Page 1 of 54

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY I

LABORATORIUM TEKNIK KIMIA I
Page 2 of 54
KIND OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Energy Losses In Pipes And Bends (FP1)
2. Friction Losses In Small Bore Pipe (FP2)
3. Piping System With Centrifugal Pump (KP1)
4. Centrifugal Pump Characteristic (KP2)
5. Fluid Measuring System (M)
6. Liquid-Solid Fluidized Bed (FZ1)
7. Gas-Solid Fluidized Bed And Heat Transfer (FZ2)
8. Drag Coefficient In Air Flow (DG)
9. Natural Convection Heat Transfer (NC)
10. Natural And Forced Convection And Radiation Heat Transfer (NF)
11. Double Pipe Heat Exchanger (HE1)
12. Shell And Tube Heat Transfer (HE2)
13. Condensing Vapor Heat Transfer (CV)
14. Liquid-Liquid Mixing (MX1)
15. Solid-Solid Mixing (MX2)
16. Compressible Flow Through Constant Area Conduit (CF1)
17. Compressible Flow Through Convergent-Divergent Nozzle (CF2)
Page 3 of 54
1. ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPES AND BENDS
Objective
To study the variation in friction factor, f, used in the Darcy Formula with the Reynolds number in
both laminar and turbulent flow. The friction factor will be measured as a function of Reynolds
number and the roughness will be calculated using the Colebrook equation.
Theory
The loss of head resulting from the flow of a fluid through a pipeline is expressed by the Darcy
Formula
2
f
2
l
L V
h
D g
= 0.1
where h
f
is the loss of head (units of length) and the average velocity is V. The friction factor, f,
varies with Reynolds number and a roughness factor.
Laminar flow
The Hagen-Poiseuille equation for laminar flow indicates that the head loss is independent of
surface roughness.
2
32
l
LV
h
gD

= 0.2
Thus in laminar flow the head loss varies as V and inversely as D
2
. Comparing equation 0.1 and
equation 0.2 it can be shown that
64 64
f
VD R

= = 0.3
indicating that the friction factor is proportional to viscosity and inversely proportional to the velocity,
pipe diameter, and fluid density under laminar flow conditions. The friction factor is independent of
pipe roughness in laminar flow because the disturbances caused by surface roughness are quickly
damped by viscosity.
Equation 0.2 can be solved for the pressure drop as a function of total discharge to obtain
4
128 LQ
p
D

t
A = 0.4
Turbulent flow
When the flow is turbulent the relationship becomes more complex and is best shown by means of
a graph since the friction factor is a function of both Reynolds number and roughness. Nikuradse
showed the dependence on roughness by using pipes artificially roughened by fixing a coating of
uniform sand grains to the pipe walls. The degree of roughness was designated as the ratio of the sand
grain diameter to the pipe diameter (c/D).
The relationship between the friction factor and Reynolds number can be determined for every
relative roughness. From these relationships, it is apparent that for rough pipes the roughness is more
important than the Reynolds number in determining the magnitude of the friction factor. At high
Reynolds numbers (complete turbulence, rough pipes) the friction factor depends entirely on
roughness and the friction factor can be obtained from the rough pipe law.
1 3.7
2log
f
D
c
| |
=
|
\
0.5
For smooth pipes the friction factor is independent of roughness and is given by the smooth pipe law.
Page 4 of 54
1 Re f
2log
2.51
f
| |
=
|
|
\
0.6
The smooth and the rough pipe laws were developed by von Karman in 1930.
Many pipe flow problems are in the regime designated transition zone that is between the smooth
and rough pipe laws. In the transition zone head loss is a function of both Reynolds number and
roughness. Colebrook developed an empirical transition function for commercial pipes. The Moody
diagram is based on the Colebrook equation in the turbulent regime.
1 2.51
2log
3.7
f Re f
D c | |
= +
|
\
0.7
The Colebrook equation can be used to determine the absolute roughness, c, by experimentally
measuring the friction factor and Reynolds number.
1
2 f
2.51
3.7 10
Re f
D c

