UAE University College of Humanities And Social Sciences

DIVISION OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

Introduction to Society And Behavior

(HSR 230) 3 Credit Hours

2008/2009
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INTRODUCTION TO SOCIETY AND BEHAVIOR Table of contents

(i) The Syllabus (ii) The Introduction (iii) Behavior and Society

PART 1: SOCIOLOGY
(1) (2) (3) (4) What is Sociology? The Origin of Sociology A New Awareness of Society Masters of Sociology Ibn Khaldoun Auguste Comte Karl Marx Emile Durkheim Max Weber The Sociological Perspective Sociology and other Social sciences Benefits of the Sociological Perspectives Sociological Theory How Sociology helps people Selected Sociological Key Words and concepts What Do Sociologists Do? What sociologists study? References

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9)

PART 2: PSYCHOLOGY
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) What is Psychology and Definition of "psychologist?" Brief history of psychology Behaviorism Existentialism and humanism Cognitivism How psychology helps people? W Major Keywords What Psychologists Do and Where They Do It? Different Specialties in Psychology Education, Training, and Qualifications Case Studies in Psychology Summary

PART 3: HUMAN SERVICES AND COUNSELING

(1) Defining Human Services (2) Brief history of Human Services (3) Functions of Human Services (4) The Human Service professionals (5) Delivery of Human Services (6) Challenges in Human Services (7) Defining Counseling (8) Brief history of counseling (9) How counselors help people? (10) How is counseling different from psychotherapy? (11) Major key words in counseling (12) Major perspectives of counseling (13) What do counselors do? (14) Aims of counseling (15) When is counseling needed? (16) Where does counseling take place? (17) Why is counseling needed? (18) Main kinds/types of counseling (19) Different specialties in the field of counseling and work settings (20) References

PART 4: SOCIAL WORK

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) What is Social Work? Definition Generalist Social Work Practice Common Generalist Skills The Values of Social Work Fields of Social Work Substance misuse and Addictions Aging/Gerontology Child Welfare Public Welfare School Social Work Justice/Corrections Developmental Disabilities Employment/Occupational Social Work Health Care Mental Health/Clinical Social Work Community Organization International Social Work Case Study/ Social Workers References

UAE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES DIVISION OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

Introduction to Society and Behavior (HSR 230) The Syllabus

Name of the instructor:...Class room:. Meeting times:..and . Course Description This course will familiarize students with the basic concepts and purposes of Psychology, Sociology, Social Work, and Human Services and Counseling. This course will provide definitions of these four areas, their fields of inquiry, and their roles in studying and addressing behavioral and societal issues. The primary goal of this course is to enable students to recognize the uniqueness of each of the four areas and to appreciate how they interrelate and complement each other in approaching and resolving behavioral and societal problems. Course Objectives: Upon completion of this course, students will be able to: 1. Describe the nature of each of the four disciplines/professions. 2. Explain the uniqueness of each discipline/profession and their relationship to each other. 3. Describe how society, communities, organizations, and groups influence behavior and society. 4. Identify the major organizations and institutions that address behavioral and societal issues in the UAE. 5. Demonstrate critical thinking skills in evaluating and explaining society and human behavior. Learning Outcomes: 1. At the end of this semester students will be able to decide and choose one discipline from the four disciplines (Sociology, Psychology, Human Services and Counseling, and Social Work) as a major. 2. Students will be able to define Sociology, Psychology, Human Services and Counseling, and Social Work. 3. Students will know and differentiate between, the history, the major perspectives, specialization areas, of Sociology, Psychology, Human Services and Counseling, and Social Work. 4. Students will have a clear idea about the types and the nature of the careers in each of the four disciplines. 4

Teaching Methods and Learning Activities: Lecture with class discussion, small group activities, speakers, student-presentations, readings, homework assignments, films and handouts. Class discussion is open and participation is evaluated throughout the semester. Class Attendance and Make-up Exams Policy: Attendance will be taken in every class and the standard University attendance policy will apply in this course; Hirman will be reported when absence reaches 15%. Please refer to the University policy and procedures for attendance and missed exams. Grading Class Participation Assignments & Home works Team Project or Term Paper Midterm Exam Final Exam Total 05 % 15 % 15 % 25 % 40 % 100 % Weekly Schedule Week 1
Part 1 Sociology

Time:. Place:. Time:. Place:.

Welcome to society and behavior (1) Review syllabus and class expectations Assignment 1: in class: Write brief responses to the following statements (3 points): Describe society. Describe behavior. Brief statement about society's functions Readings: The suggested reading of Sociology (2) Definition of Sociology Review homework assignments Class group activity: What is Sociology?

Readings

The suggested new book Sociology Websites: www.asanet.org http://www.dartmouth.edu/~socy/intro.html

(3) Brief History of Sociology The origin of Sociology: Homework: Provide brief written responses to: Who is Ibn Khaldoun Readings: http://www.library.yale.edu/neareast/4_exhibits/IbnKhaldun.htm Week 2 Sociology-continued (1) Ibn Khaldun, the father of Sociology Muqaddimat Ibn Khaldun. Readings The suggested reading material (2) Masters of Sociology (3) The Early European Sociologists 1. August Comte 2. Emile Durkheim 3. Karl Marx 4. Max Weber Class group activity Divide the class into four groups. Assign each group to one of the pioneers of Sociology Readings The suggested reading material The Structure of Sociological Theory, Jonathan H. Turner (Wadsworth 1998) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_sociology Assignment 1 (in class)Write brief responses to the Sociological perspectives (3 points): Websites: http://www.asanet.org http://www.facultydirectory.ucr.edu/cgibin/pub/public_individual.pl?faculty=581 (4) The Sociological Perspectives

Class group activity Divide the class into four groups. Assign each group to one of the perspectives of Sociology, to review assignment # 1. Readings The suggested reading material Sociology, Tenth Edition, John J. Macionis (2005) Pp 19-21. (5) Sociology and other Social Sciences (6) Benefits of the Sociological Perspectives Readings: http://www.asanet.org The Structure of Sociological Theory, Jonathan H. Turner (Wadsworth 1998) http://www2.fmg.uva.nl/sociosite/topics/sociologists.html Provide brief written responses to the following (3 points): 1. How Do I View Myself and My Life from Sociological Point of View 2. How Sociology different from other social sciences Week 3 Sociology-continued Review homework assignments Class group activity: How can Sociology helps people?\ What sociologists do and what do they study? Where do we find Sociologists in the UAE? (1) Benefits of the Sociological Perspectives (2) How Sociology Helps people Assignment 3: How do you apply the sociological perspectives your daily life (3points). Readings: Sociology, Second Edition, Anthony Giddens, Polity Press, 1993. The suggested new book http://www.asanet.org (3) What Do Sociologists Do? (4) Selected Sociological Key Words and concepts Case Studies: Class groups: (i) How can the UAE society solve the problem of high divorce rate, from Sociological point of view? (ii) The population unbalance? Video/ Visitor and or group discussion: Home Assignment: What is Psychology?

Home Assignment 2:

Week 4
Part 2 Psychology

Review homework assignments: What is Psychology? Definitions of psychology and psychologists Brief history: Philosophical and scientific roots, psychoanalysis, behaviorism and cognitivism How psychology helps people? What psychologists do and where they do it? Week 5 Psychology-continued Schools and Perspectives of Psychology: Structuralism, Behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, and Psychoanalysis Specialties in Psychology Fields of Applied Research Week 6 Psychology-continued A psychologists typical day at work Education, training, and qualifications needed to become a psychologist Classic and modern case studies in psychology Reference reviews Week 7
The Midterm

Week 8
Part 3 Human Services and Counseling

Class group activity: Homework assignments will include readings and other activities small group discussions and presentations to class on the following topics: 8

(1) Defining Human Services (2) Brief history of Human Services (3) Functions of Human Services (4) The Human Service professionals (5) Delivery of Human Services (6) Challenges in Human Services (7) Defining Counseling (8) Brief history of counseling (9) How counselors help people? Week 9 Human Services and Counseling Continued Class group activity: Homework assignments will include readings and other activities small group discussions and presentations to class on the following topics: Guest speakers to talk about their work in the field of counseling. (1) How is counseling different from psychotherapy? (2) Major key words in counseling (3) Major perspectives of counseling (4) What do counselors do? (5) Aims of counseling (6) When is counseling needed? (7) Where does counseling take place?

(8) Why is counseling needed? (9) Main kinds/types of counseling (10) Different specialties in the field of counseling and work settings

Week 10 Human Services and Counseling Continued Class group activity: Small group discussions of cases and presentations to class. Small group creation of cases and presentations to class. Feedback and discussions, on the following topics: (1) What are the roles of counselors in the community? (2) Where do counselors work in the UAE and what do they do? (3) Employment opportunities for counselors in the UAE (4) Education, Training, and Qualifications of Counselors (5) Videos of counseling sessions (6) Case studies in the field of counseling:

Home Assignment: What is Social Work? Week 11

Part 4 Social Work

Review homework assignments: What is Social Work? Small group discussions of cases and presentations to class, on the following topics (1) What is Social Work?

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(2) Defining Generalist Social Work Practice

Week 12 Social Work Continued Small group discussions of cases and presentations to class, on the following topics (1) Common Generalist Skills (2) The Values of Social Work

Week 13 Social Work Continued Small group discussions of cases and presentations to class, on the following topics (3) Fields of Social Work (4) CASE STUDY: UAE SOCIAL WORKER

Week 14, 15 and 16 Sociology Psychology Social Work Human Services and Counseling Groups Term Project Presentations Interdisciplinary perspectives on behavioral / societal issues

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Final Exams

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The Introduction Welcome to this interdisciplinary course. This course is meant to help the new students to the Faculty of Humanities and Social Studies to choose their majors. The course gives a good opportunity to the students to study four major disciplines in social sciences, namely Sociology, Social Work, Counseling, and Psychology. "This course was a part from the department courses. In the new vision of the faculty & general Education it was moved from the department to General education. In the new vision of the General Education courses has to be in the department's curriculum. This course is suitable with the aims & outcomes of general education. It was recommended strongly to continue in new vision of general education. The students are in need to study it inside & outside the department." Each discipline shall be dealt separately. Since it is an introductory course, the course shall confine itself to the major issues in each discipline. So the students shall be able to differentiate between the definition of each discipline, their history, their benefits to people, their major perspectives, areas of specialization, and areas of each discipline. This is a very

interesting and unique course; it is interesting because students shall learn the basics of four different social sciences; and it is unique because it is the first time to put so much material about four social sciences in one reading book; in addition to that it is taught by a number of professors from these sciences, enjoy it. This reading material is prepared by four professors from the four Departments of the disciplines; they are (alphabetically), Dr Ambr Haque Dr. Leon Holtzhausen, Dr. Musa Shallal, and Dr. Sofoh Hassane. Musa Shallal The course coordinator

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Behavior and Society What is Behavior? Behavior refers to the actions or reactions of an organism, usually in relation to the environment. Behavior can be conscious or unconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary. In animals, behavior is controlled by the endocrine system and the nervous system. Human behavior (and that of other organisms and mechanisms) can be common, unusual, acceptable, or unacceptable. Humans evaluate the acceptability of behavior using social norms and regulate behavior by means of social control. Animal behavior is studied in comparative psychology, ethology, behavioral ecology and sociobiology. What is Society? Society:
(1) (2) (3)

Living in a particular geographical area (marked by physical borders). Subject to a common form of government (monarchy, parliament, etc.). Aware of having a distinct identity from other groups (societies) around them.

In addition society consists of a group of people who share:

(1) (2)

Common language and Common traditions, and customs (or culture).

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In terms of the above, therefore, the definition of a society is quite broad. It is a definition that could include relatively small groups of people (tribal societies) or millions of people (modern societies such as Britain, China and America). However, we need to add a further dimension to the definition, since the main area of interest for sociologists is not what society is (in the sense of its physical definition), but rather what the effects of living in a social group like a society might be on individual human behavior.

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Sociology

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What is Sociology? (1) Sociology is defined as the systematic study of how human societies shape the lives of people who live in them. People make lots of decisions in the course of living every day. But we make these decisions within the context of "society;" our family, school, nation and the larger world. The essential wisdom of sociology is; the social world guides our life choices just as the seasons influence our selection of activities and clothing. (2) Sociology is a social science concerned with the study of human social relationships and the various ways these relationships are patterned in terms of social groups, organizations, cultures and societies. (3) A major focus of attention for sociologists is on the way people form relationships and how these relationships, considered in their totality, are represented by the concept of a "society". (4) In their work, sociologists attempt to distinguish between knowledge based on facts and knowledge based on opinions. The former type of knowledge is generally considered to have greater validity than the latter. (5) The general sociological perspective is one that stresses the idea that human social behavior is learned, not instinctive. In order to understand human social behavior we have to focus our attention on the groups to which people belong and, in this respect, Sociology is a perspective that looks at the totality of relationships in an individuals life. (6) Sociological knowledge is different from Naturalistic or Common-sense forms of knowledge; in this respect we can note the following:

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A.. The purpose of sociology is to add to the sum total of human knowledge about our behavior. B. Knowledge that is produced through testing and examination helps us to explain more than knowledge that is simply based on faith, assertion or opinion. C. Knowledge that "everyone knows" is not by definition false. The objective of all social science is to produce valid knowledge - knowledge that paints an accurate picture of human behavior, meanings and motives (thereby adding to the sum total of what "everyone knows" to be true in a society). (B) The Origin of Sociology First: There is evidence of early Muslim sociology from the 14th century: Ibn Khaldun, in his Muqaddimah, the introduction to a seven volume analysis of universal history, was the first to advance social philosophy in formulating theories of social cohesion and social conflict. The Muqaddimah is viewed as the earliest work on sociology, and Ibn Khaldun is hence regarded as the father of sociology (Shall be discussed later). Second: Striking transformations during the eighteen and nineteenth centuries greatly changed European society. Three changes were especially important in the developing of sociology. They were: the rise of industrial economy, the growth of cities, and the new democratic ideas. (1) The rise of a factory-based industrial economy: During the Middle Ages in Europe, most people titled fields near their homes or engaged in small-scale manufacturing. By the end of eighteenth centuries new sources of

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energy were invented (the power of moving water and then steam). These inventions enabled people to operate large machines in factories. Instead of laboring at home or in groups, workers became part of large labor force in factories. This change in the system of production separated families and weakened the traditions that had governed community life for centuries. (2) The Growth of Cities: Across Europe, factories drew people in need of work. In addition, the landowners turned farms into grazing land for sheep, the source of wool for the thriving textile mills. Without land, farmers left the countryside in search of work in the new factories. As cities grew bigger in size, the new urban population contended with mounting social problems, including pollution, crime, and homelessness. (3) Political Change (new ideas about democracy): During the middle Ages, peoples viewed society as an expression of Gods will. But economic development and the rapid growth of cities soon brought new political ideas. By about 1600 a number of writers shifted their focus to the margins of society because of their gender or race-have made. Many scientists in addition to the French Revolution, which began in 1789 brought dramatic change in political and social tradition in almost all human race. (C) A New Awareness of Society Huge factories, exploding cities, a new spirit of individualism-these changes combined to make people aware of their surroundings. While these were happening, the new discipline of sociology was born in England, France, and Germany where changes

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were greatest. These facts help to explain why early sociologists were, on the whole, critical of modern society. First: The term Sociology: The discipline of sociology emerged as a product of particular social forces in Europe during the nineteenth century. French sociologist Auguste Comte coined the term sociology in 1838. Second: Science and Sociology Prior to the nineteenth century philosophers used only philosophical and theological perspectives in their studies, concentrating on the imaginary "ideal" rather than on the analysis of what society was really like. Sociology emerged as focus was given to understanding how society actually operates. Auguste Comte argued for a scientific approach in studying society. He divided history into three distinct eras, which he labeled the theological stage, the metaphysical stage, and the scientific stage (these stages later will be discussed later). Comte thus favored positivism, or an approach to understanding the world based on science. But, Sociology emerged in the United States as an academic discipline during the early twentieth century.

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Ibn Khaldoun (1332-1406) The father of Sociology His name is Ab Zayd Abdu r-Rahman bin Muhammad bin Khaldn. He was born Tunisia in May 27, 1332 ADMarch 19, 1406 AD. He is considered the forerunner of several social scientific disciplines: demography, cultural history, historiography, the philosophy of history, sociology, and modern economics. He is sometimes considered to be a "father" of these disciplines, or even the social sciences in general, for anticipating many elements of these disciplines centuries before they were founded. Ibn Khaldn's main work was originally conceived as a history of the Berbers. It is divided into seven books: 1. the first of which, the Muqaddimah, can be considered a separate work. 2. Books two to five cover the history of mankind up to the time of Ibn Khaldn. 3. Books six and seven cover the history of the Berber peoples and of the Maghreb. Al Muqaddimah (:) Al Muqaddimah is essentially a sociological work; six books of general sociology. Included topics include politics, urban life, economics, and knowledge. The work is based around Ibn Khaldun's central concept of 'asabiyyah (, :) which has been translated as "social cohesion", "group solidarity", "blood ties," or

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"tribalism ( ".)This social cohesion arises spontaneously in tribes and other small kinship groups; and it can be intensified and enlarged by a religious ideology. Ibn Khaldun's analysis looks at how this cohesion carries groups to power but contains within itself the seeds - psychological, sociological, economic, political - of the group's downfall, to be replaced by a new group, dynasty or empire bound by a stronger (or at least younger and more vigorous) cohesion. Ibn Khaldoun and the discipline of sociology: (1) Concerning the discipline of sociology it is interesting to note that he conceived of a theory of social conflict. He developed the dichotomy of "town" versus "desert," as well as the concept of a "generation," and the inevitable loss of power that occurs when desert warriors conquer a city.

