What Is Relativity

Chator 1
IntroducIng EngInoors to
HoIatIvIty
space, Lime and
graviLaLion,
briey
Cne of Lhe besL lnLtoducLlons Lo hls Lheoty of telaLlvlLy ls found ln ElnsLeln's
essays |ElnsLeln|, ln whlch he sLaLed:
The Lheoty of telaLlvlLy ls LhaL physlcal Lheoty whlch ls based on a consls-
LenL physlcal lnLetpteLaLlon of Lhe concepLs of moLlon, space and Llme. The
name 'Lheoty of telaLlvlLy' ls connecLed wlLh Lhe facL LhaL moLlon ftom Lhe
polnL of vlew of posslble expetlence always appeats as Lhe :|nI.r moLlon
of one objecL wlLh tespecL Lo anoLhet.
MoLlon ls nevet obsetvable as 'moLlon wlLh tespecL Lo space' ot, as lL
has been exptessed, as 'absoluLe moLlon.' The 'ptlnclple of telaLlvlLy' ln
lL's wldesL sense ls conLalned ln Lhe sLaLemenL: The LoLallLy of physlcal
phenomena ls of such a chatacLet LhaL lL glves no basls fot Lhe lnLtoducLlon
of Lhe concepL of 'absoluLe moLlon', ot shotLet buL less pteclse: Thete ls no
absoluLe moLlon." ElnsLeln conLlnued wlLh:
The developmenL of Lhe Lheoty of telaLlvlLy ptoceeded ln Lwo sLeps, 'speclal
Lheoty of telaLlvlLy' and 'genetal Lheoty of telaLlvlLy.' The laLLet ptesumes Lhe
valldlLy of Lhe fotmet as a llmlLlng case and ls lLs conslsLenL conLlnuaLlon."
ElnsLeln Lhen btley desctlbed boLh Lhe speclal and Lhe genetal Lheotles of
telaLlvlLy. lL ls wotLh Lo emphaslze Lhe facL whlch ElnsLeln sLaLed above-lL
ls noL Lwo Lheotles, genetal telaLlvlLy compleLely lncludes speclal telaLlvlLy
as a llmlLlng case whete Lhe gtavlLaLlonal eld ls negllglble. Such a llmlLlng
case can happen ln empLy space, fat away ftom masslve objecLs and ln
Lhe absence of acceletaLlon. lL can also happen closet Lo masslve objecLs,
lnslde a small labotaLoty LhaL ls ln ftee-fall, whete Lhe gtavlLaLlonal eld ls
ptacLlcally noL deLecLable lnslde Lhe labotaLoty.
1
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CHAIJII 1. INJIODUCINC INCINIIIS JO IIIAJI'IJY 16
1.1 Tho socIaI thoory oI roIatIvIty, IrIoy
ElnsLeln was lead Lo hls speclal Lheoty of telaLlvlLy by hls belleve LhaL Lhete
ls no way Lo deLecL absoluLe moLlon. Thls dlcLaLed LhaL Lhe measuted speed
of llghL musL be Lhe same ln all lnetLlal ftames of tefetence.* ElnsLeln called
*InerLlal frames are unlformly movlng coordlnaLe sysLems, far away from gravlLaLlonal
or any oLher form of lnuence, where lnerLla ls lsoLrolc, meanlng a glven force wlll
cause Lhe same acceleraLlon on ldenLlcal masses ln whaLever dlrecLlon Lhe force ls
alled.
Lhls Lhe 1.j|I-:.n.|", ot L-ptlnclple fot shotL.
ElnsLeln teallzed LhaL of lf Lhls ptlnclple does noL hold, Lhete musL be a 'tesL-
ftame' fot llghL. Thls means LhaL we could ln ptlnclple seL up an lnetLlal
ftame ln whlch llghL would noL ptopagaLe ln Lhe fotwatd dltecLlon aL all
(lf Lhe ftame moves aL Lhe speed of llghL telaLlve Lo Lhe aeLhet). ElnsLeln
tepotLedly conLemplaLed lf he would sLlll be able Lo see hls own face ln a
mlttot lf Lhey wete boLh aL tesL ln such a ftame.
We can exLend Lhls Lo say LhaL tadats as we know Lhem would noL wotk
ln such a movlng lnetLlal ftame. Even aL less exLteme speeds, sLandatd
tadats would tepotL wtong dlsLances, wlLh ettots LhaL depend on dltecLlon
of movemenL. Mote abouL tadat measutemenLs laLet.
ElnsLeln teallzed LhaL lL ls patadoxlcal Lo assume Lhe same llghL tay can
acLually move wlLh Lhe same speed c (ln an absoluLe NewLonlan sense)
telaLlve Lo all lnetLlal ftames. Thls would tequlte LhaL llghL adapLs lL's
absoluLe speed" Lo Lhe ftame LhaL measutes lL. He declded LhaL elLhet
Llme lnLetvals ot dlsLance measutemenLs (ot boLh) musL change lf measuted
by obsetvets ln dlfetenL lnetLlal ftames LhaL ate ln telaLlve moLlon.
ExacLly how Lhese lnLetvals musL change, ElnsLeln found ln Lhe Ltansfotma-
Llon equaLlons LhaL LotenLz has developed befote. These equaLlons Ltans-
fotms Llme and dlsLance measutemenLs ftom one lnetLlal ftame Lo anoLhet
pteclsely as tequlted by Lhe L-ptlnclple.
We wlll deal wlLh Lhe LotenLz LtansfotmaLlon ln a laLet chapLet. Fot Lhe
putpose of lnLtoducLlon, lL tequltes LhaL fot any Lwo evenLs, and 1 LhaL
occuts ln space and Llme, Lhete ls a quanLlLy called Lhe .nI.n .nI:rn|
LhaL temalns unchanged, lttespecLlve of ln whlch lnetLlal ftame Lhe compo-
nenLs of Lhe spaceLlme lnLetval ate measuted.
The spaceLlme lnLetval can be 'spacellke', 'llghLllke' ot 'Llmellke', as dened
below:
^c
2
=
_
_
(^sjacc)
2
(^Linc)
2
lf ^sjacc ^Linc (spacellke),
0 lf ^sjacc = ^Linc (llghLllke),
(^Linc)
2
(^sjacc)
2
lf ^sjacc < ^Linc (Llmellke),
ln geomeLtlc unlLs, whete c = 1 so LhaL ^Linc and ^sjacc ate exptessed
ln Lhe same unlLs. MosL englneets would ptobably ptefet Lhls Lo taLhet be
exptessed ln Lhe notmal Sl unlLs of meLtes and seconds. lL can be done
CHAIJII 1. INJIODUCINC INCINIIIS JO IIIAJI'IJY
by slmply teplaclng all tefetences Lo Llme by , Lhus convetLlng seconds Lo
meLtes. The spaceLlme lnLetval wlll look Lhen llke Lhls:
x
2
2
lf x (spacellke),
lf x (llghLllke)
2
x
2
lf x (Llmellke).
The auLhot aLLempLs Lo use Sl unlLs LhtoughouL, buL hete and Lhete lL
ls so much cleatet lf Lhe consLanL ls noL cluLLetlng Lhe equaLlons LhaL
geomeLtlc unlLs ate belng used. lL ls usually vety cleat whlch unlLs ate
undet consldetaLlon.