| |
= |
|
\
0.8
Alternatively the explicit equation for the friction factor derived by Swamee and Jain can be solved
for the absolute roughness.
2
0.9
0.25
f
5.74
log
3.7 Re D
c
=
( | |
+
| (
\
0.9
When solving for the roughness it is important to note that the quantity in equation 0.9 that is
squared is negative!
-1
2 f
0.9
5.74
3.7 10
Re
D c
| |
= |
|
\
0.10
Equations 0.8 and 0.10 are not equivalent and will yield slightly different results with the
error a function of the Reynolds number.
Other correlation for estimating Darcy f are following.
Serghides Equation (for Re>2100 and any e/D)
f = [A [(B-A)
2
/(C-2B+A)]]
-2
A = -2.0 log((e/D)/3.7 + 12/Re)
B = -2.0 log((e/D)/3.7 + 2.51A/Re)
C = -2.0 log((e/D)/3.7 + 2.51B/Re)
Moody Equation (4000<Re<10
7
and e/D <0.01)
f = 5.5x10
-3
(1+ (2x10
4
e/D + 10
6
/Re)
1/3
)
Wood Equation (Re>4000 and any e/D)
f = 0.094(e/D)
0.225
+ 0.53(e/D) + 88(e/D)
0.44
x Re
a
a = -1.62(e/D)
0.134
Jain Equation (for 5000<Re<10
7
and 0.00004<e/D<0.05)
1/f
1/2
= 1.14 2.0 log (e/D + 21.25/Re
0.9
)
Page 5 of 54
Churchill Equation (for all values of Re and e/D)
f = 8((8/Re)
12
+ 1/(A+B)
1.5
)
1/12
A = (-2.457ln((7/Re)
0.9
+ 0.27e/D))
16
B = (37530/Re)
16
Chen Equation (for all values of Re and e/D)
1/(f)
1/2
= -2.0log((e/D)/3.7065 5.0452A/Re)
A = log((e/D)
1.1098
/2.8257 + (5.8506/Re
0.8981
))
Zigrang and Sylvester Equation (for 4000<Re<10
8
and 0.00004<e/D<0.05)
1/(f)
1/2
= -2.0log ((e/D)/3.7 5.02A/Re)
A = log[(e/D)/3.7 (5.02/Re)log((e/D)/3.7 + 13/Re)]
Comments
1. The friction factor 'f' is Darcy's friction factor
2. The comparison of accuracies of these equations is done based upon the presumption
that Colebrook's equation is perfect and flawless.
3. Serghides and Zigrang equation have the higher accuracies.
4. Away from the critical region, the inaccuracy of any of the above equations is
insignificant.
5. Within the critical region, where 2100<Re<3000, one should dare to take the
responsibility of calculating friction factor oneself.
6. Churchill Equation is the better one to use for all conditions as it gives a continuous
curve when the data is represented graphically. This seems to be a strong point.
7. One should be careful while using any of these equation for laminar flow or the
critical zone. So, instead of using Chen equation for laminar flows, better go with
Poiseuille.
Experimental Apparatus
Page 6 of 54
4. CENTRIFUGAL PUMP CHARACTERISTIC
Centrifugal Pumps
Theory
A centrifugal pump converts the input power to kinetic energy in the liquid by accelerating the liquid
by a revolving device - an impeller. The most common type is the volute pump. Fluid enters the pump
through the eye of the impeller which rotates at high speed. The fluid is accelerated radially outward
from the pump chasing. A vacuum is created at the impellers eye that continuously draws more fluid
into the pump.
The energy created by the pump is kinetic energy according the Bernoulli Equation. The energy
transferred to the liquid corresponds to the velocity at the edge or vane tip of the impeller. The faster
the impeller revolves or the bigger the impeller is, the higher will the velocity of the liquid energy
transferred to the liquid be. This is described by the Affinity Laws.
Pressure and Head
The kinetic energy of a liquid coming out of an impeller is obstructed by the pump casing which
catches the liquid and slows it down. When the liquid slows down the kinetic energy is converted to
pressure energy. In Newtonian fluids the term head is used to measure the kinetic energy which a
pump creates. Head is a measurement of the height of the liquid column the pump creates fromthe
kinetic energy the pump gives to the liquid.
The main reason for using head instead of pressure to measure a centrifugal pump's energy is that the
pressure from a pump will change if the specific gravity of the liquid changes, but the head will not.
The maximum head of a pump is mainly determined by the outside diameter of the pump's impeller
and the speed of the rotating shaft. The head will change as the capacity of the pump is altered.
The pump's performance on any Newtonian fluid can always be described by using the term head.
There are different term associated to pump head, such as: Total Static Head, Total Dynamic Head
(Total System Head), Static Suction Head, Static Suction Lift, Static Discharge Head, Dynamic
Suction Head/Lift, and Dynamic Discharge Head.
Suction Head
Low pressure at the suction side of a pump can encounter the fluid to start boiling with reduced
efficiency, cavitations, and even damage of the pump as a result. Boiling starts when the pressure in
the liquid is reduced to the vapor pressure of the fluid at the actual temperature.
Based on the Energy Equation - the suction head in the fluid close to the impeller can be expressed as
the sum of the static and the velocity head:
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h
s
= p
s
/ + v
s
2
/ 2 g (1)
where h
s
= suction head close to the impeller, p
s
= static pressure in the fluid close to the impeller, =
specific weight of the fluid, v
s
= velocity of fluid, and g = acceleration of gravity.
Liquids Vapor Head
The liquids vapor head at the actual temperature can be expressed as:
h
v
= p
v
/ (2)
where h
v
= vapor head, p
v
= vapor pressure
Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH
The Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH - can be expressed as the difference between the Suction Head
and the Liquids Vapor Head and expressed like
NPSH = h
s
- h
v
(3)
or NPSH = p
s
/ + v
s
2
/ 2 g - p
v
/ (3a)
Available NPSH - NPSH
a
The Net Positive Suction Head made available at the suction system for the pump is often
named NPSH
a
. The NPSH
a
can be determined during design and construction, or determined
experimentally from the actual physical system.
For a common application - where the pump lifts a fluid from an open tank at one level to an other,
the energy or head at the surface of the tank can be expressed as:
h
0
= h
s
+ h
l
(4)
where h
0
= head at surface, h
s
= head before the impeller, h
l
= head loss from the surface to impeller.
In an open tank, the head at the surface can be expressed as:
p
atm
/ = p
s
/ + v
s
2
/ 2 g + h
e
+ h
l
(4a)
where h
e
= elevation from surface to pump - positive if pump is above the tank, negative if the pump is
below the tank.
The head available before the impeller can be expressed as:
p
s
/ + v
s
2
/ 2 g = p
atm
/ - h
e
- h
l
(4b)
or as the available NPSHa:
NPSH
a
= p
atm
/ - h
e
- h
l
- p
v
/ (4c)
Required NPSH - NPSH
r
The NPSH
r
, called as the Net Suction Head as required by the pump in order to prevent
cavitation for safe and reliable operation of the pump. The required NPSH
r
for a particular
pump is in general determined experimentally by the pump manufacturer and a part of the
documentation of the pump.
The available NPSH
a
of the system should always exceeded the required NPSH
r
of the pump to avoid
vaporization and cavitation of the impellers eye. The available NPSH
a
should in general be significant
higher than the required NPSH
r
to avoid that head loss in the suction pipe and in the pump casing,
local velocity accelerations and pressure decreases, start boiling the fluid on the impeller surface.
Note that the required NPSH
r
increases with the square capacity.
Page 8 of 54
Regulating discharge flow capacity
The capacity of a centrifugal pump can be regulated either at constant speed, or varying speed.
Capacity Regulating by Varying Speed
Speed regulating is energy efficient since the energy to the
pump is reduced with the decrease of speed. The change in
power consumption, head and volume rate can be
estimated with the affinity laws.
Capacity Regulating by Constant Speed
Capacity can be regulated at constant speed by throttling, bypassing flow, changing impeller diameter,
or modifying the impeller.
Throttling
Throttling can be carried out by opening and closing a
discharge valve. Throttling is energy inefficient since the
energy to the pump is not reduced. Energy is wasted by
increasing the dynamic loss.
Bypassing Flow
The discharge capacity can be regulated by leading a part of
the discharge flow back to the suction side of the pump.
Bypassing the flow is energy inefficient since the energy to
the pump is not reduced.
Changing the Impeller Diameter
Reducing the impellers diameter is a permanent change and the method can be used where the change
in process demand is temporary. The method may be energy efficient if the motor is changed and the
energy consumption reduced.
Modifying the Impeller
The flow rate and the head can be modulated by changing the pitch of the blades. Complicated and
seldom used.
Page 9 of 54
Dimensional Analysis
For non-cavitating flow of an incompressible fluid through a pump of specified geometry, the
pressure rise can be expressed as
, ) D N Q f P , , , , = A (5)
Where AP = pressure rise across the pump (N m
-2
)
Q = volumetric flow rate (m
3
s
-1
)
= fluid density (kg m
-3
)
= fluid viscosity (N s m
-2
)
N = rotational speed (radians/s)
D = a typical dimension such as diameter.
Using dimensional analysis one can obtain
) , (
2
3 1 2 2

