Understanding

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

Connect802 can help with the selection and system design for many
manufacturer's equipment for RFID data backhaul as well as for
Wi-Fi RFID tagging and Real-Time Location Services.
If you have questions, please don't hesitate to call us today! We'll be happy to provide you
with any technical explanation that you need to help you assure a successful wireless
networking deployment.

RFID is a technology whereby "tags" replace conventional UPC bar
codes as a way to identiIy a product in inventory, a Iixed asset, or
any other object by reading the tag with a radio signal. Wi-Fi enters
the picture as a back-haul inIrastructure Ior the RFID readers to use
to communicate to a central database system.

BrieI Description oI Radio Frequency IdentiIication (RFID) Technology

In a nutshell, RFID works like this: radio-sensitive "tag" is placed on an item. The tag could be
concealed in an adhesive label, aIIixed to the shirt collar tag on an item oI clothing, attached to
the packaging Ior a product, or even injected under the skin oI a dog or a cat (or a human - as is
being oIIered by a sports club in Brazil to uniquely identiIy members!) When an RFID "reader"
scans the tag a pulse oI radio energy is sent out and the tag sends back the inventory control
number. In its essence, RFID is "wireless UPC bar coding". But there's more...
While "read-only RFID tags" are simply read, "read-write RFID tags" can have their inIormation
content updated by the reader. This is being proposed by Toyota whereby they would place a
read-write tag under the VIN number plate in 2005 vehicles and the complete maintenance
history oI the vehicle would be encoded on the tag.
SuIIice it to say, there is a signiIicant amount oI discussion taking place regarding people's right
to privacy and the potential Ior RFID technology to track a person's purchases, and even their
physical location. The State oI CaliIornia passed a law in 2004 restricting the inIormation
content oI an RFID tag to that oI a static UPC bar code. While it's uncertain how Iar RFID
technology will go towards documenting private inIormation there's no question that the RFID
tag will replace the UPC bar code over time. Some oI the advantages oI using Radio Frequency
IdentiIication are:
O The ability to scan and identiIy an entire shopping cart Iull oI merchandise without
removing individual items.
O The ability to locate a "lost" product in a warehouse or a "lost" piece oI equipment on a
corporate campus.
O The ability to track a person's or vehicle's location inside a building when GPS (Global
Positioning System) signals can't be received.
O The ability to read tag inIormation Irom up to 30-Ieet away without having to "scan"
anything with a laser, the way a UPC bar code scanner is required to do today.

RFID Is Not a Wi-Fi Radio Standard

The key thing to remember, relative to Connect802, is that RFID is not a Wi-Fi technology. The
radio standards Ior RFID are unrelated to those oI 802.11 (although there is RFID speciIied in
the 2.4 GHz band also used by 802.11b/g).
"II RFID isn't a Wi-Fi technology, why is being discussed in a 'Just the Facts' page?"
There's every reason to expect RFID tagging to completely replace the common UPC bar codes
Iound on essentially every product sold in every retail store around the world. The RFID readers
(reIerred to as "RFID interrogators") may be handheld, they may be mobile (attached, Ior
example, to a Iork liIt in a warehouse), or they may be Iixed (at a point-oI-sale location, on a
door Irame Ior entry control, or on a warehouse loading dock door to track inventory as it enters
and leaves the warehouse). Here's the key thought: The RFID readers must have a way to
communicate back to the in-building network to send information to, and receive
information from the central database system that understands what to do with the
identification information read from the tags.
The communication link between the RFID reader and the in-building network is the 802.11 Wi-
Fi network inIrastructure. That's the link between RFID and Wi-Fi. It means that the Wi-Fi
network will have to be designed to provide suIIicient capacity and throughput and suIIicient RF
signal coverage, to support the use oI whatever types oI RFID readers are in use. In addition, the
Wi-Fi network will probably be used Ior data communications, web browsing, email, and
possibly wireless Voice-over-IP telephony. This is where Connect802 enters into the picture,
providing RF design services through the Suite Spot Predictive Site Survey to make sure the Wi-
Fi wireless LN does its job supporting RFID, data, voice, and possibly even streaming video
Ior security cameras.
To provide a perspective on how RFID works you are invited to read this 'Just the Facts' tutorial.
To build a Wi-Fi backhaul network to support the connection oI RFID interrogators / readers to
the in-building or corporate campus network, you're invited to call Connect802 in CaliIornia at
(925) 552-0802.
When you are considering implementing an RFID solution Ior vehicle yard management,
equipment yard management, asset tracking, reusable transport item tracking, personnel
monitoring or as part oI your maintenance and repair process you'll need to involve a
proIessional RFID solutions provider. Your solutions provider will have the soItware and RFID
readers that will collect tag data and Connect802 will provide the Wi-Fi wireless inIrastructure to
carry that data back to the central soItware system. Companies like Retail nywhere provide
Point oI Sale SoItware to give you the ability to easily integrate an RFID solution into your
current operating methods.