fino
spnco
0
0.b
1.0
1.b
2.0
0.b 1.0 1.b 2.0
. = 2 (finolilo)
. = 2 (spncolilo)
. = 0 (lighflilo)
FIgure 1.1: SaceLlme lnLervals loLLed for ranglng from 0 Lo 2 ln 0.5 sLes,
EoLh llghLllke and Llmellke. For large, Lhey all aroach Lhe (llghLllke) llne
asymLoLlcally. NoLe Lhe reclse symmeLry of sacellke and Llmellke lnLervals around Lhe
llghLllke lnLerval.
Flgute 1.1 lllusLtaLes Lhe Lhtee Lypes of lnLetval on a sLandatd spaceLlme
dlagtam. A Llmellke lnLetval ls Lhe only Lype whete an obsetvet, Ltavellng
slowet Lhan llghL, can be ptesenL aL boLh evenLs. Thls ls so because Lhete ls
enough Llme Lo covet Lhe dlsLance beLween Lhe Lwo evenLs aL a speed slowet
Lhan LhaL of llghL.
lL Lhen follows LhaL a spacellke lnLetval ls Lhe Lype whete noLhlng, noL even
llghL, can be ptesenL aL boLh evenLs. ln telaLlvlsLlc jatgon, Lhe Lwo evenLs
ate noL causally connecLed, ot sLaLed mote slmply, Lhe Lwo evenLs could noL
have lnuenced each oLhet.
A llghLllke lnLetval ls Lhe botdetllne beLween Lhe above Lwo lnLetvals and
ls only appllcable Lo some Lypes of waves and Lo massless patLlcles-llghL,
tadlo waves, gtavlLaLlonal waves, eLc-Lhlngs LhaL move aL Lhe speed of
llghL.
Spacellke lnLetvals ate notmally denoLed by and Llmellke lnLetvals wlLh
, so LhaL .
The facL LhaL Lhe (spaceLlme) lnLetval temalns unchanged, lttespecLlve of
whlch lnetLlal sysLem measutes lL, may appeat Lo be compleLely untematk-
able. ln NewLon mechanlcs, whete Llme lnLetvals and space lnLetvals temaln
unchanglng when you change yout lnetLlal ftame of tefetence, Lhe lnLetval
wlll obvlously temaln unchanged.
NewLon howevet, demands LhaL Lhe nn.&:J .J u |.j|I ls dlfetenL
ln dlfetenL lnetLlal tefetence ftames. ln otdet Lo confotm Lo ElnsLeln's 1-
:.n.| (Lhe lnvatlance of Lhe measuted speed of llghL), elLhet ^Linc ot
^sjacc ot huI| musL change lf you swlLch beLween lnetLlal tefetence ftames
LhaL ls movlng telaLlve Lo each oLhet.
ln otdet Lo saLlsfy Lhe L-ptlnclple and leave Lhe lnLetval unchanglng, boLh
musL change ln a vety speclc way.
Tne speed connectIon lf we Lake Lhe Llmellke lnLetval beLween Lwo
evenLs and 1 as
c^t =
_
c
2
^t
2
^c
2
and facLotlze c
2
^t
2
ouL ftom Lhe tlghLhand slde, we geL
c^t =
_
1 ` x
2
^t, (1.1)
whete ` x =
.:
c.|
, whlch can be lnLetpteLed as Lhe unlfotm speed LhaL an
obsetvet musL malnLaln (telaLlve Lo Lhe tefetence ftame) Lo be ptesenL aL
boLh evenLs.
The attow 1 ln gute 1.2 teptesenLs an obsetvet LhaL leaves evenL aL
Llme t
and attlves aL evenL 1 aL Llme t

1
, as measuted ln Lhe cootdlnaLe
sysLem x, ct. ln Lhe cootdlnaLe sysLem of Lhe movlng obsetvet (x
, ct
), Lhe
attlval Llme ls aL Llme t
1
, so LhaL ^t
= t
1
t
= ^t.

limo (ct)
spaco (x)

c|
, c|
1 c|
c|
.c|
.
.c|
=

c
.|
=
_
1 `
c.|
FIgure 1.2: 1he arrow 1 reresenLs a unlformly movlng oEserver LhaL ls resenL
aL EoLh evenLs and 1. In order Lo kee Lhe lnLerval ^c lnvarlanL, Lhe movlng oEserver
musL measure a Llme lnLerval of ^t
=
_
1 `
^t.
By denlLlon, Lhe 'movlng' obsetvet ls sLaLlonaty ln an lnetLlal ftame LhaL
moves aL a speed ` x telaLlve Lo Lhe otlglnal tefetence ftame. Slnce Lhe
obsetvet ls ptesenL aL boLh evenLs, Lhe Lwo evenLs ate sepataLed ln Lhe
obsetvet's space by ^x
= 0. The lnLetval ^t musL be ldenLlcal fot boLh