ND
ND
Q
f
D N
P
=
A
(6)
The dimensionless pressure rise is thus related to the dimensionless flow rate and a Reynolds number,
Re, defined as

D ND. .
Re =
For a turbo machine, it is found that if Reynolds number is greater than some critical value, then the
dimensionless pressure rise becomes independent of the Reynolds number.
Experiment
The apparatus consists of a simple flow loop as shown in the Figure ?.1. The pump is of turbine
impeller type with directly coupled to the motor. The rotational speed of the motor is 2880 rpm. The
flow rate could be controlled by valve A, valve B, or both.
The mass flow rate can measured from the time required to collect a certain volume of liquid in the
top tank or by reading the liquid level in the top tank (for higher flow rate). Be careful not to
overfill the top tank!!!
Static pressure tapings are placed at the suction side, P1, and discharge side, P2, of the pump. The
presence of bubbles in the suction flow can be observed through the sight glass C.
Procedure.
Valve B
Valve A
P1
P2
Sight Glass C
Bottom Tank
Top Tank
Pump
Figure ?.1.
Page 10 of 54
1. Before starting the pump, make sure that the bottom tank has enough water. The pH of the water
is adjusted to slightly alkaline to reduce corrosion and a dye is added so the water color turns red.
2. Open fully both valve A and B. Turns on the pump and wait for a few minutes to get a steady
flow. Adjust the discharge valve B to avoid overfilling the top tank.
Data collection.
You are required to collect data of
1. discharge pressure rise against flow rate at three different values of suction pressure.
2. flow rate against decreasing suction pressure at some constant discharge pressure. Adjust both
valve A and B to control.
Do not forget to note the sound of the pump, the presence of bubble in the flow, the
stability of pressure readings, the difficulty of controlling the pressures, and so on.
Data analysis
1. Confirm that eq.6 is valid for flow in the absence of cavitations and for Reynolds number above a
critical value its value become unimportant.
Using SI unit calculate

2
3 2 2
and , ,
ND
ND
Q
D N
P A
Plot the first and the second dimensionless groups against the last for your experimental data. Can
you observe the effect of cavitations?
Theory suggests that a simplification will roughly yield parabolic curve with an intercept of a
little bit higher than 0.125 on the
2 2
D N
P