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The Masters of Sociology Auguste Comte (1798 1857)

Auguste Comte was a French thinker who is generally famous for brought up the term "sociology. Comte is generally regarded as the first Western sociologist (Ibn Khaldun having preceded him in the East by nearly four centuries). Someof his ideas are summarized as follows: (1) He established the subject of Sociology in the middle of the 18th century. (2) Comte ses "sociology" as the umbrella under which all the social sciences -including economics -- would be considered. (3) He believed that generally society goes through three phases or the 'law of three phases (stages)': i. Theological Stage Iin this stage man blindly believed in whatever he was taught by his ancestors. He believed in a supernatural power. ii. Metaphysical stage In this stage is known as the stage of investigation, because people started reasoning and questioning things, although no solid evidence was laid.

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iii. Scientific Stage, In this stage people could find solutions to social problems and bring them into force despite the proclamations of human rights or prophecy of the will of God. Science started to answer questions in full stretch. (4) He introduced the important relationship between theory, practice and human understanding of the world through his explanation of the Positive philosophy. (5) Comte saw sociology, as the last and greatest of all sciences, one that would include all other sciences, and which would integrate and relate their findings into a cohesive whole. (6) His emphasis on the interconnectedness of social elements was a forerunner of modern functionalism.

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KARL MARX (1818 - 1883)

Karl Marx is a German philosopher lived during the nineteenth century, which was the time of spread of capitalism in Europe and the United Sates. He is considered as philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary. He addressed a wide range of political as well as social issues, and is known for, amongst other things, his analysis of history. His approach is indicated by the opening line of the The Communist Manifesto (1848): The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Marx believed that capitalism, like previous socioeconomic systems, will produce internal tensions which will lead to its destruction. He believed that social scientists should work for the better society, and his personal goal was to free workers from poverty and oppression brought by industrialization. So many people agree that Marx is one of the social thinkers who have had the greatest impact on the people around the world. Some of his ideas are summarized as follows:

(A) Social Change: (1) Carl Marx stated that the history of all societies is the history of class struggles.

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(2) He divided society into two classes, those who have and those who have not. Those who have own the means of production (factories, lands); he named them the bourgeoisie, and he named those who work for them the proletariat. (3) According to this theory the social change happens as the result of class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie over the means of production. (4) According to Marxs ideas all transformations in society is due to conflict. (B) Alienation: (1) Carl Marx believed that the system of capitalism transforms work from something meaningful to something meaningless, because the system is driven by profits; workers become mere machines in human form. (2) In the capitalist society, Marx believed that workers view themselves as a. commodity, a source of labor, bought by capitalists and thrown away when they are no longer needed, (3) He recognized a crucial weakness in industrial society, such as impersonal, meaningless nature of work, and the alienation that results from it.

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EMILE DURKHEIM 1858 1917

Emile Durkheim was a French sociologist whose contributions were instrumental in the formation of sociology and anthropology. He is credited for establishing sociology within academia as an accepted social science. During his lifetime, Durkheim gave many lectures, and published numerous sociological studies on subjects such as education, crime, religion, suicide, and many other aspects of society. Here are some selections of his ideas: (1) He is considered as one of the founding fathers of sociology and solidarism. (2) Durkheim was concerned primarily with how societies could maintain their integrity and coherence in the modern era, when things such as shared religious and ethnic background could no longer be assumed. (1) In order to study social life in modern societies, Durkheim sought to create one of the first scientific approaches to social phenomena. (2) Along with the scientist Herbert Spencer, Durkheim was one of the first people to explain the existence and quality of different parts of a society by reference to what function they served in keeping the society healthy and balanced,

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(3) Unlike the other Sociologists of his time, he focused not on what motivates the actions of individual people (methodological individualism), but rather on the study of social facts. (4) is work The Division of Labor in Society, He focused on the division of labor, and examined how it differed in traditional societies from modern societies. (5) He argued that traditional societies were 'mechanical' held together by the fact that everyone was more or less the same, and had things in common. (6) In modern societies, he argued, the highly complex division of labor resulted in 'organic' solidarity. Different specializations in employment and social roles created dependencies that tied people to one another, since people no longer could count on filling all of their needs by themselves. His theory of Suicide: (1) Durkheim used official statistics to carry out a study into suicide. He found that people who are not integrated into the society that they live in are more likely to kill themselves. He stated that there are four types of suicide i. Egoistic suicide: This is where people kill themselves for their own individual interest. This usually occurs in societies where social bonds are weak with a low level of social integration due to emphasis put onto individual rights, welfare and interests. ii. Altruistic suicides: This occurs in societies that see individual needs as less important than the societies as a whole.

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iii.

Anomic suicides: For this type of suicide, Durkheim pointed out that people are naturally selfish and put their own needs and interests first.

iv.

Fatalistic suicide: This type of suicide seems to occur in overly oppressive societies, causing people to prefer to die than to carry on living within this society.

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MAX WEBER 1864 1920

(1) Maximilian Carl Emil Weber was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered one of the founders of the modern study of sociology and public administration. (2) Weber's major works deal with rationalization in sociology of religion and government. (3) His most famous work is his essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, which began his work in the sociology of religion. (4) His work on religion had led to the development of capitalism, bureaucracy and the rational-legal state in the West. (5) In another major work, Politics as a Vocation, Weber defined the state as an entity which claims a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force, a definition that became the foundation of modern Western political science. (6) His most known contributions are often referred to as the 'Weber Thesis' The Major Sociological Perspectives1

http://www.sociology.org.uk

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Definition of Sociological Perspective A perspective can be broadly defined as "a way of looking at and seeing (or interpreting) something". To have a perspective, therefore, means to look at something, (whatever that thing might be) in a particular way. For sociologists, the "thing" we are looking at is the social world and, in particular, the nature of the relationships people forms in their everyday lives. Thus, when we talk about "society" or "the social world" as if it were something real and alive, what we are actually referring-to is our particular perception of the range and scope of the relationships that exist between people in any given society which is the real object of study for Sociologists. When we talk about the sociological perspective, therefore, we are talking about the particular way that sociologists, as opposed to non-sociologists, try to understand human social behavior and the relationships this presupposes. This is not to say that all sociologists necessarily look at the social world from exactly the same perspective (or viewpoint), nor that sociologists are always in complete agreement about what they are seeing, how behavior could or should be understood and so forth. The sociological perspective actually consists of a number of quite different sub-perspectives. Sociologists who subscribe to the general ideas involved in these sub-perspectives are all involved in the same basic task (understanding social relationships and behavior) and are all looking at much the same sort of things; however, the way different groups

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of sociologists interpret what they see means that we can only really talk about the sociological perspective in the most general of terms. Having said this, it is evident that sociologists generally look at social relationships in a different way to both other academics (economists, philosophers, human biologists and the like) and people in general. It is, therefore, possible and probably desirable, to identify a number of common ideas to which most, if not all, sociologists would subscribe.

Sociology and other Social sciences Common Ideas It is evident that most, if not all, sociologists share some fundamental beliefs about the social world and the people who create it. We could, for example, note the following examples: a. Human beings are social animals: That is, we have to co-operate with others in some way to produce the social world in which we live. b. Human social behavior is learned, not instinctive. In this respect, the argument is that we have to learn, from the moment we are born, how to be not just a human being but also a recognizable member of the society and culture into which we happen to have been born.

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c. To understand human social behavior we have to focus our attention on the groups to which people belong. These groups are many and varied, as we will see in a moment, but the largest group to which people belong is a society. d. Sociology is the study of all the relationships in an individuals life. In this respect, sociologists do not restrict their studies to a single dimension of an individuals life (work, political behavior, family / life history, geography, individual psychology and so forth). Although each of these is significant and interesting, to varying degrees, it is only by looking at how these relationships develop, combine and influence each other that we can arrive at a complete picture of human social behavior. In this respect, Sociology represents a subject that aims to understand the totality of human social relationships, rather than the various aspects of these relationships that is the focus of other social sciences.

The Major Sociological Perspectives2 It is important to know that not all Sociologists agree on how they see the social world. Because of that, and other reasons, we defined three broad categories of sociological perspectives; or three ways of how to see the social world. (1) Functionalism (2) Conflict Theory (3) Interactionism

http://www.sociology.org.uk

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Now, let us look briefly to each one of these three perspectives separately, first Functionalism perspective. Functionalism This group of sociologists sees society as being like a living person. Just as all the different organs in a human body (heart, brain, lungs, etc.) work together in harmony, so all the different parts of society (work, government, education, religion etc.) are seen to work together in harmony. As in a human body, each part of society depends on the other parts of society, on the basis of: Social needs and Social purposes that fulfill those needs.

For example, work needs people who are socialized into the values and norms of society and the family exists for the purpose of fulfilling that need. Just like in a human body, if one part of society stops working in the way that it should, problems are created in that society. From this perspective, everything in society has a purpose or function (which is where the term Functionalism comes from). The basic values of this perspective emphasize the idea of harmony and social consensus based around shared values. The second perspective is the Conflict perspective. Conflict Theory

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This group of sociologists sees society as being made-up of very large social groups (called social classes) who each have different experiences and interests. These classes are defined in terms of the different types of work that they do. Usually, three great classes are defined in this way: (1) An upper or ruling class - this consists of people with great wealth who own factories, Companies, land, and so forth. (2) A middle class - this consists of professional workers such as lawyers, doctors and accountants. These people do not own the businesses they work for and they achieve their position through the gaining of educational qualifications. (3) A working or lower class - this consists of people who do not own businesses and have few, if any educational qualifications. This group are mainly manual workers in society From this perspective, people are seen to be encouraged, through the socialization process, to be competitive. This is because everyone is trying to either get the most that they can out of life or they are trying to prevent others taking away the things they have. In this respect, Conflict sociologists emphasize conflicts in society (between social classes, between men and women, between different ethnic groups). Although there are shared values in society, Conflict Theorists argue that this is because the very powerful (members of the ruling class) are able to impose their values on the rest of society (through institutions such as the media, religion and so forth).

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Like the Functionalist perspective, Conflict Theorists argue that society is a force that pressurizes the individual to do things - like go to work, attend school, compete with and try to exploit others. The third perspective is the Interactionalism: Interactionism This group of sociologists sees the social world in a different way to sociologists in the first two groups. They tend to focus on the individual, rather than "society", looking in particular at the way we create the social world through our behavior (rather than looking at how society creates the individual). From this perspective, society is not a living thing, but a fiction we create to try to make our lives orderly and predictable. Society, therefore, cannot force us to do anything, since it is only real for as long as we care to pretend that it is real. This pretence is helped by the fact that we lock ourselves into various social relationships (roles that involve rules and routines). Social life is much less predictable from this point of view and the focus on individual lives and relationships places the emphasis upon investigating the way people live their daily lives as individuals and as part of wider social groups. The focus on what is called "small-scale social interaction" can be seen by comparing the way the different perspectives would look at the education system in our society.

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BENEFITS OF THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 3 The sociological perspective helps us to asses the truth of common sense. (1) Sociological perspectives give us the tools that help to find out whether the commonly held beliefs are actually true, and why people hold them. (2) The sociological perspective helps us see the opportunities and constraints in our lives. o With Sociology we can evaluate our world so we can effectively achieve the goals that we set for ourselves. (3) The sociological perspective empowers us to be active participants in our society. o With The sociological perspective we may be able to have a better understanding to our society, how it works; and how to be more active citizens. (4) The sociological perspective helps us live in a diverse world. o The sociological perspective encourages to critically evaluating our own life and the lives of other who share the society with us. Sociological Theory A theory is a statement of how and why specific facts are related. The job of sociological theory is to explain social behavior in the real world. To evaluate a theory, sociologists gather evidences using various methods of scientific research. Research allows sociologists to confirm some theories while rejecting or modifying others (e.g. Durkheims theory of suicide).

From, John Macionis, Sociology, 10th Edition, 2005

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How Sociology helps people? Sociology as a core discipline in the social sciences contributes to an understanding of societal dynamics. In the nineteenth century, sociology emerged to study the large scale social changes brought about by the industrial revolution. As we enter the twenty first century we face rapid change, conflict and dislocation in the world. Sociology provides the intellectual tools to understand these processes. By studying sociology you enhance your understanding of society and will be equipped with analytical skills to participate in public debates on societal issues. Selected Social Problems and their Solutions:4 The American sociologist Talcott Parsons (1902 - 1979) has suggested a solution to the problem of understanding how and why human behavior is socially organized (that is, why clear patterns of behavior develop amongst human beings). He outlined the following basic nature of the "problems" (economic problem, political problem, cultural problem, and family) faced by people in any social system and suggest possible "solutions" to them. Parsons termed these sub-systems "functional prerequisites" because: Firstly, because each sub-system must be present in a society (a prerequisite for the existence of a social system) and, Secondly, because each sub-system connected to the other sub-systems in a way that contributed to the overall functioning of the social system. The Functionalism perspective and the other Sociological perspectives shall be discussed later chapters.

Sociology, Tenth Edition, John J. Macionis (2005)

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Problems and Solutions

Problem 1: The economic problem of how to produce the things that are needed for human survival.

Solution Society has to develop a division of labor by organizing people into work-related roles and relationships. This is initially the basis for the production of the things needed for physical survival (food, shelter, clothing and the like). Society has to develop ways of governing and controlling people's behavior. In our society, these controls are organized in terms of government (law-making), the police, the courts and so forth. Some way has to be found to develop values and norms that people feel they have in common. Cultural solutions, therefore, focus on the various ways common values can be created and propagated. In our society, for example, cultural institutions that attempt to perform this function include the education system, the mass media, religions and so forth. Some way of ensuring that children are raised in ways that allow them to learn the culture of the society into which they were born has to be developed. In our society, for example, a child's natural parents normally take-on this role.

2. The political problem of how to ensure that society is orderly and stable. The problem here, therefore, is own of government and control over people's behavior. In short, there is the need to enforce rules of acceptable behavior. 3. The cultural problem of how to make people feel they have things in common with other people. How, in short, to make people feel that they belong to a society and common culture.

4. The family problem of how to ensure that children are born (physical reproduction) and looked after (physically and in terms of their primary socialization) in a way that allows them to grow into functioning adult members of society (social reproduction).

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What Do Sociologists Do? (A) You may ask yourself What can I do with a BA in sociology?" As a strong liberal arts major, sociology provides several answers to this important question:

A BA in sociology is excellent preparation for future graduate work in sociology in order to become a professor, researcher, or applied sociologist.

The undergraduate degree provides strong liberal arts preparation for entry level positions throughout the business, social service, and government worlds. Employers look for people with the skills that an undergraduate education in sociology provides.

Since its subject matter is intrinsically fascinating, sociology offers valuable preparation for careers in journalism, politics, public relations, business, or public administration--fields that involve investigative skills and working with diverse groups.

Many students choose sociology because they see it as a broad liberal arts base for professions such as law, education, medicine, social work, and counseling. Sociology provides a rich fund of knowledge that directly pertains to each of these fields.

(B) OR You may ask yourself "What can I do with an MA or PhD degree in sociology?"

Sociologists become high school teachers or faculty in colleges and universities, advising students, conducting research, and publishing their work.

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Sociologists enter the corporate, non-profit, and government worlds as directors of research, policy analysts, consultants, human resource managers, and program managers.

Practicing sociologists with advanced degrees may be called research analysts, survey researchers, gerontologists, statisticians, urban planners, community developers, criminologists, or demographers.

Some MA and PhD sociologists obtain specialized training to become counselors, therapists, or program directors in social service agencies. Today, sociologists embark upon literally hundreds of career paths. In some

sectors, sociologists work closely with economists, political scientists, anthropologists, psychologists, social workers, and others, reflecting a growing appreciation of sociology's contributions to interdisciplinary analysis. What sociologists study?
(1)

Sociology is the study of the social world. It involves studying human beings and their patterns of behavior. In order to do this, we focus on the way people form relationships and how these relationships, considered in their totality, are represented by the concept of a "society".

(2)

In this respect, the focus of the sociologists attention is group behavior. That is, the effect that the groups people either create / join or are born into (family, work, education and peer groups, for example) have upon peoples behavior.