lnetLlal ftames, so
c^t =
_
c
2
^t
2
^x
2
=
_
c
2
^t
2
0 = c^t
,
meanlng Lhe Llme dlfetence beLween Lhe Lwo evenLs musL be measuted by
Lhe movlng obsetvet as
^t
= ^t =
_
1 ` x
2
^t. (1.2)
Thls sLaLemenL counLets Lhe atgumenL LhaL ls someLlmes exptessed, namely
LhaL speclal telaLlvlLy ls amblguous ln LhaL elLhet of Lhe Lwo obsetvets can be
consldeted as movlng telaLlve Lo Lhe oLhet one, so elLhet could be consldeted
as havlng a clock LhaL ls 'slow' when compated Lo Lhe oLhet's.
Hete Lhe slLuaLlon ls noL symmeLtlcal-one obsetvet ls ptesenL aL boLh evenLs
and Lhe oLhet one ls noL. lL ls Ltue LhaL any one of Lhe obsetvets can be cho-
sen as 'sLaLlonaty' and Lhe oLhet one as movlng telaLlve Lo Lhls 'sLaLlonaty'
ftame of tefetence.
Howevet, lf Lhe Lwo (lnetLlal) obsetvets ate movlng telaLlve Lo each oLhet,
un|j un u I|n nn h :.nI nI huI| rnI..* The Llme lnLetval mea-
*Provlded LhaL Lhe Lwo evenLs do noL EoLh haen aL Lhe lace and momenL where
Lhe Lwo oEservers ass each oLher-Lhen Lhey wlll EoLh measure ^t = ^ = 0, whlch
ls noL an lnLeresLlng exerlmenL.
suted by LhaL obsetvet ls called Lhe :u:I.n .nI:rn|, ^t. PtopetLlme
ls an exLtemely lmpotLanL concepL ln telaLlvlLy Lheoty.
The above lnLetpteLaLlon has noLhlng Lo do wlLh Lhe facL LhaL dlsLanL ob-
setvets wlll deLecL evenLs wlLh a Llme delay caused by Lhe nlLe speed of
llghL. By 'measute Lhe Llme dlfetence' we mean LhaL Lhe evenL Llmes have
been cottecLed fot Lhe Llme LhaL llghL Lakes Lo Ltavel ftom Lhe evenL Lo Lhe
obsetvet.
Thls does of coutse mean LhaL Lhe dlsLance beLween Lhe obsetvet and Lhe
evenLs musL be known, whlch btlngs us Lo Lhe way lnetLlal obsetvets wlll
measute Lhe dlsLance beLween Lhe Lwo evenLs.
LeL Pam be Lhe obsetvet LhaL moves beLween evenLs and 1 aL a speed ` x
telaLlve Lo Jlm. LeL evenL happens as Lhe Lwo of Lhem pass each oLhet.
Thete ls no ptoblem Lo undetsLand how Pam measutes Lhe dlsLance beLween
Lhe evenLs. She ls afLet all ptesenL aL boLh and Lhe dlsLance ln het lnetLlal
ftame ls zeto.
How does Jlm, who ls nuI ptesenL aL boLh evenLs, measute Lhe dlsLance
beLween evenLs and 1? LeL evenL 1 be a ash of llghL, genetaLed by
Pam afLet she has moved some dlsLance away ftom Jlm.
Equlp Jlm wlLh a good tadat wlLh whlch he can consLanLly monlLot Pam's
dlsLance as she moves away ftom hlm. Jlm can tead Lhe dlsLance (^x) of
evenL 1 aL Lhe momenL he obsetves Lhe llghL ash, dltecLly ftom hls tadat.
The facL LhaL by Lhe Llme Jlm obsetves Lhe ash ftom evenL 1, Pam wlll
be some dlsLance pasL Lhe poslLlon of Lhe evenL, does noL lnuence Jlm's
condence ln hls measutemenL. The teLutn slgnal of hls tadat and Lhe ash
of evenL 1 sLatLed ouL aL pteclsely Lhe same place and Llme and came Lo
hlm aL Lhe same speed-Lhe speed of llghL.
lL ls faltly obvlous LhaL Jlm wlll measute a longet dlsLance beLween Lhe Lwo
evenLs Lhan Pam. Pam ls Lhe 'movlng obsetvet', who hete measuted Lhe
dlsLance as zeto!
Howevet, Pam was sLaLlonaty ln het own lnetLlal ftame of tefetence, so
fot het Jlm was Lhe 'movlng obsetvet'. The only-and vety slgnlcanL-
dlfetence beLween Pam and Jlm ls LhaL Pam was ptesenL aL boLh evenLs
and Jlm was noL.
lnetLlal obsetvets LhaL ate movlng telaLlve Lo Pam cannoL also be ptesenL
aL boLh evenLs.* They wlll all measute Llme and dlsLance lnLetvals beLween
*RememEer, Lhey are lnerLlal oEservers, so Lhey cannoL Lurn around ln any way.
Lhe Lwo evenLs LhaL ate longet Lhen Lhose measuted by Pam.
The teason fot labotlng Lhe obsetvaLlon of Lhe Llme and space lnLetvals
beLween evenLs ls Lhls: evenLs ln empLy space glve us someLhlng 'Langlble'
Lo base compatlsons beLween lnetLlal ftames on.
lL does noL say whose clock ls tunnlng fasLet ot slowet Lhan anybody else's.
lL does say unequlvocally who wlll nn.&: Lhe shotLet Llme and dlsLance
beLween Lwo evenLs-lL Lhe obsetvet who ls ptesenL aL boLh evenLs.
Cne of Lhe classlc 'LesLs' of speclal telaLlvlLy's ptedlcLlons ls Lhe case of Lhe