A
axis. Does your experimental data confirm this?
2. Calculate Suction Specific Speed,
4
3
2
1
a
SS
NPSH
Q
N
e
=
against suction pressure at some constant discharge pressure. A rule of thumb says that to avoid
cavitations, the suction specific speed should be below 5200 (Metric Unit). Does your
experimental data confirm this?
Page 11 of 54
5. FLUID MEASURING SYSTEM
THE VENTURI METER
OBJECTIVE:
1. Experimental verification of the Bernoulli equation.
2. To measure the discharge and to investigate the characteristic of a Venturi Meter, Orifice,
and Rotameter.
Description of the main component of the set-up:
The Venturi meter used in this experiment consists of successive converging, uniform and
diverging sections equipped with pressure taps at selected locations See Fig. 1 for a
schematic diagram.
Experimental method:
1 2
3 4
5, 6
7
8
9
Page 12 of 54
A flow rate is supplied through the test section. After steady state flow is achieved the flow
rate is measured by a flow meter. The pressure variation along the test section is measured by
the use of piezometer tubes. The experiment is repeated for two more flow rates.
THEORY
(a). Bernoulli Equation
Assume that the following apply:
- Steady flow
- Incompressible flow
- Flow along a streamline
- No frictional forces
The Bernoulli equation, which expresses the principle of conservation of linear momentum
under special circumstances, can written as :
, ) , )
2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
gz
V P
gz
V P
+ + = + +

(1)
In addition, let assume
2 1
z z = . Therefore, we have
, ) , )
2 2
2
2 2
2
1 1
V P V P
+ = +

(2)
Let us consider the continuity equation (conservation of mass) and limit it to the same
assumption as above. Then we have
2 2 1 1
A V A V =
where
, )
4
2
1
1
D
A t =
, )
4
2
2
2
D
A t = (3)
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
|
|

\
|
= =
D
D
A
A
V
V
(4)
Solving for P
2
from equation (2)
, )
2
1
2
1
2
2
1 1 2
(
(

|
|

\
|

+ =
V
V
V P P
Substituting for V
2
/ V
1
from equation (4)
Page 13 of 54
, )
2
1
4
2
1
2
1 1 2
(
(

|
|

\
|

+ =
D
D
V P P
Noting that
1 1
A V m =
, )
1
1
A
m
V

, )
, )
2
1
2
1
A
m
V

, ) , )
(
(

|
|

\
|


+ =
4
2
1
2
1
2
1 2
1
2 D
D
A
m
P P

(5)
or pressure at any location x is given by
, )
, ) , ) , )
(
(

|
|

\
|


+ =
4
1
2
1
2
1
1
2 x D
D
A
m
P x P

(6)
or, since
g
x P
x h

) (
) ( =
one can write
(
(

|
|

\
|
+ =
4
1
2
1
2
2
1
) (
1
2
) (
x D
D
A g
m
h x h

(7)
Hence the pressure head at any location along the test section can be expressed in term of the
pressure at a reference location (inlet).
(b). Venturi meter
Assuming that there is no loss of energy along the pipe, and that the velocity and
Page 14 of 54
piezometric heads are constant across each of the sections considered, then Bernoullis
theorem states that
(8)
Where u1, u2 and un are the velocities of flow through section 1, 2, and n. The equation of
continuity is
(9)
Q denotes the volume flow or discharge rate.
Substituting in equation (8) for u1 from equation (9)
(10)
And solving this equation for u2 leads to
(11)
So that the discharge rate, from equation becomes:
(12)
In practice, there is some loss of energy between sections 1 and 2, and the velocity is not
constant across either of these sections. Consequently, measured values of Q usually fall
a little short of those calculated from equation (3) and it is customary to allow for this
discrepancy by writing:
(13)
C is known as the coefficient of the meter, which may be established by experiment. Its
value varies slightly from one meter to another and even for a give meter it may vary
slightly with the discharge, but usually lies within the range of 0.92 to 0.99.
(c). Orifice meter
Page 15 of 54
The governing equation is similar to eq.(13) of the venturi meter, but with different values of
coefficient and characteristic.
(14)
Experimental Procedure
1. Connect the Venturi Meter apparatus to the water supply line.
2. Adjust the water flow rate by the flow control valve until a steady reading of 10
liters/min is observed by the use of the flow meter.
3. Ensure that the water heights in the piezometer tubes become stabilized.
4. Read and record these heights in mm.
5. Change the flow rate to 12 liters/min and repeat steps 3, 4.
6. Change the flow rate to 14 liters/min and repeat steps 3, 4.
Lab Report Requirements
1. Determine the mass flow rate for each run.
2. Perform the calculations for each flow-rate and compare with the measured values.
a. Evaluate , ) x h for each pressure location using the corresponding diameter , ) x D .
b. Record the , ) x h values in Table 2.
3. Calculate % error between theoretical and experimental results and list it in the
appropriate row in Table 2.
5 6
7
Page 16 of 54
Note: % 100 %
exp
exp