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Different Specialties in Sociology

Architecture, Sociology of Art, Sociology of Body, Sociology of Business, Sociology of Childhood, Sociology of Collective behavior Communication, Sociology of Comparative sociology Computational sociology Consumption, Sociology of Criminology Culture, Sociology of Demography Development, Sociology of Deviance, Sociology of Disaster, Sociology of Dramaturgical sociology Economic sociology, sociology of Economic development Education, Sociology of Emotions, Sociology of Environmental sociology (sociology of Human ecology) Ethnicity, Sociology of Evolutionary sociology Family, Sociology of the Fatherhood, Sociology of Feminist sociology Film, Sociology of Food, Sociology of Gender, Sociology of (Sociology of sex roles) Gerontology (Sociology of Aging) Globalization, Sociology of Historical sociology History of science, Sociology of the Human sociobiology Immigration, Sociology of Industrial sociology also known as Sociology of industrial relations or Sociology of work Internet, sociology of Interpersonal relationships Knowledge, Sociology of Language, Sociology of Law, Sociology of Leisure, Sociology of

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Literature, Sociology of Markets, Sociology of, also known as Behavioral finance Masculinity, Sociology of Mathematical sociology Media, Sociology of Medicine, Sociology of also known as Sociology of medicine. See also Sociology of health and illness Memory, Sociology of Migration, Sociology of Military, Sociology of the Music, Sociology of Organizations, Sociology of Peace, war, and social conflict, Sociology of Political sociology also known as Sociology of politics, Sociology of government or Sociology of the state Popular culture, Sociology of Program evaluation Public sociology Punishment, Sociology of Pure sociology Race, Sociology of Racial and ethnic relations Religion, Sociology of Rural sociology Science and technology, Sociology of Social Class Social demography (also known as Sociology of demography, see also demography) Social geography Social movements Social psychology (sociology) Social research Social stratification Selected Sociological Key Words and concepts

(1) Socialization Process Learning how to become human and to behave in ways that accord with the general expectations of others (in short, to be socialized) is a process that begins at birth and continues throughout our life.

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(2) Social Control Social control is one of the key concepts in social sciences. It is used to refer to some form of organized reaction to deviant, criminal, or troublesome behavior. (3) Norms Norms are defined as the expectation shared by members of group or collectivity that more or less effectively determine individual. (4) Values Values are culturally defined standards of desirability, goodness, and beauty that serve as broad guidelines for social life. (5) Beliefs Beliefs are symbolic statements about what is real, such as There is a God, there are twelve inches in a roller. (6) Culture Culture is the beliefs, values, behavior, and material objects shared by a particular people. Sociologists distinguished between material culture and nonmaterial culture. Material culture is tangible products of human societies (e.g. tents). Nonmaterial culture is the intangible creations of human societies (e.g. ideas). (7) Cultural Lag Cultural lag is the disruption in a cultural system resulting from the unequal rates at which different cultural elements change (e.g material elements & nonmaterial elements).

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(8) Culture Shock Culture shock is a personal experience that accompanies exposure to an unfamiliar way of life. (9) Socialization Socialization is the lifelong social experience by which individuals develop human potential and learn the patterns of their culture. (10) Race Race is a category made up of people (men & women) who share biologically transmitted traits believed to be socially significant. (11) Minority Minority is a category of people (men and women), distinguished by physical or cultural traits, who are socially deprived. (12) Stereotype Stereotype is a set of generalization concerning some group of people (13) Kinship Kinship is the social ties based on blood, marriage, or adoption. (14) Social Roles it represents the way that someone is expected to behave in a particular social situation. Roles, therefore, are the parts we play in our relationships with others and this idea is similar to that of an actor playing a part in a play. (15) Social Groups

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A family group - people who are related to each other through marriage, kin. An educational group -people studying together in the same educational school, college or class. A work group -people who do the same type of job. A peer group - people of roughly the same age. A friendship group - people who go around together because they like each other.

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REFERENCES References about sociology Sociology, Tenth Edition, John J. Macionis (2005) Abrams, Philip. Historical Sociology (Cornell Univ. Press, 1983). Chambliss, Rollin. Social Thought: From Hammurabi to Comte (Irvington, 1982). Doob, C.B. Sociology: An Introduction (Harper, 1988). Henslin, J.M. Down to Earth Sociology: Introductory Readings (Free Press, 1988). Larson, C.J. Sociological Theory from the Enlightenment to the Present (General Hall, 1987). Mitchell, D.F. Urban Sociology (Macmillan, 1988). Human Arrangements, Allan G Johnson, Harcourt Brace Inc, N.Y. 1992 Masters of Sociological Thought, Lewis A. Coser, Harcourt Brace Inc., 1977 The Penguin Dictionary of Sociology, Four Edition, Nicholas Abercrombie, Stephen Hill and Bryan Turner, 2000. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subfields_of_sociology http://en.wikipedia.org http://www.asanet.org/index.ww http://www.library.yale.edu/neareast/4_exhibits/IbnKhaldun.htm

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PSYCHOLOGY

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PSYCHOLOGY

What is Psychology5 Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the phenomenological and scientific study of mental processes and behavior. Psychologists study such concepts as perception, cognition, emotion, personality, behavior, interpersonal relationships, and the individual and collective unconscious. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity including issues related to daily lifee.g. family, education, and workand the treatment of mental health problems. Psychology attempts to understand the role these functions play in social behavior and in social dynamics, while incorporating the underlying physiological and neurological processes into its conceptions of mental functioning. Psychology includes many sub-fields of study and application concerned with such areas as human development, sports, health, industry, media, law. Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. The discipline embraces all aspects of the human experience from the functions of the brain to the actions of nations, from child development to care for the aged. In every conceivable setting from scientific research centers to mental health care services, "the understanding of behavior" is the enterprise of psychologists.

Note: The primary sources of information in this section are the wikipedia free encyclopedia, the American Psychological Association, and few other Internet resources. The reason for choosing these resources is to keep the information simple as well as reliable. Many internet sites are given below for easy student access. This information is temporary until a formal textbook is prepared and introduced for the above course. Instructors may add materials in class as appropriate. Instructors and students may also build upon these sources to suit the level of class needs and student interest

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Definition of "psychologist" APA policy on the use of the title "psychologist" is contained in the General Guidelines for Providers of Psychological Services, which define the term "Professional Psychologist" as follows: "Psychologists have a doctoral degree in psychology from an organized, sequential program in a regionally accredited university or professional school." APA is not responsible for the specific title or wording of any particular position opening, but it is general pattern to refer to master's-level positions as counselors, specialists, clinicians, and so forth (rather than as "psychologists"). In addition, it is general practice to refer to APA accredited programs as "APA-accredited" rather than "APA approved." The position as described must be in conformity with the statute regulating the use of the title psychologist and the practice of psychology in the state in which the job is available.

Brief history of psychology Philosophical and scientific roots The study of psychology in a philosophical context dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China and India. Psychology began adopting a more clinical[1] and experimental[2] approach under medieval Muslim psychologists and physicians, who built psychiatric hospitals for such purposes.[3] Though the use of psychological experimentation dates back to Alhazen's Book of Optics in 1021,[2][4] psychology as an independent experimental field of study began in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to

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psychological research at Leipzig University in Germany, for which Wundt is known as the "father of psychology".[5] 1879 is thus sometimes regarded as the "birthdate" of psychology. The American philosopher William James published his seminal book, Principles of Psychology,[6] in 1890, while laying the foundations for many of the questions that psychologists would focus on for years to come. Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (18501909), a pioneer in the experimental study of memory at the University of Berlin; and the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), who investigated the learning process now referred to as classical conditioning. Psychoanalysis During the 1890s, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed a method of psychotherapy known as psychoanalysis. Freud's understanding of the mind was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations, and was focused in particular on resolving unconscious conflict, mental distress and psychopathology. Freud's theories became very well-known, largely because they tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Freud also had a significant influence on Carl Jung, whose analytical psychology became an alternative form of depth psychology. Philosopher Karl Popper argued that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were presented in untestable form.[7] Due to their subjective nature, Freud's theories are often of limited interest to many scientifically-oriented psychology

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departments. Followers of Freud who accept the basic ideas of psychoanalysis but alter it in some way are called neo-Freudians. Modification of Jung's theories has led to the archetypal and process-oriented schools of psychological thought.

Behaviorism Partly in opposition to the subjective and introspective nature of Freudian psychodynamics, and its focus on the recollection of childhood experiences, during the early decades of the 20th century, behaviorism gained popularity as a guiding psychological theory. Founded by John B. Watson and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B.F. Skinner, behaviorism was grounded in animal experimentation in the laboratory. Behaviorists shared the view that the subject matter of psychology should be operationalized with standardized procedures which led psychology to focus on behavior, not the mind or consciousness.[8] They doubted the validity of introspection for studying internal mental states such as feelings, sensations, beliefs, desires, and other unobservable entities.[8] In "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It" (1913),[9] Watson argued that psychology "is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science," that "introspection forms no essential part of its methods," and that "the behaviorist recognizes no dividing line between man and brute." Skinner rejected hypothesis testing as a research method, considering it to be too conducive to speculative theories that would promote useless research and stifle good research.[10] Behaviorism was the dominant paradigm in American psychology throughout the first half of the 20th century. However, the modern field of psychology is largely

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dominated by cognitive psychology. Linguist Noam Chomsky helped spark the cognitive revolution in psychology through his review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, in which he challenged the behaviorist approach to the study of behavior and language dominant in the 1950s. Chomsky was highly critical of what he considered arbitrary notions of 'stimulus', 'response' and 'reinforcement' which Skinner borrowed from animal experiments in the laboratory. Chomsky argued that Skinner's notions could only be applied to complex human behavior, such as language acquisition, in a vague and superficial manner. Chomsky emphasized that research and analysis must not ignore the contribution of the child in the acquisition of language and proposed that humans are born with an natural ability to acquire language.[11] Work most associated with psychologist Albert Bandura, who initiated and studied social learning theory, showed that children could learn aggression from a role model through observational learning, without any change in overt behavior, and so must be accounted for by internal processes.[12] Existentialism and humanism Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis, arising largely from the existential philosophy of writers such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Sren Kierkegaard. By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach seeks to glimpse the whole person--not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning.[13] Humanism focuses on uniquely human issues and fundamental issues of life, such as selfidentity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. Some of the founding theorists behind

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this school of thought were Abraham Maslow who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, Carl Rogers who created and developed Client-centered therapy, and Fritz Perls who helped create and develop Gestalt therapy. It became so influential as to be called the "third force" within psychology (along with behaviorism and psychoanalysis).[14] Cognitivism As computer technology proliferated, so emerged the metaphor of mental function as information processing. This, combined with a scientific approach to studying the mind, as well as a belief in internal mental states, led to the rise of cognitivism as a popular model of the mind. Cognitive psychology differs from other psychological perspectives in two key ways. First, it accepts the use of the scientific method, and generally rejects introspection as a method of investigation, unlike symbol-driven approaches such as Freudian psychodynamics. Second, it explicitly acknowledges the existence of internal mental states (such as belief, desire and motivation), whereas behaviorism does not. Links between brain and nervous system function also became understood, partly due to the experimental work of people such as Charles Sherrington and Donald Hebb, and partly due to studies of people with brain injury (see cognitive neuropsychology). With the development of technologies for measuring brain function, neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience have become increasingly active areas of contemporary psychology. Cognitive psychology has been subsumed along with other disciplines, such as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the umbrella discipline of cognitive science.

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4. How psychology helps people? From learning to treat one person at a time, to helping individuals and families better manage everyday issues, or working within a large organization, psychology provides an education that can lead to a career of caring in an environment of success. A psychology curriculum provides students with current and relevant skills needed to become successful practitioners within the psychology and human service fields. It also focuses on the development of interpersonal effectivenessstudents develop and improve positive relationship-building skills through effective communication, respect for others, cultural sensitivity, and awareness of their impact on others. What Psychologists Do and Where They Do It Psychology is an extraordinarily diverse field with hundreds of career paths. Some specialties, like caring for people with mental and emotional disorders, are familiar to most of us. Others, like helping with the design of advanced computer systems or studying how we remember things, are less well known. What all psychologists have in common is a shared interest in the minds and behaviors of both humans and animals. In their work, they draw on an ever-expanding body of scientific knowledge about how we think, act, and feel, and apply the information to their special areas of expertise. In addition to their particular mix of science and practice, psychologists can be distinguished in terms of where they work. Many psychologists work in more than one setting. For instance, college professors often consult for industry or see clients on a part-

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time basis. Although it's possible to identify a host of different work settings, for the purpose of this booklet, we'll consider some of the most prominent examples. Psychologists Conduct Research Many psychologists conduct research that runs the gamut from studies of basic brain functions to individual behavior to the behavior of complex social organizations. Subjects of such scientific study include animals, human infants, well-functioning and emotionally disturbed people, elderly people, students, workers, and just about every other population one can imagine. Some research takes place in laboratories where the study conditions can be carefully controlled; some is carried out in the field, such as the workplace, the highway, schools, and hospitals, where behavior is studied as it occurs naturally. Much of the laboratory research is conducted in universities, government agencies (such as the National Institutes of Health and the armed services), and private research organizations. Whereas most psychological scientists are engaged in the actual planning and conduct of research, some are employed in management or administrationusually after having served as active researchers. Read about psychologists who conduct research Psychologists Study Social Development Developmental psychologists study the many behavioral and psychological changes that occur throughout the life span. Read about psychologists who study social development

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Psychologists Help People Learn Psychologists provide a number of servicesboth direct and indirectto children, youth, and families in schools at all levels, from nursery school through college. Many focus on improving the effectiveness of teaching and student learning, frequently by studying motivation and cognitive processes in the classroom. School psychologists also provide counseling and crisis intervention services. They help students with learning or behavior problems, learning disabilities, and cognitive deficits. They work with students in schools to prevent violence and other disruptive behaviors. They also serve on interdisciplinary teams that develop individual educational plans for students with special needs. Psychologists work within specialty areas of learning, too, such as the arts and sports. Read about psychologists who help people learn Psychologists Promote Physical and Mental Health Psychologists as health providers span a large and diverse spectrum of subfields. Some psychologists work alone, with patients and clients coming to the psychologist's office. Others are involved in health care teams and typically work in hospitals, medical schools, outpatient clinics, nursing homes, pain clinics, rehabilitation facilities, and community health and mental health centers. Increasingly, psychologists in independent practice are contracting on either a part-time or a full-time basis with organizations to provide a wide range of services. For

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example, a psychologist can join a health practice and work with a team of other health care providers, such as physicians, nutritionists, physiotherapists, and social workers to prevent or treat illness. This team approach, which is likely to become more common in the future, frequently includes efforts to change unhealthy behaviors and ensure that patients follow the recommended treatment. The team also helps patients cope with stress. Psychologists also instruct students who are training to become health care professionals, such as physicians and nurses, about the psychological factors involved in illness. And they advise health care providers already in practice about the psychological bases of some illness so that symptoms that are psychological in origin can be better diagnosed and treated. Read about psychologists who promote physical and mental health Psychologists Study and Contribute to the Work Environment Anywhere people work, and anything they do while at work, is of interest to psychologists. Psychologists study what makes people effective, satisfied, and motivated in their jobs; what distinguishes good workers or managers from poor ones; and what conditions of work promote high or low productivity, morale, and safety. Some psychologists design programs for recruiting, selecting, placing, and training employees. They evaluate, monitor, and improve performance. They help make changes in the way the organization is set up.

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Others help design the actual tasks, tools, and environments with which people must deal when doing their jobs. These specialists can also help design the products that organizations turn out and conduct research related to product design. For example, they play a big role in making computer hardware and software more user-friendly, which in turn contributes both to operator performance in the workplace and product acceptability in the marketplace. Psychologists with training in mental health and health care also deal with the health and adjustment of individuals in the work setting. They work with employee assistance plans that provide help with drug or alcohol addiction problems, depression, and other disorders; they also foster healthy behavior. Read about psychologists who study and contribute to the work environment Major Keywords There are many keywords in psychology that could be searched through this link: http://psychology.about.com/od/glossaryfromatoz/Dictionary_Psychology_Terms_from_ A_to_Z.htm. Class instructors may guide the students seek words that are of interest and directly relevant for each class. Perspectives or Schools of Psychology From the late 1800's until the 1930's, psychologists were divided about what they should study and how they should study it. Four major schools developed. These schools were (1) Structuralism, (2) Behaviorism, (3) Gestalt psychology, and

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(4) Psychoanalysis. Structuralism grew out of the work of James, Wundt, and their associates. These psychologists believed the chief purpose of psychology was to describe, analyze, and explain conscious experience, particularly feelings and sensations. The structuralists attempted to give a scientific analysis of conscious experience by breaking it down into its specific components or structures. For example, they identified four basic skin sensations: warmth, cold, pain, and pressure. They analyzed the sensation of wetness as the combined experience of cold and smoothness. The structuralists primarily used a method of research called introspection. In this technique, subjects were trained to observe and report as accurately as they could their mental processes, feelings, and experiences. Behaviorism was introduced in 1913 by John B. Watson, an American psychologist. Watson and his followers believed that observable behavior, not inner experience, was the only reliable source of information. This concentration on observable events was a reaction against the structuralists' emphasis on introspection. The behaviorists also stressed the importance of the environment in shaping an individual's behavior. They chiefly looked for connections between observable behavior and stimuli from the environment. The behaviorist movement was greatly influenced by the work of the Russian physiologist Ivan P. Pavlov. In a famous study, Pavlov rang a bell each time he gave a dog some food. The dog's mouth would water when the animal smelled the food. After Pavlov repeated the procedure many times, the dog's saliva began to flow whenever the animal heard the bell, even if no food appeared. This experiment demonstrated that

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a reflex--such as the flow of saliva--can become associated with a stimulus other than the one that first produced it--in this case, the sound of a bell instead of the smell of food. The learning process by which a response becomes associated with a new stimulus is called conditioning. Watson and the other behaviorists realized that human behavior could also be changed by conditioning. In fact, Watson believed he could produce almost any response by controlling an individual's environment During the mid-1900's, the American psychologist B. F. Skinner gained much attention for behaviorist ideas. In his book Walden Two (1948), Skinner describes how the principles of conditioning might be applied to create an ideal planned society. Gestalt psychology, like behaviorism, developed as a reaction against structuralism. Gestalt psychologists believed that human beings and other animals perceive the external world as an organized pattern, not as individual sensations. For example, a film consists of thousands of individual still pictures, but we see what looks like smooth, continuous movement. The German word Gestalt means pattern, form, or shape. Unlike the behaviorists, the Gestaltists believed that behavior should be studied as an organized pattern rather than as separate incidents of stimulus and response. The familiar saying "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts" expresses an important principle of the Gestalt movement. Gestalt psychology was founded about 1912 by Max Wertheimer, a German psychologist. During the 1930's, Wertheimer and two colleagues took the Gestalt movement to the United States.