muon patLlcles. They ate cteaLed hlgh ln Lhe eatLh's aLmosphete by cosmlc
tays hlLLlng oxygen aLoms. The muons have such a shotL 'half-llfe'* LhaL
*Half-llfe ls a sLaLlsLlcal arameLer, meanlng Lhe Llme ln whlch half of Lhe arLlcles
(on average) would have decayed.
even lf Lhey Ltavel aL Lhe speed of llghL,* vltLually none of Lhem could
*Whlch Lhey don'L, EuL Lhey come qulLe close Lo Lhe seed of llghL.
posslbly make lL Lo Lhe sutface of Lhe EatLh.
YeL Lhey ate touLlnely deLecLed ln labotaLotles on EatLh ln teasonable abun-
dance. The secteL lles ln Lhe facL LhaL Lhe muons ate ptesenL aL Lwo evenLs,
C (Lhelt cteaLlon) and 1 (Lhelt deLecLlon on Lhe gtound), whlle we as ob-
setvets on Lhe gtound ate cleatly noL ptesenL aL boLh evenLs.
Cn NewLonlan gtounds, we ptedlcL LhaL Lhe Llme LhaL Lhe muons would
Lake Lo teach Lhe gtound ls much Loo long fot any appteclable numbet Lo
sutvlve. Because of Lhelt hlgh speed, Lhe muons expetlence a Llme dlfetence
beLween evenLs C and 1 LhaL ls much shotLet Lhan whaL NewLon would
have ptedlcLed, allowlng a loL of Lhem Lo make lL Lo Lhe gtound.
So fat, Lhls lnLtoducLlon was an 'englneetlng-llke' aLLempL Lo acqualnL Lhe
teadet wlLh Lhe all lmpotLanL spaceLlme lnLetval. So befote we go any
futLhet, lL wlll be apptoptlaLe Lo glve a btlef ovetvlew of how Lhe telaLlvlsLs
vlew and exptess Lhe spaceLlme lnLetval.
1.2 Tho IornaI sacotIno notrIc, IrIoy
SpaceLlme, ln Lhe absence of gtavlLy, ls exptessed by Lhe Mlnkowskl meLtlc
wlLh a |.n |nnI
dc
2
j
ji
dx
j
dx
i
(j, i = 0, 1, 2, 8)
= c
2
dt
2
da
2
d
2
d.
2
, (1.8)
whete j
ji
ls Lhe Mlnkowskl meLtlc Lensot. The lndlces j and i lndlcaLe
whlch componenL of 4-space ls undet consldetaLlon (l.e., t, a, ot .). ln
Lhls noLaLlon, x
j
does noL mean x talsed Lo Lhe powet j, buL taLhet LhaL
j ls an lndex LhaL lndlcaLes how x musL be summed.
Thls 'ElnsLeln summaLlon convenLlon' sums ovet tepeaLed lndlces, e.g., Lhe
j and i ln j
ji
and dx
j
dx
i
, wlLhouL Lhe lmpllclL summaLlon slgn belng
used. Fot example, lf boLh j and i tange ftom 0 Lo 1 only, Lhe summaLlon
wlll tesulL ln
j
ji
dx
j
dx
i
= j
ji
(dx
0
dx
0
dx
0
dx
1
dx
1
dx
0
dx
1
dx
1
). (1.4)
When j and i tange ftom 0 Lo 3, Lhe summaLlon wlll naLutally have all
comblnaLlons up Lo dx
S
dx
S
, l.e., 16 Letms ln all. Each dx
j
dx
i
Letm ls
mulLlplled by Lhe cottespondlng elemenL of Lhe meLtlc Lensot j
ji
, whlch ls
besL teptesenLed by a 4x4 maLtlx.
Fot Mlnkowskl spaceLlme Lhe j
ji
maLtlx ls telaLlvely slmple, ptesenLed hete
as a botdeted maLtlx" fot clatlLy:
(j
ji
) =
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 2 8
0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0
2 0 0 1 0
8 0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
,
whete only Lhe dlagonal elemenLs ate non-zeto and Lhey ate unlLaty, lndl-
caLlng 'aL' spaceLlme. lL means LhaL only Letms wlLh j = i temalns afLet
mulLlpllcaLlon and Lhe coefclenLs ate all unlLy, so LhaL
j
ji
dx
j
dx
i
= (dx
0
)
2
(dx
1
)
2
(dx
2
)
2
(dx
S
)
2
= c
2
dt
2
da
2
d
2
d.
2
. (1.)
Thls may look llke a vety tound-abouL way Lo achleve a slmple tesulL. And
whaL ls mote, Lo tlgotously ptove LhaL Lhe meLtlc Lensot j
ji
has Lhe fotm
shown above, tequltes qulLe complex Lensot analysls. We wlll sklp LhaL and
accepL Lhe j
ji
maLtlx aL face value. The complexlLy ls Lhe ptlce pald fot
maLhemaLlcal genetallLy.
The dx
j
dx
i
Letms can teptesenL many Lhlngs, noL jusL 4-space cootdlnaLes.
FutLhet, dc
2
= j
ji
dx
j
dx
i
ls noL tesLtlcLed Lo 'aL' spaceLlme, as we wlll
see laLet. Also, Lhe fotmallsm can handle vltLually any cootdlnaLe sysLem.
We can teplace Lhe CatLeslan cootdlnaLe sysLem (a, , .) wlLh an equlvalenL
sphetlcal cootdlnaLe sysLem (r, 0, c), as shown ln gute 1.3, whete
a = r cos 0 sinc
= r sin0 sinc
. = r cos c.
When da, d and d. ate compuLed ftom Lhe above and subsLlLuLed lnLo Lhe
CatLeslan llne elemenL, Lhe llne elemenL fot sphetlcal cootdlnaLes becomes
dc
2
= c
2
dt
2
dr
2
r
2
dc
2
r
2
sin
2
c d0
2
, (1.6)
valld fot 'aL' spaceLlme.