n Overview oI RFID Technology

The Evolution oI RFID Technology
Universal Product Code (UPC) barcode labels are inadequate Ior the sophisticated requirements
oI today's supply chain management systems. Barcodes may be extremely cheap, but their
stumbling block is their low storage capacity and the Iact that they cannot be reprogrammed. The
technically optimal solution would be the storage oI data in a silicon chip. The most common
Iorm oI electronic data carrying device in use in everyday liIe is the chip card based upon a
contact Iield (telephone chip card, bank cards). However, the mechanical contact used in the chip
card is oIten impractical. contactless transIer oI data between the data carrying device and its
reader is Iar more Ilexible. In the ideal case, the power required to operate the electronic data
carrying device would also be transIerred Irom the reader using contactless technology. Because
oI the procedures used Ior the transIer oI power and data, contactless ID systems are called RFID
systems (Radio Frequency IdentiIication).
RFID (Radio Frequency IdentiIication) is used in all areas oI automatic data capture allowing
contactless identiIication oI objects using RF. With applications ranging Irom secure internet
payment systems to industrial automation and access control, RFID technology solutions are
receiving much attention in the research and development departments oI large corporations.
RFID is a major growth are in auto ID, allowing emergency vehicles to saIely trip traIIic signals,
and providing the technology behind contactless smart cards, "autopiloting" cars, and production
automation.
The RFID Transponder / Interrogator System
n RFID system contains two basic components:
O The RFID transponder (reIerred to as a "tag") located on the object to be identiIied
O The RFID interrogator / detector (reIerred to as a "reader" or "scanner") which sends
pulses oI RF energy to activate the tag, and then read the resulting response Irom the tag
reader typically contains a high Irequency module (transmitter and receiver), a control unit and
a coupling element to the transponder. In addition, 802.11 Wi-Fi radios are oIten included with
the reader to allow communication to a central database or control soItware system.
The transponder, which represents the actual data carrying device oI an RFID system, normally
consists oI a coupling element and an electronic microchip. When the transponder, which does
not usually possess its own voltage supply (battery), is not within the response range oI a reader
it is totally passive. The transponder is only activated when it is within the response range oI a
reader. The power required to activate the transponder is supplied to the transponder through the
coupling unit (contactless) in the Iorm oI a timing pulse and data.
Passive and ctive RFID Tags
There are two basic designs Ior RFID tags: passive tags and active tags. Passive tags obtain
power Irom the interrogation pulse Irom the reader. They use this power to send back their
inIormation message. Because they have no battery they essentially last Iorever and can't wear
out. passive RFID tag is very little more than a loop oI antenna with the most basic circuitry.
ctive tags have a battery. Because oI this they are able to respond with a signal that can travel
perhaps as much as 50-Ieet or more to a remote reader.