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Psychoanalysis was founded during the late 1800's and early 1900's by the Austrian doctor Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalysis was based on the theory that behavior is determined by powerful inner forces, most of which are buried in the unconscious mind. According to Freud and other psychoanalysts, from early childhood people repress (force out of conscious awareness) any desires or needs that are unacceptable to themselves or to society. The repressed feelings can cause personality disturbances, self-destructive behavior, or even physical symptoms. Freud developed several

techniques to bring repressed feelings to the level of conscious awareness. In a method called free association, the patient relaxes and talks about anything that comes to mind while the therapist listens for clues to the person's inner feelings. Psychoanalysts also try to interpret dreams, which they regard as a reflection of unconscious drives and conflicts. The goal is to help the patient understand and accept repressed feelings and find ways to deal with them. Modern psychology has incorporated many teachings of the earlier schools. For example, though many psychologists disagree with certain of Freud's ideas, most accept his concept that the unconscious plays a major role in shaping behavior. Similarly, most psychologists agree with the behaviorists that environment influences behavior and that they should study chiefly observable actions. However, many psychologists object to pure behaviorism. They believe that it pays too little attention to such processes as reasoning and personality development. Psychology today has continued to develop in several directions. A group of extreme behaviorists called the stimulus-response school believe all behavior is a series of responses to different stimuli. According to these psychologists, the stimulus

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connected with any response can eventually be identified. As a result, stimulusresponse psychologists regard behavior as predictable and potentially controllable. Another group of psychologists, who are known as the cognitive school, believe there is more to human nature than a series of stimulus-response connections. These psychologists concentrate on such mental processes as thinking, reasoning, and selfawareness. They investigate how a person gathers information about the world, processes the information, and plans responses A school called humanistic psychology developed as an alternative to behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Humanistic psychologists believe individuals are controlled by their own values and choices and not entirely by the environment, as behaviorists think, or by unconscious drives, as psychoanalysts believe. The goal of humanistic psychology is to help people function effectively and fulfill their own unique potential. The supporters of this approach include the American psychologists Abraham H. Maslow and Carl R. Rogers Many psychologists do not associate themselves with a particular school or theory. Instead, they select and use what seems best from a wide variety of sources. This approach is called eclecticism. Different Specialties in Psychology Psychology encompasses a vast domain, and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the major areas of inquiry that comprise psychology, divided into fields of research psychology and fields of applied psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be found at the list of psychological topics and list of psychology disciplines.

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Abnormal psychology Abnormal psychology is the study of abnormal behavior in order to describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning. Abnormal psychology studies the nature of psychopathology and its causes, and this knowledge is applied in clinical psychology to treat a patient with psychological disorders. In the study of abnormal behavior, it can be difficult to define the line between which behaviors are considered normal and which are not. In general, abnormal behaviors must be maladaptive and cause an individual subjective discomfort (signs of emotional distress). Generally, abnormal behaviors are classified as:

Abnormal as in "infrequent" in relation to the overall population. Abnormal as in "maladaptive". The behavior fails to promote well being, growth, and fulfillment of a person.

Abnormal as in "deviant". The behavior is not socially acceptable. Abnormal as in "unjustifiable". The behavior that cannot be rationalized.

Biological psychology Biological psychology is the scientific study of the biological bases of behavior and mental states. Because all behavior is controlled by the central nervous system, it is sensible to study how the brain functions in order to understand behavior. This is the approach taken in behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and

neuropsychology. Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the 'brain' relate to specific behavioral and

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psychological processes. Often neuropsychologists are employed as scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge. Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of brain injury in an attempt to work out normal psychological function. The approach of cognitive neuroscience to studying the link between brain and behavior is to use neuroimaging tools, such as to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task. Cognitive psychology The nature of thought is another core interest in psychology. Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behavior. It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the mind. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology. Cognitive science is a conjoined enterprise of cognitive psychologists, neurobiologists, workers in artificial intelligence, logicians, linguists, and social scientists, and places a slightly greater emphasis on computational theory and formalization. Both areas can use computational models to simulate phenomena of interest. Because mental events cannot directly be observed, computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind. Such models give cognitive

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psychologists a way to study the "software" of mental processes independent of the "hardware" it runs on, be it the brain or a computer. Comparative psychology Comparative psychology refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of animals other than human beings. It is related to disciplines outside of psychology that study animal behavior, such as ethology. Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans, the behavior and mental processes of animals is also an important part of psychological research, either as a subject in its own right (e.g., animal cognition and ethology), or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology (e.g., affective neuroscience and social neuroscience). Developmental psychology Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes

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of small infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study aging and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). Urie Bronfenbrenner's theory of development in context (The Ecology of Human Development - ISBN 0-674-22456-6) is influential in this field, as are those mentioned in "Educational psychology" immediately below, as well as many others. Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of theorists in scientific psychology to inform their research. Personality psychology Personality psychology studies enduring psychological patterns of behavior, thought and emotion, commonly called an individual's personality. Theories of personality vary between different psychological schools. Trait theories attempts to break personality down into a number of traits, by use of factor analysis. The number of traits have varied between theories. One of the first, and smallest, models was that of Hans Eysenck, which had three dimensions: extroversionintroversion, neuroticism emotional stability, and psychoticism. Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of 16 personality factors. The theory that has most empirical evidence behind it today may be the "Big Five" theory, proposed by Lewis Goldberg, and others. A different, but well known approach to personality is that of Sigmund Freud, whose structural theory of personality divided personality into the ego, superego, and id. He utilized the principles of thermodynamics metaphorically to explain these three distinctive and interacting tripartite divisions. In 1923 Freud published the groundbreaking book: "The Ego and the Id" in which he named and identified the functioning

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psychodynamics of human personality. This theory has been used in modern psychology paradigms such as Transactional Analysis. However, Freud's theory of personality has been criticized by many, including many mainstream psychologists. Quantitative psychology Quantitative psychology involves the application of mathematical and statistical modeling in psychological research, and the development of statistical methods for analyzing and explaining behavioral data. The term Quantitative psychology is relatively new and little used (only recently have Ph.D. programs in quantitative psychology been formed), and it loosely covers the longer standing subfields psychometrics and mathematical psychology. Psychometrics is the field of psychology concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement, which includes the measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits. Measurement of these unobservable phenomena is difficult, and much of the research and accumulated knowledge in this discipline has been developed in an attempt to properly define and quantify such phenomena. Psychometric research typically involves two major research tasks, namely: (i) the construction of instruments and procedures for measurement; and (ii) the development and refinement of theoretical approaches to measurement. Whereas psychometrics is mainly concerned with individual differences and population structure, mathematical psychology is concerned with modeling of mental and motor processes of the average individual. Psychometrics is more associated with

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educational psychology, personality, and clinical psychology. Mathematical psychology is more closely related to psychonomics/experimental and cognitive, and physiological psychology and (cognitive) neuroscience. Basic research encompasses the study of behavior for use in academic settings, and contains numerous areas: abnormal psychology, biological psychology, cognitive psychology, comparative psychology, developmental psychology, health psychology, personality psychology, social psychology and others. Quantitative psychology is contrasted with applied psychology. Social psychology Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior and mental processes, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations. For example, social psychologists study the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g., conformity or persuasion), the perception and understanding of social cues, or the formation of attitudes or stereotypes about other people. Social cognition is a common approach and involves a mostly cognitive and scientific approach to understanding social behavior. Fields of applied research Applied psychology encompasses both psychological research that is designed to help individuals overcome practical problems and the application of this research in applied settings. Much of applied psychology research is utilized in other fields, such as

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business management, product design, ergonomics, nutrition, law and clinical medicine. Applied psychology includes the areas of clinical psychology, industrial and organizational psychology, human factors, psychology and law, health psychology, school psychology, community psychology and others. Clinical psychology Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are psychological assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration.[15] Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injurythis area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession. The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be done inside various therapy models, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and clientusually an individual, couple, family, or small groupthat employs a set of procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. The four major perspectives are Psychodynamic, Cognitive Behavioral, Existential-Humanistic, and Systems or Family therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate these various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues

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regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual-orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is growing evidence that most of the major therapies are about of equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance.[16][17] Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation. Clinical psychologists do not usually prescribe medication, although there is a growing movement for psychologists to have limited prescribing privileges.[18] In general, however, when medication is warranted many psychologists will work in cooperation with psychiatrists so that clients get all their therapeutic needs met.[15] Clinical psychologists may also work as part of a team with other professionals, such as social workers and nutritionists. Counseling psychology Counseling psychology seeks to facilitate personal and interpersonal functioning across the lifespan with a focus on emotional, social, vocational, educational, healthrelated, developmental, and organizational concerns. Counselors are primarily clinicians, using psychotherapy and other interventions in order to treat clients. Traditionally, counseling psychology has focused more on normal developmental issues and everyday stress rather than psychopathology, but this distinction has softened over time. Counseling psychologists are employed in a variety of settings, including universities, hospitals, schools, governmental organizations, businesses, private practice, and community mental health centers.

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Educational psychology Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. The work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices. Forensic psychology Forensic psychology covers a broad range of practices primarily involving evaluations of defendants, reports to judges and attorneys, and courtroom testimony on given issues. Forensic psychologists are appointed by the court to conduct competency to stand trial evaluations, competency to be executed evaluations, sanity evaluations, involuntary commitment evaluations, provide sentencing recommendations, and sex offender evaluation and treatment evaluations and provide recommendations to the court through written reports and testimony. Most of the questions the court asks the forensic psychologist are not questions of psychology but rather legal questions. For example, there is no definition of sanity in psychology. Rather, sanity is a legal definition that varies from state to state in the United States and from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Therefore, a prime qualification of a forensic psychologist is an intimate understanding of the law, especially criminal law.

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Psychology and Law Legal psychology is a research-oriented field populated with researchers from several different areas within psychology (although social and cognitive psychologists are typical). Legal psychologists explore such topics as jury decision-making, eyewitness memory, scientific evidence, and legal policy. The term "legal psychology" has only recently come into use, and typically refers to any non-clinical law-related research. Health psychology Health psychology is the application of psychological theory and research to health, illness and health care. Whereas clinical psychology focuses on mental health and neurological illness, health psychology is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behavior including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on quality of life and in research into the psychological impact of health and social care. Human factors psychology Human factors psychology (sometimes called Engineering Psychology) is the study of how cognitive and psychological processes affect our interaction with tools and objects in the environment. The goal of research in human factors psychology is to better design objects by taking into account the limitations and biases of human mental processes and behavior.

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Industrial and organizational psychology Industrial and organizational psychology (I/O) is among the newest fields in psychology. Industrial Psychology focuses on improving, evaluating, and predicting job performance while Organizational Psychology focuses on how organizations impact and interact with individuals as well as how the individuals affect the organisational culture. In 1910, through the works and experiments of Hugo Munsterberg and Walter Dill Scott, Industrial Psychology became recognized as a legitimate part of the social science.[19] Organizational Psychology was not officially added until the 1970s and since then, the field has flourished. The Society for Industrial Organizational Psychology has approximately 3400 professional members and 1900 student members. These two numbers combine to make up only about four percent of the members in the American Psychological Association but the number has been rising since 1939 when there were only one hundred professional I/O psychologists.[19] I/O psychologists are employed by academic institutions, consulting firms, internal human resources in industries, and governmental institutions. Various universities across the United States are beginning to strengthen their I/O Psychology programs due to the increase of interest and job demand in the field.[19] Industrial organizational psychologists look at questions regarding things such as who to hire, how to define and measure successful job performance, how to prepare people to be more successful in their jobs, how to create and change jobs so that they are safer and make people happier, and how to structure the organization to allow people to achieve their potential.[19]

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School psychology School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of "gifted" students; to facilitate prosocial behaviours in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning environments. School psychologists are trained in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research.[20] Currently, school psychology is the only field in which a professional can be called a "psychologist" without a doctoral degree, with the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) recognizing the Specialist degree as the entry level. This is a matter of controversy as the APA does not recognize anything below a doctorate as the entry level for a psychologist. Specialist-level school psychologists, who typically receive three years of graduate training, function almost exclusively within school systems, while those at the doctorallevel are found in a number of other settings as well, including universities, hospitals, clinics, and private practice. What do psychologists do? Roles of a psychologist: For answers to this question, please refer to the section above on how psychologists help people? Students may be involved in discussions in generating alternative answers specific to local context.

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Where do psychologists work (in the UAE)? Refer to www.apa.org for answers; however the instructor may initiate discussion and add info on where psychologists work in the UAE. Research psychologists investigate the physical, cognitive, emotional, or social aspects of human behavior. Psychologists in health service fields provide mental health care in hospitals, clinics, schools, or private settings. Psychologists employed in applied settings, such as business, industry, government, or nonprofit organizations, provide training, conduct research, design organizational systems, and act as advocates for psychology. Academic psychologists of course, teach in university settings and there are non-academic psychologists who also work in highly scientific settings. In response to the concerns of many psychology graduate students about the lack information on careers outside of the university setting, we began inviting scientific psychologists with traditional training to tell us about their work in some relatively nontraditional places. The Interesting Careers in Psychology series is a relatively small sampling of an infinite number of non-academic careers that are possible--those who have "taken a different path" relate their own experiences of how they got to where they are now and the valuable lessons they learned along the way to employment "beyond the lab." The following Interesting Careers in Psychology articles illustrate the various skill-sets and expertise that scientifically-trained psychologists possess which are also highly valued by employers outside of academe. The non-traditional career paths

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represented by these personal success stories illustrate the different types of unique contributions made by scientific psychologists in many different employment settings. Our goal is that these stories of successful and rewarding careers outside of the academic arena will encourage graduate students and new PhDs to vigorously explore the wealth of non-academic career possibilities, especially in positions or arenas they may have never considered before. A new Interesting Careers article is published in almost every issue of Psychological Science Agenda (PSA) and will be posted to this site shortly after publication, so bookmark this page and visit regularly!

