the sympathetic
nervous system, Eccrine gland is found all over the body. In the armpit and groin areas, the apocrine
glands are present. These are just another type of sweat glands that are larger in size and the culprits
along with bacteria that produce 'body odor'. The complex network of the nerves present all over the
skin helps send and receive important impulses to and from the brain, thus playing a vital role in
sense of touch. You can read more onintegumentary system organs and integumentary system
diseases.

Functions of the Res5iratory System: 5ained

The 4 main functions of the respiratory system include the following:
O Ventilation of the lungs by inspiration (intake of air) and expiration (exhalation of air).
O The respiratory system allows for the extraction of the oxygen from inhaled air, its transfer to
bloodstream and binding with hemoglobin, and here is where the respiratory system
collaborates with the circulatory system as the hemoglobin does the job of depositing the
oxygen in the different parts of the body.
O The next function of the respiratory system is expiration or exhalation of air. In this process
carbon dioxide that gets generated in the metabolism process is exhaled out. Apart from the
exhaust, some trace gases and water vapor is also exhaled by the system.
O astly, the acid base of the blood is also maintained by the respiratory system.
Now let's have a look at the structure and organs of the respiratory system.

om5onents and Structure of the Res5iratory System

The anatomy of the human respiratory system is divided into, upper and lower system. In the
following paragraphs, the structure of the respiratory system along with the functioning of the same
has been explained.

U55er Res5iratory System
O The mout, nasal cavity and nose are the entry points through which air enters the body. The
nose, mouth and nasal cavity basically clear the air or foreign and unwanted matter and
moisten it. Olfaction, which is the sense of smelling is also included in this part of the body.
Apart from that, the nasal cavity, also consist of highly vascularized mucus which successfully
warms and humidifies the air entering the body. This mucus also traps minute alien
particulates which tend to be potentially harmful.
O Further down as the air travels from the nasal cavity towards the Pharynx, a set
of membranes and tissues, clean the air more finely. For example, the nasal cavity
has olfactory epitelium and pseudostratified ciliated columnar epitelium, on the inner
surface. Following these two tissues, there are a series of goblet cells which secrete mucus till
the air reaches the lungs. The mucus has Cilia, a hair like component, with the help of which
the alien particles and particulates get thrown out of the respiratory tract through the nose or
the mouth.
O The next component of the system is the Pharynx, which is a kind of pipe that extends from
the nasal cavity to the Cricoid cartilage, which is situated in the throat. It is location is behind
or near to the esophagus (passage between mouth and stomach). The function of the interior
portion of Pharynx is basically to keep the air particulate free and it makes use of non-
keratinized stratified squamous (NKSS), that act as arresting agents in the process.
O The next important component is the arynx. This component is crucial, especially for humans,
due to the fact that it helps us to talk. It basically acts as a barrier and protects the rest of the
respiratory system from foreign bodies. The larynx also contains the aforementioned NKSS,
and often acts as an extension to the pharynx. The larynx is the last component of the upper
respiratory system.
Lower Res5iratory System
O The first organ in the lower respiratory system is the %racea, which commonly refer to as the
windpipe. The trachea is about 10cms in length and has a diameter of about 2.5cms. The
hyaline cartilage, which is a C shaped structure, flanks the trachea. Behind the cartilage is the
trachealis muscle, which completes the ring. The trachea begins at the larynx and ends at the
carina.
O The next part is the bronci. The trachea branches out to become bronchi which enters the
lungs. Bronchi are similar in appearance with the trachea. It must be noted the bronchi are
multiple tubes. As the entire respiratory tract gets nearer and nearer to the lungs, the
diameter of the bronchi becomes smaller and smaller till it reaches a 1 mm diameter after
which they disappear. The bronchi which basically branch out travel down inside the lungs.
This spread out structure which goes inside the lungs is known as tertiary bronchi.
O The bronchi travel down further into the lungs, becoming even narrower than 1 millimeter
diameter. These smaller tubes are called roncioles. Bronchioles are so minuscule that the
cartilage to support them is no longer needed and hence it disappears right here. Bronchioles
eventually lead to the alveolar sacs.
O The alveolar sacs, which are also known as Alveoli are small hollow cavities with extremely
thin walls which facilitate the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide. The alveoli further
consist of small capillaries, which take away the fresh oxygen. It is estimated that there about
3 million alveoli inside the lungs of an average human being.
O The bronchioles, bronchi and alveolar sacs, are basically the three constituents that are
housed in the lungs. Everything from the bronchi, exists inside the lungs. It is estimated that
the airways that make up the bronchioles, bronchi and alveolar sacs, have a length of about
2400 km. Apart from that the lungs tend to host the major exchange of carbon dioxide and
oxygen.
O This entire system is placed above a huge and powerful muscle known as the diapragm. The
diaphragm is principally the base of the thoracic cavity.
The respiratory system though rarely damaged, is delicate and things such as smoking and polluted
atmosphere tends to have a serve effect in the respiratory system and respiratory tract. Worst of all
the lungs, the respiratory tract and the respiratory system in general are so delicate and so small that
treating or operating on any part, if the need arises, is difficult and to some extent impossible. I hope
that the elaboration on the structure and function of the respiratory system is resourceful.
skeletal
The most obvious and one of the important skeletal system functions is to provide the body support
and shape. Without the skeletal system, our bodies will be just mass of flesh and guts. The skeletal
system helps provide a framework to your body. There are many other functions of the skeletal
system that helps in many other processes in the human body system. You can learn more on the
skeletal system through the article introduction to human skeletal system. et us now know more in
detail about the various skeletal system functions.