Tag and Reader Coupling and Data TransIer

There are two basic methods Ior acquiring inIormation Irom the RFID tag: inductive coupling
and backscatter coupling. Inductively coupled transponders are almost always operated
passively. This means that all the energy needed Ior the operation oI the microchip has to be
provided by the reader. For this purpose, the reader's antenna coil generates a strong, high
Irequency electro-magnetic Iield, which penetrates the cross-section oI the coil area and the area
around the coil. Because the wavelength oI the Irequency range used ( 135 kHz: 2400 m, 13.56
MHz: 22.1 m) is several times greater than the distance between the reader's antenna and the
transponder, the electro-magnetic Iield may be treated as a simple magnetic alternating Iield with
regard to the distance between transponder and antenna. In the language oI electromagnetic wave
theory we reIer to this as "near Iield coupling".
Near-Iield coupling is the electromagnetic eIIect that occurs within roughly 1-wavelength oI a
radiating element. In the near-Iield the energy Iield Iluctuates outward Irom the radiating
element, and then back in to the radiating element in a "push - pull" manner. Beyond the near-
Iield the electromagnetic energy simply radiates outwards (never "back in") and the power drops
oII based on the inverse-square law ("twice as Iar away 1/4 as powerIul"). Consequently, the
RFID reader and the tag become part oI a bi-directional electromagnetic system in which energy
can be exchanged and, thereby, inIormation can be exchanged.
Inductive Coupling in the Near-Field
small part oI the emitted Iield penetrates the antenna coil oI the transponder, which is some
distance away Irom the coil oI the reader. By induction, a voltage is generated in the
transponder's antenna coil. This voltage is rectiIied and serves as the power supply Ior the data
carrying device (microchip). capacitor is connected in parallel with the reader's antenna coil,
the capacitance oI which is selected such that it combines with the coil inductance oI the antenna
coil to Iorm a parallel resonant circuit, with a resonant Irequency that corresponds with the
transmission Irequency oI the reader. Very high currents are generated in the antenna coil oI the
reader by resonance step-up in the parallel resonant circuit, which can be used to generate the
required Iield strengths Ior the operation oI the remote transponder.
Inductively coupled systems are based upon a transformer-type coupling between the primary
coil in the reader and the secondary coil in the transponder. This is true when the distance
between the coils does not exceed 0.16 wavelength , so that the transponder is located in the near
field oI the transmitter antenna
Backscatter Coupling in the Far-Field
Outside the radius oI the near-Iield the interrogation pulse Irom the reader propagates outwards,
never giving energy back to the radiating element. This RF signal travels outwards and
encounters the antenna element in the tag. We know Irom the Iield oI RADAR technology that
electromagnetic waves are reIlected by objects with dimensions greater than around halI the
wavelength oI the wave. The eIIiciency with which an object reIlects electromagnetic waves is
described by its reflection cross-section. Objects that are in resonance with the wave Iront that
hits them, as is the case Ior antenna at the appropriate Irequency Ior example, have a particularly
large reIlection cross-section.
n electromagnetic Iield propagates outwards Irom Irom the reader's antenna and a small
proportion oI that Iield (reduced by Iree space attenuation) reaches the transponder's antenna.
The power is supplied to the antenna connections as HF voltage and aIter rectiIication by diodes
this can be used as turn on voltage Ior the deactivation or activation oI the power saving "power-
down" mode. The voltage obtained may also be suIIicient to serve as a power supply Ior short
ranges.
proportion oI the incoming RF energy is reIlected by the antenna and reradiated outwards. The
reflection characteristics ( reIlection cross-section) oI the antenna can be inIluenced by altering
the load connected to the antenna. In order to transmit data Irom the transponder to the reader, a
load resistor connected in parallel with the antenna is switched on and oII in time with the data
stream to be transmitted. The strength oI the signal reIlected Irom the transponder can thus be
modulated (a technique reIerred to as modulated backscatter).
The signal Irom the transponder is radiated into Iree space. small proportion oI this signal is
picked up by the reader's antenna. The reIlected signal thereIore travels into the antenna
connection oI the reader in the "backwards direction" and can be decoupled using a directional
coupler and transIerred to the receiver input oI a reader. The "Iorward" signal oI the transmitter,
which is stronger by powers oI ten, is to a large degree suppressed by the directional coupler.
voiding InterIerence in RFID Systems
The need to exercise care with regard to other radio services signiIicantly restricts the range oI
suitable operating Irequencies available to an RFID system. For this reason, it is usually only
possible to use Irequency ranges that have been reserved speciIically Ior industrial, scientiIic or
medical applications or Ior short range devices. These are the Irequencies classiIied worldwide
as ISM Irequency ranges (Industrial-ScientiIic-Medical) or SRD Irequency ranges, and they can
also be used Ior RFID applications.

Frequency ranges for RFID-Systems

Frequency Range Frequency Band, Coupling, and pplications
llowed Iield
strength /
transmission power
135 kHz low Irequency, inductive coupling 72 dB/m
6.765 .. 6.795 MHz medium Irequency (ISM), inductive coupling 42 dB/m
7.400 .. 8.800 MHz medium Irequency, used Ior ES (electronic article
surveillance) only
9 dB/m
13.553 .. 13.567
MHz
medium Irequency (13.56 MHz, ISM), inductive coupling,
wide spread usage Ior contactless smartcards (ISO 14443,
MIFRE, LEGIC, ..)., smartlabels (ISO 15693, Tag-It, I-
Code, ..). and item management (ISO 18000-3).
42 dB/m
26.957 .. 27.283
MHz
medium Irequency (ISM), inductive coupling, special
applications only
42 dB/m
433 MHz UHF (ISM), backscatter coupling, rarely used Ior RFID 10 .. 100 mW
868 .. 870 MHz UHF (SRD), backscatter coupling, new Irequency, systems
under development
500 mW, Europe
only
902 .. 928 MHz UHF (SRD), backscatter coupling, several systems 4 W - spread
spectrum,
US/Canada only
2.400 .. 2.483 GHz SHF (ISM), backscatter coupling, several systems, (vehicle
identiIication: 2.446 .. 2.454 GHz) Potential for 802.11b/g
interference
4 W - spread
spectrum,
US/Canada only,
500 mW, Europe
5.725 .. 5.875 GHz SHF (ISM), backscatter coupling, rarely used Ior RFID.
Potential for 802.11a and WiMAX 802.16 interference
4 W US/Canada,
500 mW Europe

