Searching for New Forces over

Ultrashort Distances

XXXVIIIth RENCONTRES DE MORIOND

2003
Ephraim Fischbach
and
Ricardo Decca
Galina Klimchitskaya
Dennis Krause
Daniel Lopéz
Vladimir Mostepanenko
 Overview
• Was Newton Really Right?
– Tests of 1/r2 law
– Tests of the equivalence principle
– Importance of scale
• Motivations for Non-Newtonian Gravity
– New light quanta ⇒ new forces
– Unification and extra dimensions
• Experimental Tests
– Problems with short-distance experiments
– The “iso-electronic” effect
– The IUPUI Casimir experiment
• Outlook
 Summary of Newtonian Gravity
• Newtonian Gravity • Non-Newtonian Gravity

{ }
Gm1 m 2 Gm1 m 2 −r/λ
V (r) = − V (r) = − 1 + α 12 e
r r
m1 r m2
r / 1m 2
Gm r G(r)m1m 2
F (r) = − 2
rˆ = m
/ 1 a1 F (r) = − 2
rˆ
r r
doesn’t vary as 1/r2 *
r Gm2 −r / λ
a1 = − 2 rˆ G(r) = G[1 + α12e (1+ r / λ )]
r
a) independent of the nature of m1 not independent of 1 or 2 *
(Equivalence Principle)
* Evidence for either of these would
b) varies as 1/r2 point to a new fundamental force in
nature.
 Theory of New Forces
A new force can arise from
the exchange of a light scalar(JP = 0+)
quantum with appropriate
properties f1 f2
µ
vector
−r / λ vector (JP = 1-)
e
V12 (r ) = ± f1 f 2 p, e, n, (π0, …) p, e, n, (π0, …)
r
scalar
λ = Range
−r / λ
e
V12 (r ) = ±Q1Q2 f 2 = h/µc
r if µ = 10-9 eV/c2 ⇒ λ = 200 m
Bulk Matter
Limits on Extra Dimensions and New Forces:
Long-Range Limits

Reference: Coy, Fischbach, Hellings, Standish & Talmadge (2003)

Limits on Extra Dimensions and New Forces:
Short-Range Limits

Gravitational strength

Reference: Long, et al., Nature 421, 922 (2003)

 Mini-Review #1
• The existence of ultra-light particles can produced long-range fields
which behave somewhat like gravity

• The presence of such fields would show up as apparent deviations

from the predictions of Newtonian gravity
1/r2 violations
equivalence principle violations

• To search for such violations, experiments must be carried out over

many distance scales

• Newtonian gravity is OK down to ~ 0.1 mm.

Below ~ 0.1 mm we know relatively little about the behavior of
Newtonian gravity
 Long-Range Forces Over Sub-mm
Scales
• Various mechanisms lead to • Also: String Theory Models …
potentials with and inverse
power law behavior • Such forces can best be
detected in experiments where
n −1 the interacting bodies are very
 GN m1m2  r0 
Vn (r ) = −α n    close to each other, as in the
 r  r  Casimir Effect

• Problems
– How to separate out the new
forces from the known
n=2 2-photon exchange; 2-scalar electromagnetic effects
exchange – Forces are intrinsically small
n=3 2-pseudoscalar exchange – V(r) ≠ 1/r
n=4
_
n=5 νν -exchange; 2-axion exchange
 Neutrino Exchange Force

ν
2
G 1
GF
ν
GF Vνν (r) = F
4π r
3 5

1 2
Gravity in 3 + n Non-Compact Dimensions

M1 M2

Potential Energy: GM1 M2

VGravity (r) = − 1+n
r
r r
Force: FGravity (r) = −∇ V (r)

Observations ⇒ n = 0
 Compact Spatial Dimensions

r >> R → Space appears 3-D

r < R → Extra dimensions appear
Experiment:
• All matter sees extra dims ⇒ R< 10-15 m
• Only gravity sees extra dims ⇒ R< 10-4 m
Gravity with n Compact Extra Dimensions
Newtonian Gravity Yukawa Correction

 GM1 M 2
− (1+ α e −r / λ ), r >> R
 r
VGravity (r) = 
 G' M M
− 1 2
, r≤ R
 r1+n

Range of Yukawa: λ ~ R
Strength Constant α:
•Models of extra dimensions: α ~ 1-10
•New Force Models: α ~ ????
 Numerical Estimates
• It is convenient to introduce an energy scale set by the usual Newtonian
constant G ≡ G4. This is the Planck mass MPl ≡ M4
M4 ≡ MPl = (hc/G4)1/2 = 2.18×10-5 g = 1.22×1019 GeV/c2

• In natural units (h = c = 1) M42 = 1/G4

• The analog of the Planck mass in higher dimensions is called M4+n

• When expressed in terms of M4 and M4+n the previous result

G4 = G5/4R generalizes to

M 42 ≈ R n (n)M 4+
n+ 2
n
• This forms the basis for current experiments
 How Big is M4+n? How big is n?