Careers (sorted alphabetically by person's name) Judith Amsel Robert L. Balster Yael Bat-Chava Sunny Becker Marilyn Sue Bogner David Boninger Simon H. Budman James R. Callan Siri Carpenter Yihsiu Chen Carolyn Copper Mary Czerwinski Mary Carol Day Margaret Diddams Susan A. Ferguson Pamela Flattau Acquisitions Editor Research Psychologist in a Medical School Research Director for a Non-Profit Organization Experimental Psychologist in a Behavioral Science Research Firm Medical Error Consultant Social Psychologist in Rehabilitation Technology Psychology Emerges in a Multimedia World Engineering Psychology in Research and Development Becoming a Science Writer Technology Consultant in the Telecom Industry Social Science Analyst in the Public Sector Research Psychology at Microsoft Human-Computer Interface Designer Cognitive and I/O Psychologists in the Technology Industry Highway Safety Research Analyst Policy Scientist as an Independent Consultant

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Richard Garfein Liz Gehr Dale Glaser James A. Griffin Neil S. Hibler Richard J. Katz Stephen J. Kraus Holly R. Landwehr John K. Lauber Robert P. Lowman Laura M. W. Martin Julia Mennella Robert S. McCann Peter Nathan Cynthia H. Null Jacqueline Ogden Susan Lee Painter Anne C. Petersen Tom Puglisi Peter Ramsberger Hendrick Ruck Naomi Schwartz Philip M. Smith Peter J. Snyder Joy Stapp David Stonner Robert R. Tyler Hilary R. Weiner

International Market Research Consultant Human Factors Expert Statistical and Methodological Consultant Psychologist in the White House Police Psychology in the Federal Government Clinical Neuropsycho-pharmacologist Market Research Consultant Human Factors Psychologist in Aviation Human Factors Psychologist in Aviation Academic Research Administrator Science Museum Education and Research Specialist Chemical Senses Scientist NASA Research Scientist University Provost NASA Research Psychologist Animal Programs Psychologist Design Psychologist Foundation Executive Federal Regulatory Officer for Protection of Human Subjects Human Resources Research Organization Corporate Investment Strategist for the Military Executive Search Consultant Organizational Development Consultant Neuropsychologist Prospers in Pharmaceuticals Trial Consultant Policy Scientist for a Federal Agency Aviation Human Factors Practitioner Expert Witness in Employment Discrimination Cases

Anthony J. Pinizzotto Forensic Psychologist in the FBI

Christine A. Sannerud Federal Drug Science Specialist

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E. Belvin Williams

Psychology Meets Philanthropy Education, Training, and Qualifications: High School Preparation

A strong college preparatory high school education is a good beginning for a career in psychology. Courses in science, math, English, history, social studies, and a foreign language are important. Science and math are particularly important because they provide the necessary skills for research and analysis in college psychology courses. Some high schools offer a course in psychology, which can give you an overview of what the field is about. You can also find a volunteer job where psychologists work, or read about psychology in newspapers and magazines to explore the field. Do not be misguided, however, by popular stereotypes of the field. Psychology is a broad behavioral science with many applications. Bachelors Degree Most undergraduate programs require a blend of science and liberal arts courses for a bachelors degree in psychology. The courses usually include introductory psychology, experimental psychology, and statistics. Other required courses can be in learning, personality, abnormal psychology, social psychology, developmental

psychology, physiological or comparative psychology, history and systems, and tests and measurement. Typically, you will be ready to take electives in psychology by the time you are a college junior. This is a good time to make graduate school plans so you can make wise choices about future courses and extracurricular activities during the last 2 years of college. Know, however, that as long as youve taken the basic electives in

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psychology, you dont always need to have a bachelors in psychology to get into a graduate program in the field. The Value of the Undergraduate Degree Psychology majors, whether they have gone on to careers in psychology (the majority do not) or other fields, cite courses in the principles of human behavior as especially important to life after college. The additional insight gained from these courses helps them, whether they are functioning as parents at home, managers on the job, or professionals in other fields. Many bachelors degree holders credit their college psychology courses with teaching them how people, including themselves, learn. I use information on learning theory every time I conduct a training session for my employees, says a manager in a consumer products company. Above all, it is the rigorous training in the scientific methodthe need to do thorough, objective research, analyze data logically, and put forth the findings with claritythat stands psychology majors in good stead as they pursue their future careers. Graduate School Most graduate departments make entrance decisions on a variety of factors, including test scores, GPA, course selection, recommendations, and practical experience. Most departments furthermore require that you take a standard aptitude test, usually the Graduate Record Examination (GRE). Although programs vary in the weight they attach

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to test scores, successful applicants typically score well above 500 on both the verbal and quantitative portions of the GRE. Determine if your GRE scores will qualify you for consideration by the institution to which you would like to apply. Competition for spaces in graduate school is keen. Masters Degree Undergraduate course requirements for a terminal masters degree are relatively few: usually, a background in introductory or general psychology, experimental psychology with a laboratory course, and statistics. The university usually takes the undergraduate grade point average (GPA) into account, too. A recent survey of 26 psychology masters programs shows that the most commonly required courses once you are in the masters program are those with industrial/organizational content, statistics, and research design. Course work at the masters level often also includes study in ethics, assessment, program evaluation, and personality related topics as well. A masters degree in psychology, along with preparation in the natural sciences or mathematics, is increasingly valued by doctoral programs in psychology. Each doctoral program also decides which credits earned at the masters level it will accept for transfer. Occasionally, students need to repeat some course work. Some institutions will not accept a masters degree from any school other than their own. For these reasons, it is important to ask questions about these and other issues early in the application process.

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Doctoral Degree Each graduate program determines its own entrance requirements. Some doctoral programs require applicants to have a masters degree in psychology. More commonly, students can enter the doctoral programs with a bachelors degree and work directly on a doctoral degree. Earning a doctoral degree typically requires at least 4 years, with the median time to degree being closer to 7 years of study after the bachelors degree. Early in the graduate program, you will probably take course work in the core areas of psychology. You will work with a professor to learn how to do research; youll also study how psychological research is applied to life situations. Once you have completed all the course work, you must pass a comprehensive exam and write and defend a dissertation or other scholarly product. If you want to be a professional psychologist in clinical, counseling, school, or other health service areas of psychology, you will also have to complete a 1-year internship as part of your doctoral study in these areas of practice. Some universities and professional schools offer a PsyD degree in lieu of the traditional research doctoral degree PhD or EdD degree. In choosing applicants, these programs may look for candidates who already have clinical experience or other work experience in applied psychology.

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The Importance of Accreditation There are two kinds of accreditation: institutional and specialized. Institutional accreditation certifies that an institution has met minimum standards of quality. It is granted by one of seven regional accrediting organizations recognized for this purpose by the U.S. Department of Education. Membership in the APA requires that ones doctoral degree in psychology or equivalent be from an accredited institution. Most state licensing boards in psychology also have such a requirement, though some require that the licensure applicant have graduated from an accredited doctoral program in psychology. The latter is what we refer to as specialized accreditation. Specialized accreditation only applies to professional programs. It certifies that the program meets the minimal standards of quality as defined by that profession. In the field of psychology, specialized accreditation is granted by the APA Committee on Accreditation and applies only to doctoral programs, internships, and postdoctoral residency programs in professional psychology. Increasingly, employers and health services reimbursement companies require that the psychologists whom they employ or reimburse be graduates of accredited programs in professional psychology. Case Studies in Psychology This book is a must buy if you are truly interested in reading some of the most interesting case histories written in psychology. Classic Case Studies in Psychology Dr Geoff Rolls Paperback RRP: 17.99 ISBN: 9780340886922 ISBN-10: 0340886927 Published: 30/06/2005 by Hodder Education, 208 pages

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Summary: Heard about the child who was locked away from the world until the age of 13? Or the man who was turned on by prams? From the woman with multiple personalities, to the man with no brain, this is a compelling collection of truly unique psychological case studies. A strange book full of even stranger stories, Classic Case Studies in Psychology is a collection of fascinating human stories. Some are well-known case studies, others are almost completely unknown. All present revealing insights into the human mind and behaviour, giving a whole new perspective on the mystery of human psychology. Classic Case Studies in Psychology is for everyone whos ever wondered about the stranger side of life. It requires no prior knowledge of psychology just an open mind. Prepare to be amazed

First ever collection of the most famous case studies in psychology Foreword by Richard Gross Accessible to psychology students and general readers alike an excellent general introduction

As well as the famous ones, many of these case studies are totally unknown Covers all the key concepts and ideas, bringing abnormal psychology to life

Table of Contents: 1. Innocence lost: the story of Genie 2. 3. The man who knew too much: the story of Solomon Shereshevsky ('S') The boy who couldn't stop washing: a story of OCD

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4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

The girl who cried murder: the story of Kitty Genovese The boy who needed to play: the story of Dibs The man with no past: the story of Henry M ('HM') The man who was disappointed by what he saw: the story of S.B. The men who didnt sleep: the story of Peter Tripp and Randy Gardner The boy who was never a girl: the story of David Reimer

10. The man who lived with a hole in his head: the story of Phineas Gage 11. The man who was turned on by prams and handbags 12. The wild boy of Aveyron: the story of Victor 13. Two little boys: the story of Little Albert and Little Peter 14. The man with no brain 15. Freuds analysis of phobia in a young boy: the story of Little Hans 16. The three faces of Eve: the story of Chris Sizemore About the Author(s): Geoff Rolls obtained both his B.Sc. and Ph.D. in Psychology from Southampton University, where he conducted research into the psychological aspects of car driver behaviour. He now works at Peter Symonds College, Winchester, and is an experienced lecturer and author, his previous books include Essential AS Psychology for AQA(A) and Essential A2 Psychology for AQA(A), both published by Hodder & Stoughton. Readership: Psychology students and the general reader. Heres how to order it!

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http://www.hoddereducation.co.uk/Title/0340886927/Classic_Case_Studies_in_Psycholo gy.htm Heres a case history for student review and discussion in class:

CASE STUDY Lamanda is a 22 year old woman who has recently graduated from Ohio State University with a psychology degree. She is currently working as a waitress at a popular restaurant near campus, and says she has always planned to attend law school. Lamanda was born in Detroit, Michigan. Her mother is an African American who is an assistant manager at a grocery store. Her father is Caucasian and works at a department store. Lamanda reports that she was a shy, unattractive child, but that in general her early childhood was "pretty happy." Lamanda says that during elementary school, she was constantly harassed by classmates about being of mixed race. Still, she says that she felt very close to her family during this period. She says she feels especially close to her mother, though she typically approaches her father "when I have a big problem." When Lamanda was 14, her family moved to Royal Oak, a working class suburb outside of Detroit. At about this time, Lamanda began to blossom intellectually. Her grades were consistently very good, and she was a member of the National Honor Society. She says she remembers this as the happiest period of her life. Lamanda also bloomed physically. She became popular with boys, although she reports frequent anxiety when she was unsure of how to deal with their advances. Lamanda was especially distressed by some strong sexual advances from her 47 year old softball coach during her sophomore year of

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high school. Lamanda insists, however, that this "incident" is in the past and that she has not thought about it for years. Throughout high school, Lamanda concealed her mixed heritage from her classmates by not inviting friends over to her home. She admits that she is embarrassed by this, and she suspects that her parents realized what she was doing. She now insists that "I am not black or white, I am me." During her junior year of high school, Lamanda had her first serious boyfriend, Morris Silverstein, who was a high school classmate. She describes the relationship as warm and supportive and they became sexually active during her senior year of high school. She describes the sex as "good, considering our age." Morris was accepting of Lamanda's ethnic heritage, and became good friends with Lamanda's father. Like many young people, Lamanda seldom discussed sexual or romantic issues with her parents, preferring to keep her parents out of her personal life.

Morris broke up with Lamanda during her freshman year of college explaining that he wanted to be able to date other people. Lamanda says she coped with the break up "pretty well" and she and Morris have remained good friends. In college, Lamanda has dated sporadically and she acknowledges some bisexual experimentation. Lamanda says that she prefers heterosexual relationships, however. She has been dating Brett for more than a year, but she says that he seems to be less committed to the relationship than he used to be. Although he seems to be making an effort to be supportive, Lamanda reports that he tries to be positive but always ends up criticizing her.

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Although Lamanda appears to be a natural athlete, she leads a relatively sedentary lifestyle. She was the star pitcher for her high school softball team, although she quit abruptly during her junior year. Last year, she joined a recreational softball league, but she quit after only a few weeks, explaining that she was just not enjoying herself. Lamanda does not like her job at the restaurant, but seems unwilling to look for other employment. She says that she feels "very jittery" whenever she gets ready for work, and she uses any excuse to take days off. She also refuses to associate with fellow employees, and reports getting very anxious when she was given a surprise birthday party. Lamanda works the evening shift, and she often does not get home until 3am. In turn, she routinely sleeps in until 1 or 2 in the afternoon. Recently, she has lost interest in cleaning her house and seldom cooks for herself. She also attends less to her personal grooming. She now avoids seeing both Morris and her parents, fearing that that they will disapprove of her. She also says she has lost interest in further education.

About two months ago, Lamanda became friends with a social worker who frequents the restaurant. After a protracted conversation, he recommended that she seek professional assistance.

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Psychology References Consider these pages AllPsych's Enpsycholopedia of mental health information. Use the links below to navigate.

The Timeline of Psychology contains important aspects in the history of psychology from 1869 to Present.

Psychology Biographies contains brief biographies (and pictures if available) of important figures in the field of psychology.

With nearly 400 terms defined, and growing, the Psychology Dictionary provides simple definitions to sometimes difficult terminology.

The Medication Guide and Street Drug Fact Sheet provide up front and to the point information regarding usage, benefits, detriments, and slang terminology for the most used prescription and street drugs.

Psychotherapy

Facts

provides

information

about

the

benefits,

costs,

contraindications, and theories involved in psychotherapy. Also includes a discussion of therapy providers and their educational and licensure qualifications.

The newest addition is our Guide to Online Psychology. Emerging as a new and growing way to provide therapy, online psychology has its benefits and pitfalls, as discussed in this article. Also included is a detailed list of what questions (and the best answers) you should ask your e-therapist before beginning online treatment.

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HUMAN SERVICES AND COUNSELING

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HUMAN SERVICES AND COUNSELING

HUMAN SERVICES Human services consist of those services that help people with their problems. Human services emerged as a response to problems of living, increase in problems in our modern world, and need for self-sufficiency. The study of human service delivery involves an understanding of the professionals who deliver services and familiarity of the recipients of the services being delivered. Therefore, this requires the integration of knowledge from a variety of academic disciplines, e.g. sociology, psychology, anthropology, etc. (Woodside & McClam, 2006).

Brief History of Human Services The human service movement has grown since the 1960s. Human service training programs, the mental health system, and the development of human service administration have all increased since the 1960s. The first human service program in the U. S. was established at Purdue University in 1966. The purpose was to educate human service workers to perform innovative roles such as client advocacy and client community liaison (Woodside &McClam, 2006). Dr. Harold McPheeters, a psychiatrist, is considered a key person in the development of human service education. Dr. McPheeters defines human services as follows: Human services is the occupation or profession that uses a blend of primarily psychological and sociological theories and skills in preventing, detecting, and

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ameliorating psychologically dysfunctional people and in helping them attain the highest level of psychosocial functioning of which they are capable. (Woodside & McClam, 2006). Functions of Human Services a) Social care: helping clients who cannot provide for themselves with their social needs. b) Social control: helping clients who are able to care for themselves but have failed to so or have done so by violating the norms of the society. c) Rehabilitation: helping clients to return to a prior level of functioning/lifestyle. Human Service professionals play the following roles: a) Providing direct services e.g. behavior changer, crisis intervener, caregiver, communicator, teacher/educator, etc. b) Performing administrative work e.g. evaluator, data manager, facilitator of services, resource allocator, report writer, etc. c) Working with community e.g. advocate, community service net worker, community planner, consultant, mobilzer, etc. The Human Service Professionals The following are some of the human service professionals: Counselors Psychologists Sociologists Social Workers Psychiatrists Nurses Medical doctors, etc Delivery of Human Services Human service professionals provide services in the following settings: a) Institutions

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b) c) d) e)

Communities Rural Areas Industry Military

Challenges in human services The human service profession faces challenges such as the following a) Urbanization b) Population Explosion c) Plights of refugees and migrants d) Natural Disasters e) AIDS Adapted from: An Introduction to Human Services (5th ed.) by Woodside, M. & McClam, T., 2006.

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COUNSELING

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COUNSELING Definition of Counseling Counseling is a helping relationship in which the counselor and the counselee or client work together to help the counselee or client solve or cope with a problem. The problems may be personal, social, emotional, academic, career, mental or psychological. According to Nystul (2003), counseling involves a professionally trained counselor helping a client with a specific problem. A counselor can help individuals, groups, or families to bring about useful change. Mc Leod (2003) described counseling as a deliberate process or activity involving a counselor and a client. The process of counseling involves assisting a client to overcome obstacles or help him or her solve his or her problem. It aims to make the person self-reliant, independent, productive, and self-empowered. Counseling includes work with individuals, groups, and families. It involves working with issues which may be developmental, crisis support, guiding or problem solving. Counseling may be remedial, preventative, educative, or developmental. The Governing Council of the American Counseling Association (ACA) defines counseling as follows: The Practice of Professional Counseling is the application of mental health, psychological, or human development principles, through cognitive, affective, behavioral or systematic intervention strategies, that address wellness, personal growth, or career development, as well as pathology. (American Counseling Association, 1997)

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Brief History of Counseling

The work of Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, and Carl Jung can be credited with the establishment of modern clinical practice. In the 1900s in Vienna, as colleagues, they developed counseling and psychotherapy and later each developed a unique school of counseling and psychotherapy. Freud developed psychoanalysis, Adler developed individual psychology, and Jung developed analytic psychology. Several schools of counseling have emerged since Freud, Alder, and Jung led the way. Theorists such as Carl Rogers, Albert Ellis, and Aaron Beck have influenced the development of modern counseling (Nystul, 2003). Counseling is a relatively new profession as opposed to psychotherapy and has an interdisciplinary basis. Before the1900s, most counseling was in the form of advice or information giving. In the U. S., counseling was started to improve the lives of people who were affected by the Industrial Revolution. Many historical events have greatly contributed to the evolution of counseling in the U. S. and elsewhere. Most of the pioneers of counseling were teachers who focused on vocational guidance. Frank Parsons, The father of the guidance movement, is credited with being the first true counselor. In 1908 he formed the Boston Vocational Bureau to help many unemployed youth to get jobs and to train teachers to become vocational counselors. These teachers were responsible for selecting students for vocational schools and helping students to make wise career decisions. As a result, the Vocational Guidance Movement was established. Other early leaders in the guidance movement were Jesse B. Davis,

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Anna Y. Reed, Eli W. Weaver, and David S. Hill (Campbell & Dahir, 1997; Gibson & Mitchell, 2008). During World War II, counselors were needed to do testing and placement of soldiers. In addition, several soldiers returned from the war with emotional, mental or psychological disorders and so more counselors were needed to treat them. The counseling and guidance movement took on a new vigor and direction. Carl Rogers became a significant contributor to this new direction with the introduction of his new counseling theory, Client-Centered Therapy which is now known as Person-Centered Therapy (McCleod, 2003; Gibson & Mitchell, 2008).