RFID Standards
n RFID tag (and the associated reader) work in accordance with the rules oI some particular air
interface. Essentially an air interIace corresponds to a row in the table above. It's the set oI
physical rules that deIine how the electromagnetic signals will work and how they'll convey bits.
Standards must also speciIy the way data is structured and the way to represent a unique tag ID.
tag reader transmits an interrogation pulse. Will the tag respond and, iI it does, will the data
structure Ior the inIormation being conveyed be consistent with what's expected by the reader?
The goal oI the various RFID standards organizations is to make it possible Ior tags and readers
to work together properly. s it turns out, there are diIIerent priorities Ior diIIerent types oI
RFID adopters and diIIerent standards have evolved Ior these groups.
O ISO TC 23: nimal IdentiIication
O ISO TC 104: Freight Containers
O ISO TC 204: Road Telematics
O ISO TC 122: Packaging
O JTC 1/SC 17: Integrated Circuit Cards (i.e.: credit cards with embedded tags)
O JTC 1/SC 31: utomatic IdentiIication and Data Collection Techniques ("Where's the
lost child at the amusement park?")
(ISO "International Standards Organization", JTC "Joint Technical Committee"; a sub-group
within the ISO)

DeIinitions and descriptions oI Radio Frequency IdentiIication (RFID) that you might Iind on the
web:
O typical RFID system consists oI a tag, a reader, and some sort oI data processing
equipment, such as a computer. The reader sends a request Ior identiIication inIormation
to the tag. The tag responds with the respective inIormation, which the reader then
Iorwards to the data processing device. The tag and reader communicate with one another
over an RF channel. In some systems, the link between the reader and the computer is
wireless.
O Radio Frequency IdentiIication; a type oI electronic identiIication that uses radio
Irequency signals to read on-vehicle tags Ior VI and VC.
O Radio Irequency identiIication (ID). RFID tags are small integrated circuits connected to
an antenna, which can respond to an interrogating RF signal with simple identiIying
inIormation, or with more complex signals depending on the size oI the IC.
O ReIers to the technology that uses devices attached to objects that transmit data to an
RFID receiver. These devices can be large pieces oI hardware the size oI a small book
like those attached to ocean containers or very small devices inserted into a label on a
package. RFID has advantages over bar codes such as the ability to hold more data, the
ability to change the stored data as processing occurs, does not require line-oI-sight to
transIer data and is very eIIective in harsh environments where bar code labels won't
work.
O method Ior uniquely identiIying an object using a tag or module that carries a unique
ID number, or code. IdentiIication can be made using wireless (RF, or radio-wave)
connection, meaning no line-oI-sight or physical contact is needed.
O n alternative to bar coding. dvantages include data capacity, read/write capability, and
no line-oI-sight requirements.
O Radio Irequency identiIication tags (RFID) are the successor to the Universal Product
Code -- that row oI lines that grocery scanners read. n RFID tag is a small silicon chip
with a small antenna. The tag responds to the energy given oII by an RFID-tag reader
with a signal.
O RFID tags do not require a line oI sight to scan items, and they can identiIy each item
individually, rather than generically. This means that goods in warehouses, in trucks, and
on trains can be tracked more easily and more intelligently. ManuIacturers can learn in
near-real time when and where their goods have been sold. Pharmacists can make sure
that expired drugs go into the trash, not into patients.
O RFID will squeeze ineIIiciency out oI the systems that deliver consumer goods, bringing
us more oI what we want and need, at lower prices, with higher quality and better saIety.
O NCITS 256 deIines a standard Ior Radio Frequency IdentiIication (RFID) Ior use in item
management. This standard is intended to allow Ior compatibility and to encourage
interoperability oI products Ior the growing RFID market in the United States. Because
the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulations do not restrict physical
conIiguration options, this is an enabling standard that supports and promotes several
RFID implementations without making conclusions about the relative technical merits oI
any available option Ior any possible application.
O The ir InterIace Standards oI ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 31 are contained in the various Parts
oI ISO/IEC 18000, Radio-Irequency IdentiIication Standard Ior Item Management -- ir
InterIace. These are:
4 Part 1, Generic Parameters Ior ir InterIace Communication Ior Globally
ccepted Frequencies
4 Part 2, Parameters Ior ir InterIace Communication below 135 kHz.
4 Part 3, Parameters Ior ir InterIace Communication at 13.56 MHz.
4 Part 4, Parameters Ior ir InterIace Communication at 2.45 GHz.
4 Part 5, Parameters Ior ir InterIace Communication at 5.8 GHz.
4 Part 6, Parameters Ior ir InterIace Communication - UHF Frequency Band
O Each oI these Irequencies have diIIering operating parameters, and perIormance
considering antenna design, power levels and other parameter are held comparable,
including the active/passive nature oI the tag. DiIIerent RFID technologies within the
diIIerent parts or Irequencies may result in diIIerent perIormance and parameter trade-
oIIs. This may cover the redundancy or reliability to operate as intended under adverse
environmental conditions such as noise or interIerence or other physical environment
variations.