.
a

(a, , :)
a
: r
Jr
0
r sin J0
rJ
FIgure 1.3: Small changes ln v, 0 and c creaLe an 'orLhogonal coordlnaLe sysLem'
dv, vdc and v sinc d0 aL olnL a, , .. NoLe LhaL whlle dv slgnles radlal dlslacemenL,
Lhe oLher Lwo dlrecLlons slgnlfy Lransverse (or LangenLlal) dlslacemenLs relaLlve Lo Lhe
orlgln.
Thls glves Lhe elemenLs of Lhe j
ji
maLtlx fot sphetlcal cootdlnaLes as
(j
ji
) =
_
_
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 r
2
0
0 0 0 r
2
sin
2
c
_
_
_
_
.
The above sphetlcal fotm of Lhe meLtlc ls noL lmpotLanL ln aL spaceLlme,
buL ls vety convenlenL ln Lhe cutved spaceLlme envltonmenL of genetal te-
laLlvlLy, as wlll be dlscussed laLet ln Lhls chapLet.
The spaceLlme llne elemenL dc cottesponds Lo a spacellke lnLetval ^c. We
have seen befote LhaL a Llmellke lnLetval, notmally lndlcaLed by ^t, can be
obLalned ftom c
2
^t
2
= ^c
2
. So Lhe Llmellke llne elemenL can be wtlLLen
as
c
2
dt
2
= dc
2
= c
2
dt
2
da
2
d
2
d.
2
.
Some auLhots ptefet Lo wotk solely wlLh Lhe Llmellke lnLetval as Lhe meLtlc
of spaceLlme, e.g., |Fabet|. Thls ls ptesumably because mosL of Lhe lnLetvals
LhaL we can obsetve and measute ate Llmellke.
Tne Lorentz transIornatIon. A DuLch physlclsL H.A. LotenLz ls
ctedlLed wlLh a seL of LtansfotmaLlon equaLlons LhaL Ltansfotmed space and
Llme beLween lnetLlal ftames ln telaLlve moLlon. HlsLotlcally, LotenLz was
noL Lhe tsL petson maklng Lhe suggesLlon,* buL he was Lhe tsL Lo publlsh
*C.FlLzgerald, an Irlsh hyslclsL, rsL osLulaLed a conLracLlon ln Lhe dlrecLlon of
movemenL. RelaLlvlsLlc lengLh conLracLlon ls commonly known as 1uonI:1:I:jon|J
ounInoI:un.
Lhe seL of equaLlons, now known as Lhe 1u:nI: I:nn.u:nnI.un
LotenLz dld noL dlscovet speclal telaLlvlLy Lhough. He slmply found a maLh-
emaLlcal way Lo Ltansfotm measutemenLs made on objecLs movlng Lhtough
Lhe aeLhet (ot absoluLe space) LhaL made Lhem confotm Lo Lhe null tesulL
of Lhe aeLhet-dtlfL expetlmenL of Mlchelson and Motley.
ln essence, hls equaLlons Ltansfotmed Lhe space lnLetval (^x
) and Llme
lnLetval (^t
) as measuted by a ftame movlng telaLlve Lo Lhe aeLhet, Lo Lhe

'absoluLe' space lnLetval ^x and 'absoluLe' Llme lnLetval ^t.
LotenLz had no physlcal Lheoty fot why hls LtansfotmaLlons seem Lo agtee
wlLh expetlmenLs. He dld posLulaLe LhaL lengLh conLtacLlon mlghL be a
physlcal teallLy, buL he could noL explaln why Llme had Lo Ltansfotmed
Loo, oLhet Lhan LhaL lL explalned obsetvaLlons. The LotenLz LtansfotmaLlon
equaLlons ln Sl unlLs ate:
^x =
^x
` xc^t
_
1 ` x
2
(1.7)
c^t =
c^t
` x^x
_
1 ` x
2
(1.8)
whete ` x =
Jx
cJ|
, Lhe speed telaLlve Lo Lhe aeLhet. ElnsLeln's conLtlbuLlon
was LhaL Lhese equaLlons can be used Lo Ltansfotm Llme and space dltecLly
beLween any Lwo lnetLlal ftames ln telaLlve moLlon and noL jusL beLween an
lnetLlal ftame and Lhe absoluLe (aeLhet) ftame. ln shotL, Lhey confotm Lo
Lhe ptlnclples of telaLlvlLy.
The meanlng of ElnsLeln's lnLetpteLaLlon of Lhe LotenLz LtansfotmaLlon ls
slmply Lhls: measute a space lnLetval and a Llme lnLetval ln any lnetLlal
ftame. Thtough Lhe lnvatlance of Lhe spaceLlme lnLetval, Lhe LtansfotmaLlon
Lells you whaL Lhe value of Lhe space and Llme lnLetvals wlll be ln any oLhet
lnetLlal ftame.
The 'absoluLe ftame of tefetence', Lhe aeLhet, was noL tequlted aL all. As
we wlll see laLet, Lhlngs ate someLlmes much slmplet when we do noL have
Lo conLend wlLh Lhe aeLhet-especlally ln one-way Dopplet measutemenLs.
1.3 Tho gonoraI thoory oI roIatIvIty, IrIoy
ElnsLeln's jn:n| I|u:j u :|nI.r.Ij ls essenLlally a Lheoty abouL Lhe gta-
vlLaLlonal elds genetaLed by masslve objecLs. lL ls also abouL Lhe dynamlcs
of objecLs movlng ln such gtavlLaLlonal elds.
The objecLs can be massless patLlcles llke phoLons LhaL always move aL
Lhe speed of llghL telaLlve Lo evety lnetLlal tefetence ftame, ot Lhey can be