How Counselors help people The cornerstone of counseling is the promotion of human worth, dignity, uniqueness, and potential (Locke, Myers, & Herr, 2001). Counselors, therefore, seek to enhance the quality of life of individuals by empowering them with value, full human dignity, and the strength to grow toward a full and meaningful life. Counselors focus on the healthy aspects and strengths of the client (individual, couple, family, group, system, organization), environmental/situational influences (context of culture, gender, and lifestyle issues), and the role of career and vocation on individual development and functioning. Counselors help people by improving their well-being, alleviating distress and maladjustment, and resolving crises.

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Counselors intervene in emotions, behaviors, cognitions. Interventions made by a counselor may be preventative, skill-enhancing, or remedial; short-term or long-term. Advice is the last thing a counselor can do. It is not counseling and it is not empowering. Advice, if necessary, should be give as a last resort and it should be in the form of options, alternatives, or suggestions from which the client can choose what will work best for him or her. If a counselor gives a wrong or inappropriate advice he or she will be blamed by the client.

How is counseling different from psychotherapy? Counseling and psychotherapy are used interchangeably but there has been a substantial debate over their differences. Work settings may require use of different titles. Counseling is used in educational settings and psychotherapy is usually used in medical settings. Some differences are: Counseling is: a) Developmental b) Clients have problems of living, e. g. relationship, career choice. c) Focus is on short-term goals resolving immediate concerns d) Treatment include preventative approaches. e) Services are provided in educational, religious, and mental health settings.

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Psychotherapy is: a) Remediative i. e. helping clients overcome existing problems, e. g. anxiety and depression. b) Problems are more complex. Use of diagnosis to find out if there is a mental disorder. c) Short-term and long-term treatment d) Treatment approaches relate to conscious and unconscious processes. e) Psychotherapy is offered in private practice, mental health centers, rehabilitation centers, and hospitals, etc. Major Key Words in the field of Counseling Client: An individual, a small group such as a family, or a large group such as a class or a population as the residents of a geographical area. Code of Ethics: official statements or guidelines of a profession about what is expected of members and all members are held accountable for actions that violate the code. Confidentiality: an ethical obligation to keep client identity and disclosures secret. Counselee: an individual who is getting help from a counselor. Counselor: A counselor is a licensed and professionally trained person who provides services to help individuals, groups, or families with their problems and bring about useful change. Culture: human ways of life i.e. ways of thinking and perceiving and ways of doing.

Diversity: differences among people e.g. culture, race, ethnicity, place of origin, age, gender, sexual orientation, physical/mental disability, values, religion/spirituality.

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Emotion: a persons feelings, psychological arousal, or actions in defense or attack. Empathy: understanding another person's feelings by remembering or imagining being in a similar situation. Ethnicity: a sense of commonality that is more than race, religion, or national or geographic origin. Group Counseling: the provision of services by a counselor to a group of persons with a set of common problems or growth needs. Helpee: an individual who is getting help from a helper e.g. client, patient, counselee. Helper: a trained and licensed professional who assists clients with external or internal problems and helps clients help themselves e.g. counselor, social worker, clinical psychologist, sociologist. Individual Counseling: a counseling relationship involving one counselor and one client. One-on-one counseling. Mental Health: A persons overall psychological and emotional condition. Good mental health is a state of well-being in which a person is able to cope with everyday events, think clearly, be responsible, meet challenges, and have good relationships with others. Multicultural Counseling: a counseling relationship in which the counselor and client have different cultural backgrounds. Psychotherapy: diagnosis and treatment of mental and emotional disorders through the use of psychological techniques.

Problem: a situation that is causing trouble, discomfort or difficulty. Racism: the belief that one race is superior and has the right to dominate other races.

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Referral: sending or directing a client to another professional. Self-awareness: ability to know and understand one's self (character, feelings, motives, desires). Self-concept: the beliefs we have about ourselves regarding our personal qualities and typical behavior. Self-esteem: the value we give to ourselves based on feedback and experiences. Skills: the ability to do something well; gained through education and training. Theory: a set of ideas or concepts used to make some sense of reality. World View: how you perceive your relationship to the world (nature, institutions, other people, things, etc.) It is culturally based and learned. Values: a persons beliefs, ideals, customs, or principles.

Major Perspectives of Counseling Counseling is organized around a number of different theoretical models or approaches. The main approaches of counseling are Psychoanalysis

(Psychodynamic), Humanistic, and Cognitive-Behavior. These three are considered as the main forces of counseling. However, today, Multicultural Counseling and Therapy is considered the Fourth Force of counseling. Psychoanalysis focuses on the conscious and unconscious mind. The main proponent for this approach is Sigmund Freud. Cognitive-Behavioral Approach focuses on thinking and some of the main proponents are Aaron Beck who is noted for Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) and Albert Ellis who developed the Rationale-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT).

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Carl Rogers is the main proponent of the Humanistic Approach which focuses on feeling and emotions. Carl Rogers who is a key contributor to contemporary counseling developed a nondirective counseling approach called Client-Centered Therapy which is now Person-Centered Therapy (PCT). He also identified core conditions for counseling that is utilized by many theories and approaches today. Carl Rogers emphasized understanding and caring for the client instead of diagnosis and the need for counselors to show empathy, genuineness, and acceptance. Multicultural Counseling and Therapy (MCT) focuses on cultural and other diversity issues of clients which are not addressed in the Psychodynamic, Cognitive Behavior, and Humanistic models because they were designed and applied in the context of the western society. Some of the main proponents are Paul Pedersen, Patricia Arredondo, Carol Sue, and Derald Sue (McLeod, 2003; Sharf, 2004).

Different Specialties in the field of Counseling A Professional Counseling Specialty is narrowly focused, requiring advanced knowledge in the field founded on the premise that all Professional Counselors must first meet the requirements for the general practice of professional counseling. (American Counseling Association, 1997) Main Kinds/Types of Counseling Community Counseling: involves mental health, family and marriage, substance abuse/addictions, and career counseling. School Counseling: involves counseling in PK-12 schools i. e. personal/social, academic, and career counseling.

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Rehabilitation Counseling: involves counseling people with disabilities i. e. personal, social, psychological, and vocational effects of disabilities. Rehabilitation counseling also involves counseling people who have addictions such as drugs, alcohol, eating disorders, gambling, internet, etc.

Specialties in Counseling and Work Settings Educational Counselors a) School Counselor: works in PK-12 schools and helps the students with their personal/social, academic, and career concerns. b) University/College Counselor: works in universities or colleges and helps the students with their personal, social, emotional/psychological, academic, and career concerns. Some university/college counselors work as academic advisors. c) Career/Vocational Counselor: helps people make and carry out decisions and plans related to life/ career direction. They work in schools, universities/colleges, community/social centers, rehabilitation centers, prisons, etc. Mental Health/ Community Counselors Involves working with individuals, families, and groups to address and treat mental and emotional disorders and to promote optimum mental health. Work settings include mental/psychiatric hospitals, community/government agencies, rehabilitation centers, private practice, etc. Marriage and Family Counselor: helps individuals, couples, premarital couples, and families (parents, children, etc.) with issues in the families e. g. resolving emotional

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and communication problems. Work places include community/government agencies, private practice, etc. Addictions Counselor: helps people who have problems with alcohol, drugs, gambling, internet, and eating disorders. They work in private practice, rehabilitation centers, community or government agencies, etc. Rehabilitation Counselor: helps people with disabilities resulting from birth defects, illness/disease, accidents, or stress of daily life dealing with the personal, social, psychological, and vocational effects of their disabilities. Work settings include rehabilitation centers, community/social centers, group homes, prisons, employment centers, etc. Gerontological Counselor: helps elderly people with health problems. Multicultural Counselor: helps people adjust to diverse environments or concerns. Genetic Counselor: provides information and support to families who have members with birth defects or genetic disorders or to families who may be at risk for different inherited conditions.

What do Counselors do? Counselors help individuals, groups (small/large), and families They focus on personal, social, emotional, family, educational, psychological/mental health, and career decisions and problems. Aims of counseling: In their practice, counselors try to promote and enhance the following aspirations of their clients so that they can be fully functioning individuals.

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Insight Relating with others Self Awareness Self Acceptance Self Actualization or individuation Enlightenment Problem Solving Psychological Education Acquisition of Social Skills Cognitive Change Behavior Change Systemic Change Empowerment Restitution Generativity and Social Action (McLeod, 2003) When is counseling needed?

Some situations when counseling is needed include but not limited to: When there are overwhelming problems which should be resolved When there is maladjustment When a persons well being is under threat When interpersonal relationships are nonfunctional Where does counseling take place? Counselors work in educational settings, mental health settings, in businesses, and in government and non-governmental agencies. They also work independently in private practice. Why is counseling needed? Here are some reasons why counseling is needed: Counseling is essential in helping people solve problems Counseling is important in ensuring well being of individuals Counseling is important in improving the well being of people

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What are the Roles of a Counselor in the community? The professional counselor provides services in a variety of settings to diversed populations. The differences among the people they work with and the settings makes it necessary for counselors to possess multicultural competence and be willing to adapt to changing roles and situations. According to Corey & Corey (2003), a professional helper or counselor empowers people in the community by helping them to adapt to their circumstances. They also ensure social change and design interventions to meet the needs of the community that have not been met. This may include helping the people identify and develop their resources to strengthen the community. Professional counselors or helpers therefore seek to emphasize social change, focus on institutional or social conditions that bring problems and conflicts, offer direct and indirect services, assume advocacy role, and conduct crisis intervention.

Where do Counselors work in the UAE and what do they do? Counselors in the United Arab Emirates can work at different settings where they help individuals, groups (small/large), and families solve or cope with their various personal, social, emotional, family, educational, psychological/mental health, and career decisions problems. These settings include: Educational settings Health Care settings Residential settings Private Practice settings Community Agency settings Government settings Business settings Industrial settings

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EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES FOR COUNSELORS IN THE UAE Counselors in the UAE may be employed in the following settings: Ministry of Education (All levels): Kindergarten, primary, middle/junior, and high schools. University counseling and advising centers. College counseling and advising centers. Ministry of Social Affairs: Community/Social Welfare Agencies Juvenile Centers Homeless Centers Homes for the elderly Marriage Fund, etc. Ministry of Defense: Moral Affairs department Ministry of Justice: Civil courts Ministry of Interior: Social Support Centers Prisons and Police Research Centers Ministry of Health: Public and private hospitals and clinics Psychiatric hospitals Addiction treatment centers Rehabilitation centers Foundations/NGOs: Abu Dhabi Family Development Foundation Dar Al Birr Society Umel Mo'meneen Society Red Crescent Businesses: Industries: Education, Training, and Qualifications of Counselors Most counselors have a masters degree. (M.A., M.Sc., M. Ed.). Some have a doctorate degree (Ph. D., Ed. D.). Few universities have bachelors degree programs in counseling (B. A., B. Sc., B. Ed.).

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Course work include psychology, sociology, human development, interpersonal relations, interviewing skills, counseling skills/techniques, statistics, research,

multicultural counseling, theories of counseling, program management and evaluation, psychopathology, diagnosis, addictions counseling, family and marriage counseling, professional and ethical issues in counseling, etc. Counseling students are also required to complete a certain number practicum or internship hours after completion of all course before they are awarded their degrees. For example, the Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP, 20008) requires that students complete a minimum of 600 clock hours of supervised internship in their designated program area. The Council for Standards in Human Service Education (CSHSE) the body that accredits undergraduate human service education programs requires a minimum of 350 clock hours of supervised practicum (CSHSE, 2005). In addition, counselors are required by the American Counseling Association (ACA) and government agencies to be licensed or certified before they can practice as professional counselors. The certification or licensure process involves a written examination and completion of 1,500 supervised clinical hours.

Case Studies in the field of Counseling Case Study 1 Maryam is a 12 year old female student in the 7th grade with a good standing. She goes to a private school in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. Last year, Maryam's family moved to the UAE from Africa. His father who is an electronic engineer works for a reputable

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electronics company. Maryams family is from a French speaking country. She speaks French and two other African languages but does not speak English which is the language of instruction in her new school. A couple of courses are taught in Arabic which does not speak either. Maryam who is very outgoing and has a lot of friends, is beginning to feel lonely and isolated. Last week, the school reported to her father that Maryam was becoming more and more withdrawn and was showing aggressive behavior. Her academic performance is also getting lower and lower. Her father was surprised but concerned because Maryam is usually a polite hardworking student. Case Questions 1. In this case you have just read, please identify the problems Maryam is having. 2. Identify potential values or cultural differences or conflicts likely to occur in this case. 3. Suppose you are the school counselor in Maryams school. How would you help her?

Case Study 2 Maryam is a 12 year old female student in the 7th grade with a good standing. She goes to a private school in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. Last year, Maryam's family moved to the UAE from Africa. His father who is an electronic engineer works for a reputable electronics company. Maryams family is from a French speaking country. She speaks French and two other African languages but does not speak English which is the language of instruction in her new school. A couple of courses are taught in Arabic which does not speak either.

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Maryam who is very outgoing and has a lot of friends, is beginning to feel lonely and isolated. Last week, the school reported to her father that Maryam was becoming more and more withdrawn and was showing aggressive behavior. Her academic performance is also getting lower and lower. Her father was surprised but concerned because Maryam is usually a polite hardworking student. Case Questions 1. Suppose you are a member of an interdisciplinary team of helping professionals, namely sociologists, psychologists, social workers, and counselors. How would you, as team, help Maryam? 2. How would you cooperate and collaborate?

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References American Counseling Association (1997. Definition of counseling. Alexandria, VA: Author. American Counseling Association Governing Council (1997). Professional Counseling Specialty. Alexandria, VA: Author. Campbell, C. A.. & Dahir, C. A. (1997).The national standards for school counseling programs., Alexandria, VA. American School Counselor Association. Corey, M. S. & Corey, G. (2003). Becoming a helper (4th ed.). Pacific Groove, CA. Brooks/Cole, Council for Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) (2008) CACREP accreditation standards and procedures manual. Alexandria, VA: Author. Council for Standards in Human Service Education (2005) CSHSE standards for human service education. Bellingham, WA: Author. Gibson, R. L. & Mitchell, M. H. (2008). Introduction to counseling and guidance (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Pearson Education, Inc. Locke, D. C., Myers, J. E., & Herr, E. L. (2001). The handbook of counseling. Thousand Oaks, CA. Sage Publications. McLoed, J. (2003). An introduction to counseling (3rd ed.). Open University Press. Nystul, M. (2003). Introduction to counseling: An art and science perspective. Allyn and Bacon.

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Sharf, R. S. (2004). Theories of psychotherapy and counseling: Concepts and cases (3rd ed.). Pacific Groove, CA. Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning. Woodside, M. & McClam, T. (2006). An Introduction to human services (5th ed.) Belmont CA. Thomson Brooks/Cole-Thomson Higher Education,

Internet Resources www.aca.org www.counseling.org www.asca.org http://www.allpsychologyschools.com/faqs/become_counselors.php http://www.findapathtopeace.com/default.htm

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SOCIAL WORK

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Introduction Social work is a profession for those with a strong desire to help improve peoples lives. Social workers assist people by helping them cope with issues in their everyday lives, deal with their relationships, and solve personal and family problems. Some social workers help clients who face a disability or a life-threatening disease or a social problem, such as inadequate housing, unemployment, or substance abuse. Social workers also assist families that have serious domestic conflicts, sometimes involving child or spousal abuse. Some social workers conduct research, advocate for improved services, engage in systems design or are involved in planning or policy development. Many social workers specialize in serving a particular population or working in a specific setting, like Corrections and Criminal Justice. The profession of social work is made up of people dedicated to helping others change some aspect of their social functioning. In the simplest terms social workers help people to improve their interaction with various aspects of their world for example their children, parents, spouse, family, friends, co-workers or even organizations and whole communities. Social work is a profession committed to improving the quality of life for people through various activities directed toward social change (Morales & Sheafor, 1992:5).

Frank (1973) tells us that throughout history there have been deeply embedded convictions that, under proper conditions, some people are capable of helping others come to grips with problems in living. In more recent times, that conviction has become institutionalized in a variety of formal helping professions. Counselors, Psychiatrists,

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Psychologists and Social Workers are expected to help people manage their socialemotional problems.

Social work is the professional services of a social worker aimed at the promotion of the social functioning of people. Social functioning in turn is the individuals role performance in its entirety at all levels of existence in interaction with other individuals, families, groups, communities, situations and environments. Social work has to do with solving social problems. These are situations in which the social functioning of an individual, family, group or community is impeded by obstacles in the environment, the individual, family, group or community that prevent the meeting of basic needs, realization of values and satisfactory role performance.