1) The usual Planck mass M4 and the associated length scale h/M4c ≈
10-33 cm are the scales at which gravitational interactions become
comparable in strength to other interactions, and hence can be
unified with these interactions

2) It would be nice if this happened at a smaller energy

scale ⇒ bigger length scale.
A natural choice is ~ 1 TeV = 1012 eV where supersymmetry
breaks down

3) This can happen in some string theories with extra spatial

dimensions if ordinary matter is confined to 3-dimensional walls
(“branes”), and only gravity propagates in the extra dimensions
 How Big is M4+n? How big is n?

4) In such theories M4+n ≈ 1 TeV by assumption

We then solve:
M 42 ≈ R n (n) M 4n++n2

(1019 GeV)2 (1 TeV)n+2

R (n) ≈ 2 ×10(32 / n −17 ) cm

n = 1 ⇒ R(1) ≈ 2 × 1015 cm Excluded
n = 2 ⇒ R(2) ≈ 0.2 = 2 mm Highly Constrained
! n = 3 ⇒ R(3) ≈ 9 × 10-7 cm Unconstrained
Forces acting between two 1 cm × 1cm × 1mm copper
plates separated by distance d (T = 300 K)

Gravity dominates
when d >>10-5 m

Casimir force
dominates when
10-10 m < d < 10-5 m
Neutrino
 Casimir Review
• Casimir force, arising from quantum
fluctuations of vacuum, dominates gravity at
short separations.
• Large Casimir background hinders efforts
to detect new forces and extra dimensions at
short distances.
• Experiments utilizing the iso-electronic
effect should be able to negate this Casimir
background.
Casimir Force for Ideal Metals at T = 0

F F Zero-Point Fluctuations of Radiation Field

+
ε= ° ε= ° Boundary Conditions
d
⇓

π 2 hc
F(d) = − 4 A
240 d
Casimir Force for Real Metals at T ≠ 0:
Lifshitz Formula
k B T A 1X 0 3 Z 1 2
F (d) = ° 3 l=0
ª l 1 p dp f
º c
2
0 1
2
3
° 1
6 B K ( iª ) + " ( iª ) p
6 7
6B l l CC C 7
2d ( ª l =c) p ° 1 777
6B
6B
6@
C
A
e 7
4
K ( iª l ) ° " ( iª l ) p 5

ε(ω) ε(ω) 2
0 1
2
3
9
° 1 >>>>>>
6
6B K ( iª l ) + p CCC 2d ( ª =c) p 7
7 >
>
d + 6B
6B
6B
6@
C
A
e l ° 1 7
7
7
7
=
>
>
4
K ( iª l ) ° p 5 >
>
>
>
>
>
;

where

2º k B T l
! = iª l ; ªl = ;
hš

2 3
1=2
K ( iª l ) = 4
p2 ° 1 + " ( iª l ) 5
 Isotopic Dependence of the Casimir Force?

Our strategy
FX = F −F
Measured Measured
Isotope # 2 Isotope #1

assumes that the Casimir force is the same for two

isotopes:
=F
Casimir Casimir
FIsotope #1 Isotope # 2

Is this true?
 Isotopic Dependence of the Casimir Force:
A First Look

1. Casimir Force depends on dielectric properties of

interacting bodies
2. Frequency-dependent dielectric constant ε(ω) depends
on the lattice spacing a
3. Lattice spacing a depends on isotopic mass through:
• Anharmonicity of Interatomic Potentials
• Zero-Point Motion of Ions
 Isotopic Dependence of the Casimir force and
New forces and extra dimensions: Logic