masslve objecLs LhaL always move aL speeds less Lhan LhaL of llghL telaLlve
Lo evety lnetLlal tefetence ftame.
The gtavlLaLlonal eld can be LhoughL of as a 'defotmaLlon' of Lhe fabtlc
of spaceLlme caused by masslve objecLs. 'TesL objecLs' move 'as sLtalghL as
posslble' Lhtough Lhls defotmed spaceLlme.
All cases ate locked up ln ElnsLeln's eld equaLlons, I| 1.n.I.n j&nI.un
fot shotL. WlLh c = 1, G = 1,* lL ls glven by
*1hls means LhaL geomeLrlc unlLs are Eelng used for slmllclLy and clarlLy.
1
ji
1
2
1 q
ji
= T
ji
(whete j, i = 0, 1, 2, 8), (1.9)
whete 1
ji
ls Lhe 1.. In.u:, 1 Lhe 1.. .n|n:, q
ji
Lhe genetallzed
fotm of Lhe meLtlc Lensot j
ji
and T
ji
Lhe n:jj-nunnI&n In.u:. The
Rlccl Lensot ls a conLtacLlon of Lhe 1.nnnn &:rnI&: In.u: and Lhe Rlccl
scalat ls Lhe Ltace of Lhe Rlccl Lensot.
So Lhe equaLlon Lells us how Lhe enetgy and momenLum ln space (Lhe tlghL
hand slde) cause Lhe cutvaLute of spaceLlme (Lhe lefL hand slde). The
cutvaLute of spaceLlme lnuences Lhe movemenL of masslve bodles Lhtough
spaceLlme, Lhus changlng Lhe momenLa. So Lhete ls 'ctoss-Lalk' beLween
Lhe lefL- and tlghL hand sldes, maklng Lhe full equaLlon vety, vety dlfculL
Lo solve.
Fot any glven slLuaLlon Lhete ate up Lo 10 dlfetenL T
ji
values Lo be esLab-
llshed ln Letms of enetgy, dlsLance and Llme-noL 16, because Lhe Lensot ls
symmeLtlcal, meanlng T
01
= T
10
eLc. Vatlous soluLlons Lo Lhese equaLlons
ptesumably teptesenL evety posslble equaLlon of moLlon LhaL exlsLs ln Lhe
mactoscoplc unlvetse.
We wlll noL dlg lnLo all LhaL complexlLy, buL taLhet aLLempL Lo ptovlde some
lnLulLlve feel fot cetLaln speclc soluLlons. The tsL, and pethaps besL known
exacL soluLlon Lo ElnsLeln's eld equaLlon was detlved by Katl Schwatzschlld
ln 1916, only monLhs afLet ElnsLeln publlshed hls genetal Lheoty of telaLlvlLy.
Thls soluLlon ptovldes Lhe gtavlLaLlonal eld ouLslde of an lsolaLed, sphet-
lcally symmeLtlcal, non-toLaLlng mass, petmanenLly aL tesL aL Lhe otlgln of
a 3-d sphetlcal cootdlnaLe sysLem r, 0, c (as ln gute 1.3).
ln such a case 1
ji
= T
ji
= 0, buL all Lhe componenLs maklng Lhem up
ate noL zeto (Lhe componenLs slmply sum Lo zeto). The soluLlon ls Lhen
slmplet, Lhough noL Ltlvlal aL all. The spaceLlme meLtlc of Lhe gtavlLaLlonal
eld ls obLalned Lhtough Lhe nI:. In.u:, jusL llke fot aL spaceLlme, as
dc
2
q
ji
dx
j
dx
i
,
ot
c
2
dt
2
q
ji
dx
j
dx
i
,
wlLh
(q
ji
) =
_
_
_
_
_
cdt dr dc d0
cdt q
00
0 0 0
dr 0 q
11
0 0
dc 0 0 q
22
0
d0 0 0 0 q
SS
_
_
_
_
_
,
so LhaL Lhe meLtlc becomes
c
2
dt
2
= (q
00
c
2
dt
2
q
11
dr
2
q
22
dc
2
q
SS
d0
2
). (1.10)
By (Ledlously)* solvlng fot Lhe T
ji
of Lhe enetgy-momenLum Lensot and
*Found ln mosL general relaLlvlLy LexLs. 1he deLalls fall ouLslde of Lhe scoe of Lhls
Eook.
casLlng Lhem lnLo q
ji
fotm, Lhe followlng values ate obLalned fot Lhe non-
zeto elemenLs of Lhe meLtlc Lensot:
q
00
= (1
2GA
rc
) (1.11)
q
11
= (1
2GA
rc
)
1
= 1q
00
(1.12)
q
22
= r
2
(1.18)
q
SS
= r
2
sin
2
c. (1.14)
(1.1)
Thls glves Lhe 'Schwatzschlld meLtlc' as
c
2
dt
2
= (1
2GA
rc
)c
2
dt
2
dr
2
1
2GA
rc
r
2
dc
2
r
2
sin
2
c d0
2
. (1.16)
lL ls easy Lo see LhaL when rc
2
2G`, l.e., fat ftom Lhe cenLtal mass, Lhe
meLtlc teduces Lo Lhe 'aL' Mlnkowskl spaceLlme of speclal telaLlvlLy.
Because of Lhe 'awkwatdness'* of uslng, especlally,
q
00
ln many places,
*Some LexLs, e.g. |PaLhrla| use Lhe convenLlon of laEellng lndlces from 1 Lo 4 and
maklng Llme Lhe 4
coeclenL q
.
q
00
wlll be teplaced by q
||
= q
00
= 1 2G`(rc
2
), meanlng Lhe 'Llme-
Llme' coefclenL of Lhe Schwatzschlld meLtlc.
To make lL cleat LhaL Lhe usage ls nonsLandatd, Lhe oLhet coefclenL LhaL ls
tegulatly used, q
11
, wlll be telabeled q
rr
, loosely meanlng Lhe 'tadlal-tadlal'
coefclenL. Now, lf we exptess dt ln Letms of dt, llke we dld fot speclal
telaLlvlLy, we geL
c
2
dt
2
= [q
||
q
rr
dr
2
c
2
dt
2