1. What is Social Work?

What exactly is social work? In general, social work is the professional activity of helping individuals, groups, and communities to enhance or restore their capacity for social functioning and creating societal conditions favorable to that goal (Morales, Sheafor, & Scott, 2007: 43).

On the other hand social work practice consists of the professional application of social work values, principles, knowledge and techniques to one or more of the ends: Helping people obtain tangible services (for example provision of food, housing, medical care)

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Providing counseling and psychotherapy with individuals, families and groups Helping communities or groups provide or improve social and health services Participating in relevant legislative processes (also see National Association of Social Work; http://www.naswdc.org)

Furthermore, we understand that; a social worker is a person that is specially trained to do social work in order to achieve very specific goals like the enhancing and maintaining psychosocial functioning of individuals, families, small groups and societies (Sheafor, C. R. Horejsi & G. A. Horejsi, 2000: 5, own emphasis).

As such social work includes interventions directed to interpersonal interactions, intrapsychic dynamics, life-support and management issues. In short, social work services consist amongst other of; assessment, diagnosis, treatment (including psychotherapy and counseling), client-centered advocacy, consultation and evaluation (Morales & Sheafor, 1992: 15).

According to Kirst-Ashman, (2003: 5) five themes permeate social work practice in virtually any setting (e.g. childcare agencies, rehabilitation centres, and nursing homes, hospitals and corrections facilities). First, social workers provide counseling when

necessary to help clients address problems. In addition to counseling an individual or family, much social work involves collaborating with organizations and communities to improve social and health care services. Second, social work entails a solid foundation of values and principles that guide what practitioners should and should not do.

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Third, a firm basis of techniques and skills provides directions for how social workers should provide treatment and accomplish goals. Fourth, social workers help people get the services they need by linking them to available resources. If the right resources are not available, social workers may advocate for services development on their clients behalf. Fifth, social workers participate in developmental processes to promote positive social change.

Box 1.1 Social Work Skills A short description A social work skill is a circumscribed set of discrete cognitive and behavioral actions that (1) derive from social work knowledge and social work values, ethics and obligations; (2) are consistent with certain facilitative qualities; (3) reflect the characteristics of professional integrity; and (4) comport with a social work purpose within the context of a phase or process of practice. A social worker selects, combines and adapts specific social work skills to suit the particular needs and characteristics of the person and situation during the phases of social work practice, for example: Talking; using speech, language and body language Listening; hearing and observing Responding; encouraging, reflecting, questioning, summarizing by combining what youve heard and said in order to promote understanding and change

Social work involves more than just sitting down with an individual, group, family and solving some problem. According to Kirst-Ashman (2003: 15) social work has at least four major dimensions of knowledge that make it unique. First social workers may focus on any problems or clusters of problems that are very complex and difficult. Social workers dont refuse to work with clients or refer them elsewhere because those clients have unappealing characteristics. Generalist practice 117

does not mean that every problem can be solved. But some of them can be solved or at least alleviated. Generalist practitioners are equipped with a repertoire of skills to help them identify and examine problems, plan appropriate interventions, implement actions and activities as well as evaluate outcomes and change. The second dimension of knowledge that makes social work unique involves the targeting of the environment for change. The system that social workers need to change or influence in order to accomplish their goals is called the target system or target of change (Pincus & Minahan, in Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2002: 5). The target encapsulates the persons, groups and/or communities that have to be influenced or need to change in the interest of the client system to achieve the objectives of social work intervention. Targets of change are not limited to individuals or families. Sometimes services and/or resources are unavailable or very difficult to obtain, social policies are unfair, or people are oppressed by other people. Policy and decision makers do not always have the motivation or insight to initiate change. Social workers must look at where change is essential outside of just the individual client and work with the environment to effect lasting change (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2002: 6). The third dimension of knowledge that makes social work unique is related to targeting the environment on behalf of the client system. Sometimes social workers must advocate for their clients and help clients get what they need from an unresponsive system. Most often intervention focuses on the relationship between the client and an unresponsive system (Epstein, 1981 in Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2002: 6). Clients have specific needs and social agencies, organizations and communities may not be meeting

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these needs. These unresponsive systems must be pressured to make changes so needs can be met (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2002: 6). The fourth dimension of knowledge that makes social work unique is its emphasis of and adherence to a core of professional values.

Box 1 Values of Social Work Social work values focus on a commitment to human welfare, social justice and individual dignity (Reamer, 1987: 801) The six core values of social work include (NASW, 1996): 1. Service providing help resources and benefits so that people may achieve their maximum potential 2. Social Justice an ideal situation in which all members of society enjoy identical rights, protection, opportunities, obligations and social benefits 3. Dignity and worth of the person holding people in high esteem and appreciating individual value 4. Importance of human relationships valuing the mutual exchange, dynamic interaction and affective, cognitive and behavioral connection that exit between the social worker and the client 5. Integrity trustworthy and sound adherence to moral ideals 6. Competence having the necessary skills and abilities to perform work with clients effectively For the practicing social worker, value would entail an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is personally or socially preferable

2. Defining Generalist Social Work Practice The generalist practice to social work was developed during the 1970s as social workers discovered that clients did not fit satisfactorily into traditional casework, group work or community work molds. Rather, a combination of methods might be needed to respond to the complex problems and situations these clients were presenting (Derezotes, 2000: 5).

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In essence, the generalist approach to social work is a toolbox that is sufficiently large enough to include the many approaches that social workers may need in their day to day practice (Derezotes, 2000: 6).

The current view of social work practice is inherently generalist and the profession defines itself as focusing on the person and environment in interaction, with social workers attending to factors ranging from individual needs to broad social policies (Derezotes, 2000: 5). Generalist social work practice may defined as the application of an eclectic knowledge base6, professional values and a range of skills to target systems of any size for change within the context of primary processes (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2002: 6).

Figure 1, illustrates how the various concepts involved in the above mentioned definition of generalist social work practice fits together. The large square at the top half of the figure portrays the organization or agency that will employ you to do social work. Organizational structure involves how lines of authority and communication operate within an agency. It also entails how the administration runs the organization and what the agency environment is like (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2002: 8). The large square at the bottom of the Figure represents your potential target system. In the target system box you will note three smaller boxes called macro system, mezzo system and micro system respectively, where:
The term eclectic refers to selecting concepts, theories and ideas from a wide range of perspectives and practice approaches (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2002: 7)
6

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Macro system entails work with large communities, organizations and agencies Mezzo system entails work with groups and families Micro system entails work with individuals

An arrow flows from the organizational structure square down to the target system square. This arrow refers to how you as a generalist practitioner will apply your knowledge, skills and values competently to help change a micro, mezzo or macro system (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2002: 8).

Figure 1.The Definition of Generalist Social Work Practice A Pictorial View

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ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE Supervision

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YOU AS Generalist Practitioner 1. Knowledge 2. Values 3. Skills

Application TARGET SYSTEM Macro System Mezzo System Micro System

(Source: Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2002: 8)

As a generalist social worker you work in this environment with all its resources, strengths, weaknesses, constraints, requirements and rules. Within the organizational structure you will note a rectangle that describes you as the generalist practitioner. You will see it is made up of knowledge, values and skills. This explains how you bring your unique knowledge base, professional values as a social worker and a broad range of skills

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to the organization in order to do your work effectively (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2002: 8). You will also notice a smaller rectangle called supervision. Supervision can be defined as the process whereby a supervisor performs educational, supportive and administrative functions in order to promote efficient and effective rendering of social work services. This would entail the supervision that you will receive from another, more senior social work manager working at the same agency as yourself. In some instances you may also offer supervision to other social workers.

4. Common Generalist Skills

Skill refers to the production of specific behaviors under the precise conditions designated for their use (Middleman & Goldburg Wood, 1990: 12). A skilled person is somebody having or showing skill, is highly trained or experienced for work requiring skill or special training (Vass, 1996: 63).

Middleman and Goldburg describe social work as a continuum with more or less a mixture of skills for dealing with persons, information and situations (1990: 14)

The development of social work skills involves learning to produce specific behaviors through which the knowledge and values incorporated in, and organized by, the principles that guide practice, can be applied in the performance of tasks (Middleman & Goldburg Wood, 1990: 10).

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Historically, social work skills were clustered into three major categories.

First,

casework primarily involved with direct interaction with individual clients. This in many ways are similar to the micro level of intervention found in generalist social work practice.

Second, group work involved the organization and running of a wide variety of groups (for example therapeutic groups, task groups and educational groups). For our purposes this can be referred to as mezzo level of practice. Third, community organization

involved working with organizations and communities in order to: Develop Educate Organize Mobilize Community resources, systems and agencies. This skill is similar to the macro level of social work practice. Under this old model of social work practice, social workers considered themselves experts in basically only one approach. They were either case workers, group workers or community workers. They did not view themselves as having a sound basis of skills in all three areas (Kirst-Ashman & Hull, 2002: 22).

For the purposes of rendering social work, practitioners should have a solid skills base for working at micro, mezzo and macro level. Social workers are no longer divided and channeled into only one of the three methods of social work. Service delivery is more effective if social workers are competent and able to render services at micro, mezzo and macro level practice.

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5. The Values of Social Work

Social work is a values-based profession; that is, everything social workers do must be with professional values in mind (Kirst-Ashman, 2003: 30). Values involve what is considered important and what is not, what has worth and what does not. They also involve making judgments or decisions about relative worth, about what is more valuable and what is less valuable (Kirst-Ashman, 2003: 30).

Ethics involve principles that specify what is good and what is bad. They clarify what should be done and should not be done (Kirst-Ashman, 2003: 30).Values are beliefs that guide behavior and ethics involve the application of these values to do the right thing when faced real-life situations and decisions.

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Box 1 Values of Social Work Social work values focus on a commitment to human welfare, social justice and individual dignity (Reamer, 1987: 801) The six core values of social work include (NASW, 1996): 7. Service providing help resources and benefits so that people may achieve their maximum potential 8. Social Justice an ideal situation in which all members of society enjoy identical rights, protection, opportunities, obligations and social benefits 9. Dignity and worth of the person holding people in high esteem and appreciating individual value 10. Importance of human relationships valuing the mutual exchange, dynamic interaction and affective, cognitive and behavioral connection that exit between the social worker and the client 11. Integrity trustworthy and sound adherence to moral ideals 12. Competence having the necessary skills and abilities to perform work with clients effectively For the practicing social worker, value would entail an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is personally or socially preferable

6. Fields of Social Work 6.1 Substance Misuse and Addictions

6usan has been clean from heroin and sober for three years. She now has the confidence to pursue her degree in higher education, and moves to a new city to do just that. However, the stress of the move, the isolation from her support group, and the struggle to succeed in school are too much. She begins to shoot heroin again and hang out with other addicts. Her grades and attendance plummet. She drops out and becomes more desperate every day to support her habit.

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Finally Susan agrees to go with a clean and sober friend to the Methadone Maintenance Outpatient clinic for help. A social worker, trained in substance misuse and addictions, helps her understand her condition and her current options. With the social worker's support, Susan decides to go on methadone for several months to stabilize her situation. The social worker meets with her regularly to help Susan identify the areas she wants to work on, such as finding employment and attending mutual-help groups in the area. Susan begins to pick up the threads of her life. Social workers are likely to meet many Susans in a variety of social work settings. Substance misuse and addiction is a prominent theme in child abuse and neglect, domestic violence, poverty, oppression of all kinds, veterans services, elderly services, juvenile delinquency, mental health, and many other arenas where social workers practice. In addition, social workers are increasingly found in settings that were once dominated by addiction specialists certified in alcohol and drug counseling. Social workers trained in substance misuse and addictions now practice in methadone maintenance clinics, inpatient and outpatient treatment settings, residential treatment, and in government policy-making positions. Social workers bring a much needed ecological perspective to the work in this field. Instead of only focusing on the individual client's addiction or substance misuse problem, social workers see the client in relation to the family, the neighborhood, the support system from the community, the prevailing dominant cultural attitudes and policies, and the cosmic or spiritual level. Consequently, social workers trained in addictions can be found doing case management, group and individual therapy, family counseling,

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advocacy for jobs and housing needs, community development of resources, educating, policymaking, and sometimes doing this all at the same time! Social workers trained in substance misuse and addiction often work as part of a team of other professionals, especially certified alcohol and drug counselors, physicians, and nurses. Many states require alcohol and drug certification in order to work in specialized addiction treatment settings. Social workers in this field report the deep satisfaction of watching clients who have been completely hopeless and beaten down by addiction (their own, or someone's they love), go on to recover their humanity, sense of purpose in life, and ability to make positive choices for themselves. Related Areas

mental health individual, group, family counseling victim services corrections child welfare aging

Employers

inpatient and outpatient treatment centers methadone maintenance clinics residential treatment community development settings child welfare community mental health centers family service agencies schools

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6.2 Aging/Gerontology

For years, Mr. and Mrs. Gonzalez had been regulars at the Hispanic Senior Center, enthusiastically joining in many center activities. But since his wifes death, Mr. Gonzalez has stopped coming. His neighbors voice their concern to the centers social worker. They say he rarely leaves his apartment, refuses their offers of help, and seems disoriented.

Concerned that he may be suffering from depression, the social worker arranges to visit Mr. Gonzalez. She talks with him about his loss, fear of his own death, and life alone. She finds he feels that he is unwelcome as a single person. As he recognizes his feelings, she is able to convince him to come to the center. Slowly, Mr. Gonzalez begins again to take part in center activities and find companions. The world population is aging. We live in a world where people over 65 outnumber teenagers. This translates into a tremendous need - and a variety of opportunities - for social work with older persons and their families. Working with older adults can mean involvement with active, healthy clients as well as those who are ill in settings that range from adult day care centers and nursing homes to hospitals, public agencies, and private corporations. Social workers form an important link between seniors and the services designed to help them. Often, social workers will have direct contact with elderly people, providing counseling; helping them maintain their independence at home; arranging income assistance, transportation, and medical treatment; organizing recreational activities and support

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groups; and generally improving their quality of life. Social workers may also work with family members caring for elderly members and may help them obtain services and make plans for future care. Many who work with seniors find that they profit from the depth and breadth of their experience, one of the more rewarding aspects of this important career.

Related Areas

Advocacy and intervention Home health care Geriatric case management Public policy Adult day care Family services Information and referral

Employers

Hospitals and medical centers Banks, insurance companies, and investment firms Nursing homes Senior centers Area agencies on aging Senior volunteer programs Senior housing facilities Mental health centers Family service agencies Employee assistance programs

6.3 Child Welfare

Narcotics officers have raided a house, arresting a husband and wife. A social worker is called to arrange care for their two young girls. when she arrives, she gently explains to the children their parents situation. "Well find you a good place to stay til mom and

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dad come home," she assures them. She helps each find a favorite toy and bundles them into the car.

Back at the office, the social worker first tries to locate relatives, then searches a list of approved foster homes. Most are at capacity, but one can take both. Again, she gathers up the sisters and takes them to their foster home. On the way she talks to them about their fears, explains what the foster family is like, and tells them when she will come back.

At the court hearing, the mother is released. But the judge must decide whether the children may go home or remain in foster care. The social worker testifies, describing drug paraphernalia lying about the house within reach, the empty refrigerator, the childrens dirty clothes. Later, she helps the girls understand the courts decision that their mom must complete a drug treatment program before they can go home to her. Child welfare social workers are advocates for the most silent minority: our nations youths. The social workers job is to help ensure the health and well-being of children, primarily by supporting and strengthening their families. Often, timely services to a family can forestall a crisis. When Child Protective Services receives a report of a neglected or abused child, social workers investigate, attempting to determine if it is safe for the child to remain in the home. If so, they may provide support services to the family in their home and link

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parents with community services such as child care, temporary income maintenance, job training, substance abuse treatment, counseling, or parenting classes. In cases where families cant or wont protect their children, social workers may recommend temporary foster care. When longer term arrangements are needed, the social worker will work with lawyers and the courts and may give testimony in the childs behalf. Child welfare agencies provide services to these children and their families to reunite them if possible. If a child cannot return to the parents, the social worker seeks another permanent home, placing the child with relatives or recommending the childs release for adoption. Intervening when children are abused or neglected, when a family is in trouble, or when parents have problems is difficult and challenging, requiring training, skill, and sensitivity. Often a social workers intervention makes a critical difference at a key moment in a childs life. Related fields

Family preservation Child day care Child protection Family foster care Group care Adoption Public welfare Advocacy and intervention

Employers

Adoption agencies Child day care Foster care agencies Family preservation agencies

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Public child welfare organizations Private child welfare organizations

6.4 Public Welfare

A young woman in her late 20s is suddenly deserted by her husband, leaving her with three young children. Left without income, she moves in with her recently widowed father. The move solves her immediate need for shelter, but her fathers social security check is not enough to support four more people. Because she doesnt know where her husband is, she is unable to file for child support. A friend suggests that she apply for public assistance. At the welfare office, she finds she qualifies for Aid to Families with Dependent Children, food stamps, medical coverage, and housing assistance. Her children will get free breakfasts and lunches at school. She will qualify for education and job training so that eventually she will be able to support her family without help. For more than four decades, public welfare has provided income and support services to societys most vulnerable peoplechildren, the ill, the elderly, the disabled. Although some of these people will always need services, traditional thinking about how to help is changing as the nation debates welfare reform. How to foster self-sufficiency and move people into the mainstream is todays challenge, complicated by an increase in social problems and a general decrease in funds. Social workers are primarily the administrators, managers, and program evaluators of the public welfare system. Some supervise intake workers and case workers who provide direct services. Social work in public welfare entails planning, administering, and

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financing programs; training and supervising staff; and setting and evaluating standards and criteria for service delivery. There is no shortage of challenges in public welfare waiting for creative thinking and leadership from social workers. Related Areas

Income maintenance Adult protective service Housing services Supervision Management Administration Public Policy Research

Employers

Public welfare agencies Private social service agencies

6.5 School Social Work

Although 9-year-old Robert has been a good student, his third-grade teacher notices a marked change in his workand his attitude. The teacher contacts the school social worker, who meets with Robert and his mother. The social worker discovers that Roberts father has abandoned the family, leaving his mother depressed and in financial difficulty.