=
h
h h
ERROR
cal
or % 100 %

=
cal
cal
h
h h
ERROR
exp
depending on which of and you consider to be more accurate. You must give a
justifying statement as to which one you consider to be more accurate.
4. Plot , ) x h vs. x for both theoretical and experimental data for the three different flow
rates separately, i.e. each graph should include a set of theoretical and a set of
experimental data points.
5. Considering the assumptions given in the beginning of this write-up, is it all proofed
to be true? Explain.
6. For Venturi meter and Orifice meter, plot C vs. N
Re
and compare with data on the
textbook. Give comments.
7. Plot the head loss for the rotameter vs. fluid velocity.
Note: For theoretical pressure calculations for stations 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 the
distance is measured from station 1, and the measured pressure at station 1 must
be assumed to be the inlet pressure.
Table 1
Experimental values of pressure as a function of flow-rate: m in (kg/sec) and h in
(mm of water).
Q m
h
1
h
2
h
3
h
4
h
5
h
6
h
7
8
h
9
h
Table 1a
Corrected experimental values of pressure as a function of flow-rate: m in (kg/sec)
and h in (mm of water).
Q m
h
1
h
2
h
3
h
4
h
5
h
6
h
7
8
h
9
h
Table 2
Theoretical values of pressure as a function of flow-rate: m in (kg/sec) and h in (mm
of water).
Page 17 of 54
Q m
h
1
h
2
h
3
h
4
h
5
h
6
h
7
8
h
9
h
%
error
in h
%
error
in h
%
error
in h
Figure1
Schematic diagram of the Venturi meter
Table 3
Pressure tap locations and diameters at pressure tap locations
Pressure
location
A B C D
Diameter
(mm)
26 16 26
x (mm)
0 46 156
A
B
C
D
Page 18 of 54
6. LIQUID-SOLID FLUIDIZED BED
Page 19 of 54
7. GAS-SOLID FLUIDIZED BED AND HEAT TRANSFER
OBJECTIVES
Observe and measure fluidization of a solid bed.
Measure the pressure loss across the fluidized bed
Study heat transfer in a fluidized bed.
INTRODUCTION
Packed and fluidized beds play a major role in many chemical engineering processes.
Packed-bed situations include such diverse processes as filtration, wastewater treatment, and
the flow of crude oil in a petroleum reservoir. In these cases, the interest centers on the
pressure drop through the bed as a function the volumetric flow rate or superficial velocity.
If the particles in the bed are loose and there is sufficient volume in the device containing the
particles, the particles may fluidize at high flow rates. Such beds inherently possess excellent
heat transfer and mixing characteristics. In the study of the fluid-mechanical behavior of
these beds, the focus is on the incipient fluidization velocity and the dependence of bed
expansion on the superficial velocity.
The term fluidized bed describes a finely granulated layer of solid material (referred to as the mass)
that is loosened by fluid flowing through to such an extent that the particles of solid material are free
to move to a certain degree. It is called fluidized because the solid material takes on properties
similar to those of a fluid. Fluidized beds are used widely in engineering for applications such as
combustion, the cracking of high-molecular-weight petroleum fractions, drying plants, and
powder coating.
To characterize a fluid bed, the pressure loss of the fluid flowing through the bed can be used. As the
fluid flows through the solid material, the pressure below the mass initially rises with increasing air
speed. This occurs until the pressure forces match the weight of the mass and the material becomes
suspended. At this point, the layer reaches a fluid state. With further increasing flow rate, the pressure
loss is almost constant. After a certain flow rate, the top particles no longer fall back into the fluidized
bed; they are drawn along with the fluid flow and removed.
The characteristics of the transfer of heat from a heated body to the surroundings also change on the
formation of a fluidized bed. In the solid bed, the transfer of heat is determined largely by the very
low conductivity of the mass of particles. Part of the heat is removed by the fluid flow; therefore, the
heat transfer slowly increases with fluid flow. However, once the particles are in motion, the heat
transfer is defined by the moving particles. Due to the higher specify heat capacity of the particle
material, the heat transfer increases significantly. This allows for an extremely even temperature in
the fluidized bed.
THEORY
The theory for this experiment is covered in Chapter 7 of the 4th Edition of McCabe, Smith,
and Harriott (M,S,&H). The following material is a condensation of that chapter as it relates
to the experiment at hand. As an aid to you, some specific equations in M,W,&H are referred
to. The 5th Edition was recently published and is considerably revised and where possible,
pertinent equations from that edition are given as well. However, generally speaking, the 4th
Edition will probably be more helpful.
There are three areas of interest to us: (1) Relationship between the pressure drop and the
flow rate; (2) Minimum fluidization velocity, and; (3) Behavior of the expanded bed.
(1) Relationship between the pressure drop and the flow rate
Page 20 of 54
The flow of a fluid, either liquid or gas, through a static packed bed can be described in a
quantitative manner by defining a bed friction factor, fp, and a particle Reynolds number,
NRe,p, as follows:
(1.1)
(1.2)
where
AP = pressure drop across the bed
L = bed depth or length
gc = conversion constant (= unity if SI units are used)
Dp = particle diameter
= fluid density
c = bed porosity or void fraction
Vo = superficial fluid velocity
= fluid viscosity
|s = sphericity
The friction factor and the Reynolds number are unitless. Some typical sphericity factors are
given in McCabe, Smith and Harriott (4th Ed.: p. 750, Table 26-1; 5th Ed.: p. 928, Table
28.1).