Functions of the Skeeta System

The skeletal system functions of the human body include:
O Support
O Protection
O Helping in movement
O Storage of minerals
O Production of red blood cells
O Chemical energy storage
Su55ort
The skeletal system is made up of bones and cartilages. There are 206 bones in the body and these
bones and cartilages help provide the support and points of attachment to many soft tissues, muscles
and ligaments in the body. There are different types of bones like the long bones, short bones, flat
bones, irregular bones and sesamoid bones. The skeletal system functions also include providing
rigidity and body shape. It helps supporting the weight of muscles and internal organs, without which
the body would collapse.

Protection
One of the main functions of skeletal system involves protection to the soft and delicate internal
organs of the body. The brain is protected by the skull, the nerves are protected by the spinal column,
the rib cage provides protection to the heart and lungs. The fibrous disks between each vertebra acts
as shock absorber.

He5ing in Movement
The bone joint act as levers and anchors for the muscles. The point of origin of the muscle is called
the anchor and the bone acts as lever. There are three types of joints, viz. fixed joint or Synarthroses
like the skull bones, the slightly movable or Amphiarthroses like the symphysis pubis and the freely
movable or Diarthroses. The freely movable joints are divided into four groups. The first, ball and
socket joint like the hip joint, the hinge joint in the anatomy of elbow, the pivot joint of the radius and
ulna and the gliding joint are seen in the carpal joint of wrist.

Storage of Mineras
The minerals like calcium and phosphorus are stored in the bones, till they need to be distributed in
various parts of the body that need minerals to carry out various functions.

Production of Red Bood es
The red blood cells as well as the white blood cells are produced in the red marrow of the bones. After
birth and in early childhood, the red blood morrow is red in color. Then, in adulthood, half of the bone
marrow turns yellow, as it consists of fat cells. The long bones consist of yellow marrow and the red
marrow is found in the flat bones of hip, skull and shoulder blades. You may also find red marrow in
the vertebrae and the end of the long bone. In extreme conditions, the body can convert some of the
yellow bone marrow to red bone marrow.

hemica nergy Storage
The yellow marrow in bones discussed above consist of adipose cells. These adipose cells are fat cells
that are very important source of chemical energy.


Muscuar System Functions

The human muscular system spread across the entire body is controlled by the nervous system of the
body. The human body comprises over 600 muscles which can be categorized further. The muscular
system comprises three different types of muscles: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscles. The
skeletal muscles are attached to the various parts of the skeleton and comprise muscles that are
either striated or striped and are voluntary muscles that can be controlled by us. For example, we can
choose to raise our hand and pat somebody's shoulder, etc.

Smooth muscles, on the other hand, are involuntary muscles that are found lining the intestinal walls,
stomach and other hollow organs. The movements of these muscles cannot be controlled by us,
instead they are controlled by the autonomous nervous system. For example, we cannot control the
movements of the stomach, etc. Then, comes the cardiac muscles which is a unique muscle found
only in the heart. These muscles are controlled by the sinus node, which is also influenced by the
autonomous nervous system.

What are the Functions of the Muscuar System

4-ility
The ability to move comes from the muscular system. When one wants to move from one place to
another, the central nervous system gives instructions to the muscle fibers of the body to contract or
relax, thereby conducing to the necessary movement. Since the central nervous system is instructing
the muscle fibers to carry out the required functions, they are voluntary movements. Actions such as
walking, climbing, running, lifting, dancing, jogging, etc. are all examples of motions caused as a
result of voluntary muscular contractions and relaxations.

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The action of stuffing our mouth with food is voluntary and we also have control of the chewing
motion. However, once the food is swallowed what happens to it? We do not have any control of it
once it passes down the food pipe or esophagus. The food travels via the esophagus to the stomach
via an involuntary muscular movement called peristalsis. The smooth muscles contract and relax and
allow the food ingested to be churned in the stomach and then the intestines. As the digestion process
continues, the waste is sent to the rectal region from where it is discarded.

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Since we are warm blooded, a constant body temperature ought to be maintained in the body, via
temperature regulation. In order to maintain a constant body temperature, the body needs to produce
heat. Heat is produced in the body when muscles contract, thus, as body temperature plummets, the
muscles involuntarily contract and generate heat. This is why when we are cold, we find our body
shivering. Shivering is the body's mechanism of muscle contraction to generate heat.