The social worker suggests extra help and counseling for Robert and invites him to join a support group in school for children of divorced parents. The social worker also refers Roberts mother to a mental health clinic, finds a neighborhood mothers support group

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for her, and helps her apply for child support. With extra help and support, Roberts grades and outlook begin to improve. Every child needs to be free from troubles that interfere with learning. Many school systems employ social workers to help children with emotional, developmental, or educational needs. Working with teams of other school personnel, social workers help children with physical or learning disabilities or emotional problems or who face child abuse, neglect, domestic violence, poverty, or other problems. Often the social workers job includes interviewing the child and family to determine what action is called for. Another function is to facilitate communication between parents and school staff. Social workers may also intervene hi problem situations or mobilize parental support for students needs. Social workers may assess student needs, assist in discipline hearings, serve on policymaking committees, or help develop alternative programs. Other functions include facilitating schoolcommunity relations and providing a variety of services to students in special education programs. School social workers may be the first to spot difficulties a child is confronting at home or in the community and the first to intervene. They often provide services or find services in the areas that prevent more serious problems from developing. Related Areas

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Clinical social work Pupil personnel services

Employers

Elementary and secondary schools Special education placement offices Head start centers Counseling centers Early intervention programs

6.6 Justice/Corrections

Joan, a woman in her mid-20s, has a history of drug addiction and writing bad checks. During a four-year stay in prison, social work services including therapy and workshops on drug abuse and depression help her handle her addiction and make significant progress. But her children are in foster care, and she has lost touch with her mother and sisters.

As the time for her release approaches, Joan needs a job, housing, a continuing addiction recovery program, and reunification with her family. She meets with a prison social worker who arranges for placement in a halfway house and helps her find a job and transportation. After eight months drug-free and holding her job, the halfway house social worker helps Joan find an apartment, arranges for the return of her children, locates her family, and helps her reunite with them. In courts, rape crisis centers, police departments, and correctional facilities, youll find social workers.

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In correctional facilities, the focus is on rehabilitation. Social workers may plan and provide drug and alcohol addiction treatment, life skills and basic competency training, and therapy to help offenders function once released into the community. Social workers can be probation and parole officers, arranging for services after an offender is released, as in Joans case, finding a group home residence, remedial classes, job training, addiction treatment, counseling, child care, and transportation. These activities generally help raise a clients independence and self-esteem. Social workers may also be involved in restitution programs, or victim assistance services. They may serve the court as expert witnesses or work in partnership with attorneys. In police departments, social workers may help with domestic disputes or provide trauma and critical incident services to enforcement officers. Social work activities in corrections are diverse, as are the clients, affording the chance to develop and use a broad range of skills. Corrections and justice is a field where a social worker can focus on rehabilitation and the constructive use of authority. Related Areas

Corrections Probation Forensics Youth services Parole

Employers

Prisons Courts Police departments Victim services programs

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6.7 Developmental Disabilities

At a developmental disabilities center, the social worker receives a call from a school assessment office. Tests and evaluation have shown that a new kindergartner is moderately retarded as well as hearing impaired. The boy needs special services, and his parents need help understanding the assessment.

The social worker meets with the family to help them explore options. She brings them a list of recommended books that may be helpful. She arranges for additional developmental testing at the center to determine the childs level and help determine what services the boy may need as he matures. She arranges for them to join a support group for parents whose children have developmental disabilities. Once these initial arrangements are made, the social worker provides supportive therapy to the parents to help them deal with their feelings. People with developmental disabilities, which can include mental retardation, cerebral palsy, autism, epilepsy, and other conditions, may at some time seek out social services. The goal of the social worker is to assist such people in improving their functioning and social adjustment. Usually this is accomplished through teams that include other professionals. Social workers help parents of children with disabilities understand their legal rights, learn to be advocates for their children, and help them find special services.

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Social workers may work with individuals or groups as well as provide counseling for families. The social worker helps find the right services to enable each individual to be as independent as possible. For the clients of social workers who serve people with disabilities those services can mean the difference between merely surviving and leading a productive and joyful life. Related Areas

Case management Planning Research Policy Program evaluation Management

Employers

Community-based living arrangements State and local agencies Medical facilities Schools

6.8 Employment/Occupational Social Work Richard has been having difficulty concentrating at work and is frequently absent. His supervisor suggests he visit the employee assistance program social worker. Richard doesnt want to go, but the program is a company benefit and he knows that improving his productivity will give him a chance at a promotion, so he agrees.

At the first appointment, the social worker takes a social history and explores what seems to be affecting Richards performance. He says that his son is not doing well in school and his wife recently lost her job. The stress has led to family fights.

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The social worker discusses school services that may help his son and community services to help his wife find a new job and suggests counseling for the whole family.

At a follow-up appointment, Richard reports that his son is getting remedial help at school and that his wife has enrolled in a job retraining program. They are beginning to feel more optimistic as they talk things through in family therapy. And Richards supervisor reports that his productivity has returned. With the ever-increasing competitiveness of our economy, the quality of the workforce often determines an enterprises success or failure. Occupational social workers are a boon to our nations businesses, helping workers with problems that affect their job performance and satisfaction. Social workers may help corporations reengineer their structure and methods to improve efficiency, creativity, productivity, and morale. Or social workers in this field may work for a union and might be involved in job counseling or organizing. A growing practice area for occupational social workers is in employee assistance programs (EAPs). The social worker may own the EAP or be employed by a business or a union, working onsite or off. The breadth and scope of their duties can be enormous one minute helping an executive cope with the strain of an impending takeover, the next counseling an anorexic young trainee. EAP social workers may lead groups on stress reduction or coping with layoffs. Other situations the social worker may confront include substance abuse, domestic violence, single parenting, and vocational rehabilitation. Many employee assistance programs have extended their role for corporations to the management of mental health benefits.

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In the vibrant domain of American work life, social workers provide the necessary human dimension. Related Areas

Clinical social work Alcohol and other drug abuse treatment Health and wellness education Grass roots organizing

Employers

Corporations Businesses Employee assistance programs Labor unions Organizational development

6.9 Health Care Mr. Proctor has recovered from his heart attack, and his doctor wants to discharge him from the hospital. But his elderly wife is just recovering from a broken leg and cannot provide the care he needs at home. The social worker, in collaboration with the doctor, nurse, and physical therapist, makes arrangements for home health care, meals-onwheels, nursing services, and other assistance. Establishing Mr. and Mrs. Proctor at home allows the couple to recover together and more happily than they would have been in separate, and more expensive, institutions. Social workers are needed in hospitals, clinics, and other medical and health care settings to facilitate medical and emotional treatment. These social workers assess a patients needs, manage the many services a patient may require for recovery, plan for care after hospitalization, educate patients and their families, and help them cope with the personal and emotional problems related to the illness.

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Social workers are vital members of the health care team, working in concert with doctors, nurses, and other health and mental health professionals. They sensitize other health care providers to the social and emotional aspects of illness. In health settings social workers also conduct research, develop programs, administer social work departments, lead support groups, and coordinate community resources. The health care field offers a variety of employment opportunities in homes, community health centers, outpatient clinics, and public health program, as well as in hospitals. Related Areas

Hospital social work AIDS counseling/education Public health Hospice counseling/management Home health care Case management Discharge planning Maternal and child health Physical rehabilitation Chemical dependency Disease prevention and health promotion

Employers

Health maintenance organizations Nursing homes Hospitals Clinics Hospice Group homes

6.10 Mental Health/Clinical Social Work

Patricia develops hallucinations and eating and sleeping problems during her first semester in college. After two weeks in the hospital with therapy and medication, she

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goes home to her parents. They take her to a community mental health clinic, where a clinical social worker helps her and her parents understand and cope with her condition.

Patricia feels she was not yet able to return to college, so the social worker helps her explore her options. With the social workers encouragement and support, Patricia takes a part-time job at a local pet store. With satisfying but low-stress work, together with continued therapy and physician-monitored medication, Patricia improves. By spring semester, she enrolls in two courses at a community college and increases her hours at the pet shop. Many people at certain times in their lives need mental health services to get the most out of life. Clinical social workers are the largest group of professionally trained mental health providers in the United States, supplying more than half of counseling and therapy services. These mental health professionals help people find solutions to problems ranging from inability to cope with day-to-day stress to severe mental illness. The social workers emphasis is on helping clients help themselves. Clinical social work services include aiding a client in understanding the causes of emotional distress, developing and implementing methods to resolve the situation, and, when connecting the client with appropriate community resources. Clinical social workers are found in a wide variety of settings and often work as part of a team of other professionals. Many have they own private practices.

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All clinical social workers must have all MSW. They must be licensed or certified in the state in which they practice. Many states require continuing education to maintain licensure or certification. The challenges of mental health practice and variety in clinical social work are legion, as are the satisfactions of helping people make positive changes in their lives. Related Areas

Alcohol and other drug abuse treatment Individual and family psychotherapy and counseling Grief counseling Victim services Corrections Aging Child welfare Developmental disabilities Health care Group work Group therapy

Employers

Community mental health centers Psychiatric hospitals Residential treatment centers Partial (day treatment) hospitals Managed mental health programs Employee assistance programs Schools Family service agencies

6.11 Community Organization

It has taken a while, but the newspaper finally runs an article on how few loans city banks are making in some neighborhoods. Residents have suspected something was amiss; houses arent selling, and families with good credit have been turned down for

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home improvement loans. A social worker at the neighborhood assistance organization calls a meeting of residents to address the issue.

With the social workers assistance, residents organize for action. They alert other community organizations to build support. They survey the neighborhood. The results showed that one in five residents have applied for a loan and nearly three-quarters had been turned down. The social worker and community leaders meet with the newspapers editorial board. They present the survey and tell about attempts to sell homes. The article and a subsequent editorial prompt local television reporters to pick up the story. Publicity convinces the banks that goodwill and good business require change. The social worker and resident leaders meet with banking officers to generate new policies that will enable residents to get loans, keeping the neighborhood from falling into disrepair and helping it thrive. Helping people help themselves is a fundamental doctrine of social work. Community organizing goes a step furtherhelping people help themselves collectively. lt is collective problem-solving by a group working on behalf of themselves and their community. A social worker in community organizing usually works with an existing organization to tackle issues that concern people in a building, neighborhood, workplace, or community. Community organizers coordinate and facilitate activities to improve social conditions enhance the quality of life, and bring people into the political process.

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Some work directly with communities. They may help stop a toxic waste incinerator, initiate an alternative school, develop a neighborhood housing plan, get drug dealers of l the block, develop senior citizen programs, or organize stockholders to promote corporate responsibility. Others work for advocacy or social change organizations to improve conditions for specific groups (such as homeless people, immigrants, or refugees) or tackle issues such as welfare reform or violence prevention. Many social workers in this field go on to lead policy or advocacy organizations. Others become elected or appointed public officials. Social workers who choose community organizing can have a tremendous impact on the nations communities and on social reform. Related Areas

Community development Social planning Program development Community education Grassroots organizing Consumer advocacy Voter registration Economic development Politics Group work Neighborhood organizing

Employers

Advocacy organizations Development corporations Community action agencies Neighborhood and community centers Local, state, and federal governments

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Settlement houses Associations

6.12 International Social Work A countrys political social order crumbles and the world watches a human consequence of the turmoilchildren abandoned in primitive orphanages. Humanitarian relief organizations move in to help improve conditions. Social workers are engaged to help. Some train orphanage staff in basic child development, including childrens attachment and separation fears, the need for creative playtime, colorful paint and pictures on the walls, better diet, more hygienic care. Life begins to improve for the children.

Other social workers help draft standards for childrens institutions including child-staff rations, recommended activities, and staff education and training. Still others work with government agencies organizing foster care services and family services and counseling. The new services will help families stay together and offer alternatives to placing children in orphanages in the future. The functions of international social work k are nearly as diverse as the people served. On one level, the work involves direct services in refugee programs, relief efforts. inter country adoptions and development, health care, and education. But another aspect involves advancing the efforts of national governments, intergovernmental organizations, and voluntary agencies to enhance social welfare policy, technical assistance, research, and information exchange. Social workers manage programs, train others, help develop service delivery systems train in developing countries, and much more.

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International organizations such as the United Nations and its International Childrens Emergency Fund (UNICEF) employ social workers in both urban and rural projects. The World Health Organization (WHO) works on several frontsacquired immune deficiency syndrome, drug addiction, faminethat include social work services. And the International Committee of the Red Cross performs vital disaster relief services, often with the aid of social workers. For those practicing in this exciting field, language abilities and a desire to travel are a must as is an appreciation of other cultures. With our growing comprehension of the interdependence of nations, there is expanding potential in international social work definitely a world worth exploring.

Related Areas

Social development Community development Community organization Group work Advocacy Social planning Social development International adoption Technology transfer Family planning Child welfare Health and mental health Posttraumatic stress Substance abuse Management Social policy Employment services Refugee services

Employers

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International aid organizations Relief organizations International human rights agencies Refugee relief agencies

7. CASE STUDY: UAE SOCIAL WORKER TAKEN FROM NEWSPAPER: NATION | SOCIETY Published: 14/6/2005, 08:18 (UAE) Social workers grapple with case of teenage girl who hit mother By Mona Ahmad, Staff Reporter
Dubai: A teenage girl who "wants to enjoy the freedom of youth" regularly slaps her mother and threatens to commit suicide whenever her parents try to discipline her, a police source has said.

A social worker from Dubai Police Human Rights Department, who did not want to be named, said they rarely came across cases where children hit their parents. "We received this case at the end of last month, and we are still working on it. The girl's father is a 60-year-old UAE national who was a school bus driver at the Ministry of Education." The source added the girl's mother is a 40-year-old Indian. "She has eight children, five girls and three boys, and this 17-year-old girl is the eldest. Her parents came to me seeking help because she is creating lots of problems for her family. "This girl wants to enjoy the freedom of youth. She leaves her house at 3pm every day and doesn't return home till 11pm. "She always says she visits her girlfriends, but her family suspects she might be having illegal relationships with men," the police source said. The source added whenever her mother tried to stop her or advise her, the teenager slapped her. After looking into this case, they found her father was the root of the problem. "He has 3 wives, and has about 30 children. With his low income, and all these children he never has time to look after them or raise them properly. This girl's mother lives separately in Dubai, while the other two wives share a house in Sharjah." The source said when the girl was younger her father fought with her mother at night, he

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then knocked on his children's bedroom door and told them bad things about their mother. "The father would beat the mother in front of his children, and tell them their mother was not a good woman and had many illegal affairs with other men, thus they don't respect her at all." The problem is the teenage girl is the eldest, and she may affect her younger brothers and sisters as well, the social worker said. "Once, when her father caught her doing something wrong and beat her she decided to end her life. "She drank washing detergent and was admitted to hospital. Since then, she has threatened to commit suicide if her parents beat her or stop her from going out. "She has also threatened to leave a suicide note saying her parents are responsible for her death," the source said. The source added the case was very complicated because the girl had no respect for her mother. "Thus, we are now trying to focus on the father. The father should tell his daughter that whatever he said about her mother was not true. "We are waiting for the girl to finish her school exams, and then I will visit them at home and talk to her. Hopefully, we will find a solution to this case." "The father would beat the mother in front of his children, and tell them their mother was not a good woman ... , thus they don't respect her at all."

8. References Derezotes, D. S, (2000). Advanced Generalist Social Work Practice. Sage Publications, United States of America Frank, J. (1973). Persuasion and Healing. Baltimore Johns Hopkins, University Press, United States of America. Kirst-Ashman, K. K. (2003). Introduction to Social Work and Social Welfare Critical Thinking and Perspectives. Brooks / Cole. United States of America

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Morales, A. T., Sheafor, B. W. & Scott M.E. (2007). Social Work A Profession with Many Faces. Needham Heights, United States of America. Middleman, R. R.& Goldburg, Wood G. (1990). Skills for Direct Practice in Social Work. Columbia University Press, United States of America. Vass A. (1996). Social Work Competencies: Core Knowledge, Values and Skills. Sage Publications, London.

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