For laminar flow, where only viscous drag forces come into play, , NRe,p <20) , experimental
data may be correlated by means of the Kozeny-Carman equation:
(1.3)
(From combining Eqns. (7 - 21) and (7 - 23) MS& H with Eq.(2) above)
Note: According to Yates ("Fundamentals of Fluidized-bed Chemical Processes," by J. G.
Yates, Published by Butterworths, 1983, p. 7-8) the factor of 150 was originally given by
Carman as 180 for the case of laminar flow. Ergun later suggested a better value was 150
when the particles are greater than about 150 m in diameter.
For highly turbulent flow where inertial forces predominate, NRe,p , >1000) , experimental
results may instead be correlated in terms of the Blake-Plummer equation:
(1.4)
(From combining Eqs. (7 - 24) and (7 - 21). Also, related to Eq. (7- 20) in the 5th Ed.)
While both equations (3) and (4) have a sound theoretical basis, Ergun empirically found that
the friction factor could be described for all values of the Reynolds number by simply adding
the right-hand sides of equations (3) and (4). Thus:
(1.5)
(2) Minimum fluidization velocity
Page 21 of 54
At a sufficiently high flow rate, the total drag force on the solid particles constituting the bed
becomes equal to the net gravitational force and the bed becomes fluidized. For this situation
a force balance yields:
(1.6)
where
cM = void fraction at the minimum fluidization velocity
A = cross-sectional area of the bed
p = particle density
g = gravitational constant
M = total mass of packing.
This is Eq. (7-50) on Page 149 of the 4th Ed. and Eq. (7.48) of the 5th. The superficial fluid
velocity at which the fluidization of the bed commences is called the incipient or minimum
fluidization velocity, V0M. The incipient fluidization velocity may be determined by
combining equations (1), (3), and (6) with the following result [Eq. (7-54), Page 149 of the
4th Ed. and Eq. (7.52) of the 5th]:
(1.7)
This equation is the basis for some empirical equations found in the literature. The terms can
be grouped as follows:
(1.8)
The first factor contains the sphericity of the particles and the bed porosity at the point of
incipient fluidization. Neither of these factors is usually known with a high degree of
accuracy. If spheres are assumed , |s =1) and a reasonable value of voidage, say cM =0.4 , then
the first factor is 0.00071. The factor is quite sensitive to cM . For example, if cM =0.413, then
the factor is 0.0008.
One investigator, [D. Geldhart, "Types of Fluidization," Powder Technology, 7 (1973), 285-
292; Geldhart and Abrahamsen, Powder Technology, 19 (1978), 133-136] simply determined
the first factor from his data and actually found 0.0008 to be the best value; that is, he
reported the following correlation:
(1.9)
Behavior of the expanded bed
The expansion of fluidized beds is discussed in the text on Pages 152-156 of the 4th Ed. and
Pages 170-173 of the 5th Ed. The treatment to be used here is slightly different. For fluid
velocities exceeding the incipient fluidization velocity, the bed expands. The porosity, c, of
an expanded bed may be related to the superficial fluid velocity, , by means of an empirical
relation suggested by Richardson and Zaki (1,2):
Page 22 of 54
(1.10)
where ut is the terminal velocity of a spherical particle in a fluidizing medium (3). The
exponent, n, depends on the flow conditions -- that is, on the Reynolds number. Thus:
NRe,p <0.2 (11)
0.2 <NRe,p <1.0 (12)
1<NRe,p <500 (13)
NRe,p >500 (14)
Because the terminal velocity, ut, is a constant for a given particle, it can be seen that
Equation (10) above is essentially the same as the empirical equation in the text; namely Eq.
(7-61), p. 152 of the 4th Ed. and Eq. (7.59), p. 171 of the 5th Ed.
The void fraction of the expanded bed, c, is related to that at incipient fluidization by the
following equation:
This is Eq. (7 - 60) of the 4th Ed. and Eq. (7.58) of the 5th. (7-60) where LM and cMare the
bed height and void fraction at incipient fluidization, and L is the measured height of the
expanded bed. Therefore, since LMand cMare known, c can be calculated from the measured
height, L, of the expanded bed.
In Equations (11)-(14) the Reynolds number is based on the particle diameter, Dp, and the
terminal velocity, ut. Therefore it is necessary to know the terminal velocity. By means of a
force balance it is shown that the terminal velocity for spherical particles is:
(15)
(Eq. (7 -39), p. 142 of the 4th Ed. and Eq. (7.37), p. 159 of the 5th.
where CD denotes the drag coefficient.
A graph of CD versus NRe,p is shown in the text (Figure 7-3, p. 131 of the 4th Ed. and
Figure 7.6, p. 158 of the 5th Ed.).
Thus, to find CD, you need to know ut in order to calculate NRe,p. One could do this by
trial-and-error. Thus, you could guess ut, calculate NRe,p, look up CD on the graph, and put the
resulting value in Eq. (15). If the calculated value of ut did not match the guess, you would
guess again.
However, the trial-and-error can be avoided. Square both sides of Eq. (15) and utilize the
definition of NRe,p (Eq. (2)). One obtains:
(16)
Page 23 of 54
All parameters on the right are known. This suggests that a plot of versus NRe,p can
be constructed and used to avoid the trial-and-error procedure.
The plot is prepared in the following way. Pick a series of point coordinates off the plot
shown above. Some examples for spheres are:
NRe,p CD
.001 22,000 22
.01 2,200 22
.1 220 22
1,000 0.48 480
Pick off a dozen similar pairs. Then plot CDNRe,p as the ordinate against corresponding NRe,p as
the abscissa. For each bed, calculate from Eq. (16). From your plot read the
corresponding NRe,p . Then use Eq. (2) to calculate ut.
Heat Transfer Coefficient
The heat transfer coefficient can be calculated from:
where P is the heater power, T is the difference between the heater and bed temperatures, and is