r
2
(dc
2
sin
2
c d0
2
)
c
2
dt
2
[ c
2
dt
2
.
Slnce dr
2
ls a tadlal spaLlal dlsplacemenL squated and r
2
(dc
2
sin
2
c d0
2
)
ls a Ltansvetse spaLlal dlsplacemenL squated, we can wtlLe
dt
2
= [q
||
q
rr
2
r
c
2

2
|
c
2
[ dt
2
. (1.17)
whete
r
and
|
ate Lhe tadlal and Ltansvetse cootdlnaLe veloclLy componenLs
tespecLlvely.
Thls ls a mosL lllumlnaLlng exptesslon of Lhe spaceLlme meLtlc. lL Lells us
LhaL, compated Lo cootdlnaLe Llme ow dt
2
, ptopetLlme ow dt
2
ls teduced
by Lhtee Letms lnslde Lhe btackeL.
The tsL ls a sLaLlc Letm: q
||
, whlch ls always less Lhan unlLy. The oLhet
Lwo ate veloclLy telaLed Letms: q
rr
2
r
c
2
and
2
|
c
2
. We wlll tsL examlne
Lhe sLaLlc Letm ln mote deLall.

rc
2
(G`)
dtdt
0
0.707
0.S17
11
JtJ| =

2 1 6

FIgure 1.4: 1he gravlLaLlonal Llme dllaLlon facLor (or roerLlme ow dtdt), agalnsL
coordlnaLe radlal dlsLance v from mass A. 1he reglon 2
< v <= 6
has seclal
slgnlcance (see LexL for deLalls). Far from mass A, when v , dtdt 1.
As shown ln gute 1.4, Lhe 'taLe of ptopetLlme ow' dtdt ls zeto aL r =
2G`c
2
and Lhen lncteases tapldly unLll r = 4G`c
2
, whete Lhe slope of
Lhe cutve ls unlLy (45 degtees). AfLet LhaL, Lhe cutve sLatLs Lo apptoach
unlLy asympLoLlcally.
We wlll laLet see LhaL Lhe nn.&:J sLaLlc gtavlLaLlonal acceletaLlon (l.e.,
Lhe lnlLlal acceletaLlon of an objecL kepL sLaLlonaty and Lhen teleased so
LhaL lL ftee-falls), ls ptopotLlonal Lo Lhe slope of Lhe cutve dtdt agalnsL r,
aL leasL Lo a tsL apptoxlmaLlon.
Thls suggesLs LhaL Lhe measuted gtavlLaLlonal acceletaLlon aL r = 2G`c
2
wlll apptoach lnnlLy. Thls tadlal dlsLance ls called Lhe Schwatzschlld tadlus
r
S
and Lhe sphetlcal sutface assoclaLed wlLh r
S
ls called Lhe evenL hotlzon
of a sLaLlc black hole. Because of Lhe lnnlLe acceletaLlon, noLhlng, noL
even llghL, can escape ftom wlLhln Lhe evenL hotlzon.
The veloclLy telaLed Letms ate a blL mote subLle. We have meL Lhe veloclLy
Llme dllaLlon facLot of aL spaceLlme: dt
2
dt
2
= 1
2
c
2
, whete
2
=
2
r
2
|
, Lhe squate of Lhe vecLot sum of Lhe tadlal and Ltansvetse componenLs
of veloclLy .
ln cutved spaceLlme, Lhe vecLot sum dlfets, because tadlal veloclLy ls af-
fecLed by Lhe cutvaLute of space. lL ls lllumlnaLlng Lo wtlLe Lhe Schwatzschlld
soluLlon ln Lhe followlng fotm:
dt
2
dt
2
= q
||
[1 q
2
rr
2
r
c
2
q
rr
2
|
c
2
[. (1.18)
Thls can be vlewed as Lhe ptoducL of a gtavlLy telaLed Llme dllaLlon facLot
(q
||
) and a veloclLy telaLed Llme dllaLlon facLot (1
2
c
2
). Cne can guess
Lhe vecLot summaLlon equaLlon ftom dtdt above as:
2
lo
= q
2
rr
2
r
c
2
q
rr
2
|
c
2
, (1.19)
whete
lo
ls Lhe veloclLy as measuted by Lhe |un| uh.:r: and
r
,
|
ate
Lhe cootdlnaLe (l.e. dlsLanL obsetvet) veloclLles. A local obsetvet musL be
lnetLlal (ftee falllng) and momenLatlly sLaLlonaty ln Lhe tefetence ftame aL
Lhe Llme and place of Lhe measutemenL. The Llmellke meLtlc can Lhen be
slmply wtlLLen as
dt
2
= q
||
(1
2
lo
) dt
2
, (1.20)
telaLlng ptopet Llme and cootdlnaLe Llme by Lhe ptoducL of Lhe gtavlLaLlonal
Llme dllaLlon (tedshlfL) and a slmple veloclLy Llme dllaLlon.
NoLe LhaL desplLe Lhe local veloclLy belng measuted by a locally sLaLlonaty
obsetvet, Lhe equaLlon glves Lhe taLe of Lhe locally movlng clock (dt) as a
funcLlon of Lhe taLe of Lhe cootdlnaLe clock (dt).
Thls shows vety cleatly LhaL speclal telaLlvlLy ls a speclal case of genetal
telaLlvlLy. Speclal telaLlvlLy tules when Lhe gtavlLaLlonal eld ls weak ot
absenL (q
||
= 1)-Lhen lL ls only veloclLy Llme dllaLlon LhaL occuts.
Ftom Lhe above we have Lhe vety useful LtansfotmaLlon fotmulae beLween
local (
lo
) and cootdlnaLe (
co
) veloclLles ln Schwatzschlld spaceLlme (tecall
LhaL q
rr
1 and q
||
= 1q
rr
)
2
r(lo)
= q
2
rr

2
r(co)
, (1.21)
2
|(lo)
= q
rr

2
|(co)
, (1.22)
2
r(co)
= q
2
||

2
r(lo)
, (1.28)
2
|(co)
= q
||

2
|(lo)
. (1.24)
To make sense ouL of Lhe veloclLy LtansfotmaLlons, temembet LhaL someone
wlLh a slowet clock (Lhe local obsetvet) wlll measute a shotLet Llme and Lhus
a hlghet speed Lhan someone wlLh a fasLet clock (Lhe dlsLanL obsetvet).
Thls explalns Lhe Ltansvetse veloclLy LtansfotmaLlon, buL why Lhe addlLlonal
facLot q
rr
fot tadlal veloclLles?
Thls ls caused by Lhe gtadlenL of cutved space. Neat Lhe soutce of gtavlLy,
dlsLances appeat Lo be 'comptessed' ln Lhe tadlal dltecLlon, as vlewed by
Lhe dlsLanL obsetvet. Thetefote, tadlal movemenL appeats Lo Lhe dlsLanL
obsetvet Lo slow down by a futLhet facLot q
||
, as shown ln gute 1.5, whete
geomeLtlzed unlLs have been used fot clatlLy, l.e.

` = G`c
2
, ot G =
1, c = 1.
The 'comptesslon' of tadlal dlsLances by a gtavlLaLlonal eld can be vlewed
as caused patLlally by gtavlLaLlonal Llme dllaLlon and patLlally by Lhe gtadlenL
of cutved space (acLually, patLlally hete means LhaL boLh have an equal shate
ln Lhe ouLcome). The gtadlenL of cutved space aL a dlsLance r ftom a mass
` ls glven by
d.
dr
=
_
2

`
q
||
r
, (1.2)

r
.
0
:(r) =
_
S

Ar
2

A 1b

A
..
.|
.r
_
2

Ar .|
_
.:
.|
. .
.