Isotopic Mass Lattice Constant

Dielectric Constant Plasma Frequency

Lifshitz Formula Casimir Force

Limits on Extra Dimensions and

New Forces
 Dielectric Constant of a Metal

The optical properties of a material depend on

its dielectric constant ε(ω).
ω 2p
Free Electron Metal: ε (ω ) = 1− 2
ω
4πNe 2

Plasma Frequency: ωp =
2 N/V = # of valence
meV electrons/volume

If ω < ωp, light is reflected by the metal

If ω > ωp, light is transmitted through the metal.
For copper and gold, ωp = 9.3 × 1016 rad/s (λ = 136 nm)
Anharmonicity of Interatomic Potentials :
Thermal Expansion of Lattice
Anharmonic term

r 1 1
V(r − r0 ) ≈ k(r − r0 ) − b(r − r0 )
2 3

2 6

Thermal average interatomic spacing:

r − r0 = u =
∫ du ue −V (u) /k BT

≈
b
2 kB T
VHr- r0 L ∫ du e −V (u) /k BT
2k
⇓
T-dependent lattice spacing:

r - r0 b
a(T ) ≡ r ≈ r0 + 2 k BT
2k
 Zero-Point Motion of Atoms:
Isotopic Dependence of Lattice Constant

Thermal Oscillations → Quantum Zero-Point Motion

1
k BT → hω
2
→a
b b
a(T ) ≡ r ≈ r0 + 2 k BT ZP ≡ r ≈ r0 + 2 hω
2k 4k
bh 1
k ≡ r ~ r0 + 3/ 2
ω~
M
(M = Atomic Mass) ⇒ aZP
4k M

Relative difference in
∆a a2 − a1 bh  ∆M 
a for two different = = ~ − 3 /2  
isotopes #1 and #2 a a1 4k a1 M 1  M1 
 Isotopic Dependence of a: Experiment

Observed dependence is ∆a ∆M
⇒ ~ −(T - dependent constant )
more complicated! a M

Isotopes ∆a/a Reference

58Ni, 64Ni -1.4×10-4 (T = 78 K)
Kogan and Bulatov, 1962
5.7×10-5 (T = 300 K)
12C, 13C
(Diamond) -1.5×10-4 (T = 298 K) Holloway, et al., 1991

6Li, 7Li Covington and Montgomery,

-4×10-4 (T = 293 K) 1957

20Ne, 22Ne -1.9×10-3 (T = 3 K) Batchelder, Losee, and

-1.6×10-3 (T = 24 K) Simmons, 1968

70Ge, 76Ge -5.3×10-5 (T = 30 K)

Sozontov, et al., 2001
-2.2×10-5 (T = 300 K)
 Isotopic Dependence of the Casimir Force:
Plasma Model
2º c hš c π 2 hcA  16 c 
If d ¿ and T ø , F(d) ≈ − 1− 
!p 2k B d 240 d 
4
3 ω pd 

1 ∆a
Since ω 2
p ∝ 3 and ~ −10−4 ,
a a

Relative difference ∆F F2 − F1 8c  ∆a 
in FCasimir for = F = F1 ~ − ω p,1 d  a 
isotopes #1 and #2
8c
~ ×10−4 << 10 −4
ω p,1d
Reference: Krause and Fischbach, Phys. Rev. Lett. 89, 190406 (2002)
 IUPUI Experiment
(Decca, Lopéz, Fischbach, Krause)
 IUPUI Experiment
(Decca, Lopéz, Fischbach, Krause)
Experimental Parameters:
Plate: 500 µm × 500 µm × 3.5 µm
Sphere Radius: 300 µm
Coatings:
Sphere: 1 nm Cr with 200 nm Au
Plate: Cu and Ni
Sphere/Plate Separation: 200-1200 nm
Experiment of Chan, et al., from
October 2001 Physics Today Minimum Force:
Current: 6 fN /Hz1/2
(Note: E. Coli bacterium weight ~ 10 pN)
 Experimental Setup for Casimir Force
Measurement between Dissimilar Materials
Electrostatic Force Measurements
 Casimir Force:
Static Measurement
 Casimir Pressure:
Gradient Measurement
Limits on Extra Dimensions and New Forces:
Sub-micron Limits

Reference: Decca, Lopéz, Fischbach, Krause (unpublished)

 Future Work

1. Comparing the Casimir force between

an Au sphere and a Au-Ge substrate
2. Comparing the Casimir force between
an Au sphere and a 58Ni and 64Ni
substrate