the surface area of the heater. The heater surface area is the area of the cylindrical surface and the
open face.
EQUIPMENT AND PROCEDURE
In this experiment the friction factor will be measured as a function of Reynolds number for
the flow of air through a bed of solid particles. Experimental results will be compared with
theoretical predictions for the appropriate flow regimes. A flowsheet of the experimental set-
up is depicted schematically in Figure 1 at the end of this handout. The equipment includes
two transparent beds, rotameters, manometers, a source of low pressure air, and appropriate
valves and fittings.
Measure the bed height after tapping the bed gently until no further change is observed.
Close Valves B and C. Open Valve A. Control the flow of air through the system by
manipulating Valve B or C depending on the rotameter used. Open Valve D for pressure drop
measurements. Increase the flow rate of air in small steps noting the rotameter and
manometer readings until the bed is fluidized and the pressure drop does not change
appreciably. Also, record the corresponding bed height at each flow rate. Continue the
measurements until the bed is appreciably fluidized and obtain at least fifteen readings in the
packed-bed region and ten readings in the fluidized-bed region. Decrease the flow rate noting
the flow rate and pressure drop values.
The region where fluidization just begins -- namely, at the "minimum fluidization velocity" --
is of special interest. In Figure 2, it occurs at Point B. [This plot is based upon one in "Design
for Fluidization, Part 1," by J. F. Frantz, Chemical Engineering, September 17, 1962, pp. 161-
Page 24 of 54
178.] At this point, where the pressure drop through the fixed bed becomes equal to the
weight of the bed per unit area, a slight rearrangement of particles occurs and the particles
shift position so as to present maximum flow area to the gas. Quoting from the article above:
"This causes a slight decrease in pressure drop, and channeling occurs. Only at
a higher gas velocity does the entire bed become fully supported by the gas
stream. Leva, Shirai and Wen realized this phenomenon took place, and thus
the defined minimum fluidization velocity as a gas velocity 10% greater than
the point at which, with increasing velocity, the pressure drop through the fixed
bed first equals the weight of the bed per unit area."
In view of this, repeat the run to check for reproducibility, making sure that you get sufficient
data in the somewhat ill-defined region between Points B and D.
The theory of this experiment is built around the assumption that at "steady state," the
particles are uniformly distributed in the bed. As you increase the flow rate of air, take some
notes concerning what the bed looks like at various stages. This may help to explain some
discrepancies between measured and theoretical values.
Repeat the measurements on the other bed by reconnecting the appropriate lines.
In a separate experiment, the porosity of a container of solid particles was measured using the
method of water displacement. This involves first weighting a measured volume of dry
particles. Water is then slowly added to the particles until the upper surface is wet. The
weight of the water added can then be used to calculate the porosity of the bed. This porosity
corresponds to the value, cM, in Equation (6).
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
A. Setup
1. Check that the air compressor valve is closed.
2. Switch on the fluidized bed equipment.
3. Close the valve V1 (which controls flowrate).
4. Open the valve on the air compressor.
B. Experiment 1. Measuring the pressure loss.
1. Slide the pressure sensor all the way to the bottom of the bed.
2. Adjust the flow rate to 10 L/min. using valve V1.
3. Record the flow rate and pressure.
4. Increase flow rate by steps of 2 L/min.
5. Continue to record flow rate and pressure.
6. As soon as the first particle movements are seen, the loosening speed has been reached. Note
the flow rate at this point.
7. Continue increasing the flow rate by steps of 5 L/min. until a flow rate of 70 L/min. is
reached.
8. Now reduce the flow rate by steps of 5 L/min. until a flow rate of 10 L/min. is reached.
9. Plot the pressure loss versus fluid velocity.
C. Experiment 2. Measuring the pressure distribution in the fluid bed.
1. Adjust the flow rate to 40 L/min. using valve V1.
2. Record the pressure.
3. Raise the pressure sensor 10 mm and record the pressure.
4. Repeat measurements until the pressure sensor has reached the surface.
5. Graph pressure loss versus height and compare with theoretical.
D. Measuring Heat transfer
Page 25 of 54
1. Adjust the heater such that it is around 30 mm deep in the mass.
2. Adjust the heater power to 30 W. (Note: adjust by reading the ampere and the voltage; the
scale around the control knob is not in units of W)
3. Adjust flow rate to 10 L/min.
4. Wait about 5 minutes until the heater has stabilized.
5. Read and note the heater temperature T1 and the fluid bed temperature T2.
6. Increase flow rate by 10 L/min.
7. Wait about 2 minutes. Then read the temperature three times at one-minute intervals. Record
the average of the three temperatures.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 until the flow rate is 70 L/min. (Note: you may have to adjust the heater
power)
9. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient and graph versus fluid velocity.
E. Heat transfer as function of immersion depth.
1. Adjust flow rate to 90 L/min.
2. Adjust the height of the heater such that it is just above the surface.
3. Wait about 5 minutes until the heater has stabilized.
4. Read and note the heater temperature T1 and the fluid bed temperature T2.
5. Lower the heater in 10 mm steps.