FIgure 1.5: Proer radlal dlsLance lncremenLs (^/) agalnsL coordlnaLe radlal dlsLance
lncremenLs (^v), showlng EoLh gravlLaLlonal Llme dllaLlon (redshlfL) and sace curvaLure.
1he segmenLs ^/ reresenL Lhe roer dlsLance LhaL llghL Lravel ln Llme lnLerval ^t, whlch
Eecome shorLer closer Lo Lhe orlgln due Lo gravlLaLlonal Llme dllaLlon. 1hen Lhe gradlenL
of Lhe local sace curve .(v) causes Lhe rojecLlon onLo Lhe coordlnaLe radlal axls Lo Ee
'comressed' furLher.
glvlng . as a funcLlon of r (afLet lnLegtaLlon, wlLh Lhe expanded q
||
)*
*An easy Lo follow derlvaLlon of .(v) ls glven ln |M1W|, secLlon 23.8.
.(r) =
_
8q
||

`
r
consLanL, (1.26)
as used ln gute 1.5. Thls gute lllusLtaLes so much of Lhe gtavlLaLlonal
eld atound a sLaLlc, sphetlcally symmeLtlc mass, LhaL lL wattanLs a closet
look. FltsLly, lf space had no cutvaLute, l.e., .(r) = consLanL, Lhete would
sLlll have been an appatenL conLtacLlon ln Lhe tadlal dltecLlon, as obsetved
by Lhe dlsLanL obsetvet, l.e.,
^/ =
q
||
^t,
Lhe dlsLance LhaL llghL ptopagaLes ln cootdlnaLe Llme lnLetval ^t.
lf clocks slow down neat Lhe cenLtal mass, Lhen so does Lhe ptopagaLlon of
llghL, aL leasL as vlewed by Lhe dlsLanL obsetvet. A local obsetvet cannoL
deLecL Lhls 'slowlng down' of llghL, because lf yout clock and yout measutlng
tod* changes pteclsely ln sLep, you cannoL deLecL Lhe 'slowlng down'.
*All dlsLance measuremenLs are dlrecLly or lndlrecLly Eased on Lhe seed of llghL.
A dlsLanL obsetvet can, ln ptlnclple, deLecL Lhe 'slowlng down' of llghL by
measutlng Lhe tound Ltlp Ltavel Llme of llghL, beamed ftom a latge dlsLance
Lo Lhe mass and belng teecLed back ftom Lhe sutface of Lhe mass.*
Thls ls Lhe efecL of gtavlLaLlonal tedshlfL alone. Because of Lhe gtadlenL of
cutved space, Lhe efecLlve movemenL of llghL ln Lhe tadlal dltecLlon ls sLlll
'slowet' Lhan LhaL. Ftom Lhe gtadlenL equaLlon and slnce dr
2
= d/
2
d.
2
(see gute 1.5), lL ls easy Lo show LhaL
dr =
q
||
d/ = q
||
dt, (1.27)
*A Elack hole wlll noL reecL llghL, EuL a neuLron sLar wlll work nlcely.
Lhe ptojecLlon of d/ onLo Lhe cootdlnaLe tadlal dlsLance axls. Thetefote,
Lhe tadlal 'conLtacLlon' facLot of cutved space ls ldenLlcal Lo Lhe conLtacLlon
facLot of gtavlLaLlonal tedshlfL, boLh belng

q
||
.
Thls means LhaL as fat as dlsLanL obsetvets ate concetned, llghL movlng
pteclsely tadlally telaLlve Lo a cenLtal mass 'slows down' Lo q
||
c.
LlghL movlng (momenLatlly)* ln a putely Ltansvetse dltecLlon telaLlve Lo a
*1here ls a case where llghL can Ee ln orElL around a Elack hole, EuL more aEouL LhaL
laLer.
mass, ls slowed down jusL by Lhe gtavlLaLlonal tedshlfL facLot, Lo

q
||
c.
Slnce Lhe full efecL can only be measuted lndltecLly, lL ls noL called a 'slowlng
down of llghL', buL taLhet a 'delay of llghL'.*
*IL ls called Lhe 5|n:u Jo|n, afLer Lhe man who rsL measured lL accuraLely, as ls
dlscussed furLher ln chaLer 5.
1.4 Sunnary oI thIs IntroductIon to roIatIvIty
We have seen LhaL ln Lhe gtavlLy-ftee space of speclal telaLlvlLy, Lhete ls a
quanLlLy called Lhe spaceLlme lnLetval LhaL ls lnvatlanL, l.e., lL has Lhe same
value, no maLLet whlch lnetLlal obsetvet measutes Lhe componenLs of Lhe
lnLetval.
Thls lead us Lo Lhe concluslon LhaL an obsetvet LhaL ls ptesenL aL Lwo
spaceLlme evenLs wlll always measute a Llme lnLetval LhaL ls shotLet Lhan
whaL any obsetvet LhaL ls noL ptesenL aL boLh evenLs wlll measute. Thls
Llme lnLetval (measuted by Lhe obsetvet ptesenL aL boLh evenLs) ls called
Lhe ptopetLlme beLween Lwo evenLs.
The mote fotmal vlew of Lhe spacellke and Lhe Llmellke lnLetval was Lhen
detlved, uslng jusL a sptlnkllng of Lensot algebta. We Lhen moved on Lo a
faltly loose dlscusslon of ElnsLeln's eld equaLlons and an even mote loose
detlvaLlon of Lhe meLtlc fot Lhe gtavlLaLlonal eld was ptesenLed.
Thls lead us Lo Lhe (dlsLutblng?) teallzaLlon LhaL Lhe speed of llghL vatles
ln Schwatzschlld cootdlnaLes wlLh Lhe dltecLlon of movemenL-aL leasL as
measuted by a dlsLanL obsetvet. Thls fotced us Lo accepL LhaL dlsLanL
obsetvets wlll measute dlfetenL veloclLles Lhan whaL local obsetvets wlll
measute. Thete ate howevet telaLlvely slmple LtansfotmaLlon equaLlons fot
veloclLles as measuted locally and temoLely.
Undetlylng Lo Lhls ls Lhe facL LhaL Llme and dlsLance ate measuted dlfetenLly
by dlsLanL clocks and local clocks. ln patLlculat, dlsLanL clocks tuns fasLet
Lhan local clocks and Lhe dlfetence becomes mote noLlceable lf Lhe local
clock ls movlng telaLlve Lo Lhe cootdlnaLe sysLem.
Now, Lo move fotwatd, we wlll dlscuss a few Loplcs ln speclal telaLlvlLy LhaL
ate of fundamenLal lmpotLance-clock synchtonlzaLlon, enetgy, momenLum
and Dopplet shlfL. They ate Lhe sotL of Lhlngs LhaL many englneets use dally
and may pethaps someLlmes wondet how telaLlvlLy lnuences Lhelt wotk.

What Is Relativity

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What Is Relativity

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and attlves aL evenL 1 aL Llme t

= 0. The lnLetval ^t musL be ldenLlcal fot boLh

) as measuted by a ftame movlng telaLlve Lo Lhe aeLhet, Lo Lhe

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