6. Wait about 2 minutes. Then read the temperature three times at one-minute intervals. Record
the average of the three temperatures.
7. Repeat steps 6 and 7. (Note you may have to adjust the heater power)
8. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient and graph versus depth.
Calculations
1. For each bed, plot the measured pressure drop (in cm of H2O) versus the volumetric
flow rate in liters/min. There will likely be a "hysteresis effect," in that the pressure
drop curve for increasing flow rate will differ from that for decreasing flow rate.
Therefore, use different symbols for increasing and decreasing flow rates. Explain the
likely cause of this effect.
2. For each bed, calculate the friction factor and corresponding Reynolds number for
each data point using Equations (1) and (2). Then prepare a single plot of fp versus
NRe,p which combines the results for the two beds. Use a different symbol for each bed
and show symbols only (no lines). On this plot, also show the predicted values from
Equations (3), (4), and (5). Show these as solid or dashed lines, and do not show the
points used for determining these plots.
3. From your plots in Part 1 above, determine the pressure drop at the point where
fluidization begins in cm H2O. Using Equation (6), calculate the predicted value of the
pressure drop at this point in cm H2O. Note that you have to know cM. Leva [Max
Leva, "Chemical Engineering, November, 1957, pp. 266-270] gives a correlation that
can be used. Alternatively, you could assume cM~c as provided to you by the TA for
the packed bed before fluidization commences. Comment on your findings.
4. As noted earlier, the minimum fluidization velocity, V0M, is of considerable interest.
From your results in Part 1, calculate V0Min m/s and ft/s for each of your runs and
beds. Using the theoretical Equation (7), calculate V0Min m/s and ft/s. Use a value of
0.86 for |s since your particles seem to be "sand-like," and the value of cM you got
from the plot in step 3. Several literature equations are available based on
experimental data. Three of these will be used here for comparison with your
experimental results.
(a) Leva (discussed in the two references in "Chemical Engineering")
Page 26 of 54
Leva gives the following equation for the mass velocity at the point at which
fluidization begins:
where: Dp = particle diameter, inches
= fluid density, lbm/ft
3
s = particle density, lbm/ft
3
= fluid viscosity, centipoises
Gmf =V0M= mass velocity, lbm/ft
2
-hr
The value of 688 was chosen by Leva as best based on 223 experimental points.
Frantz noted that the standard deviation was 33% and the average deviation was 22%.
The equation is valid for Reynolds numbers, Gmf Dp/, less than 5. Above 5, the value
of Gmf must be multiplied by the correction factor, Fg, given in the following plot.
(b) Perry's Chemical Engineering Handbook, 6th Edition, p. 20-59.
Baeyens and Geldhart ["Fluidization and Its Applications," Proc. Int. Symp.
Toulouse, 253 (1973)] gives "one of the better correlations:"
where V0M= minimum fluidization velocity, m/s
s = particle density, kg/m3
= fluid density, kg/m3
g = 9.81 m/s2
DP = particle diameter, m
= viscosity, kg/m,s
(c) Equation of Geldhart in "Powder Technology."
Using Equation (9).
For each bed, calculate V0Mfrom the equations of Leva and Perry's in m/s and ft/s.
Compare the results with your experimental values.
5. Finally investigate the behavior of your beds when they are expanded. At each data
point in the expanded regime, you can calculate c from Equation (7-60). For cM,
assume that it has the value given to you by the TA for the packed bed. Then tabulate
corresponding values of V0 on the abscissa. Note that taking the logarithm of both
sides of Equation (7) gives:
Hence the slope of each log-log plot will give n and the "intercept" should be ut. What
values of ut do you find by this method?
Page 27 of 54
Now prepare a log-log plot of versus NRe,p . From this plot, Equation (16),
and Equation (2), determine ut. Compare its value with that from the log-log plot of
versus c.
6. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient and graph versus fluid velocity, the heat transfer
coefficient and graph versus depth.
7. Discuss your results critically.
REFERENCES
1. J.F. Richardson and W.N. Zaki, Trans. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 32, 35 (1954).
2. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, "Chemical Engineering," Vol. II, p. 510-527,
Pergamon Press, Oxford (1960).
3. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, "Transport Phenomena," p. 190-194,
John Wiley and Sons, New York (1960).
4. S. Ergun, Chem. Eng. Prog., 48, 89 (1952).
5. W.L. McCabe and J.C. Smith, "Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering," 3rd
Edition, p.146-150, 159-160, McGraw-Hill, New York (1976).
6. A.S. Foust, L.A. Wenzel, C.W. Clump, L. Maus, and L.B. Anderson, "Principles of
Unit Operations," 2nd edition, p. 637-547, 699-714, John Wiley and Sons, New York
(1980).
7. Kunii, D. and Levenspiel, O.: Fluidization Engineering, Butterworth-Heinemann,
Boston, 1991
8. McCabe, W.L., Smith, J.C., and Harriott, P: Unit Operations of Chemical
Engineering, McGraw-Hill, 1985
Page 28 of 54
Page 29 of 54
8. DRAG COEFFICIENT IN AIR FLOW
Drag on a Circular Cylinder
Aim:
The aim of the experiment is to investigate the pressure distribution in an air flow
around a cylinder in order to determine the drag forces and drag coefficient on the
cylinder.
Apparatus
The apparatus consists of a small cylinder of 1/2 outside diameter mounted
diametrically across a 8 diameter wind tunnel. The cylinder can be rotated 360 and
a small hole in the center of the cylinder is provided for pressure tapping. The hole
points directly into the air stream when the degree scale reads zero. The pressure
differences between the cylinder and the tunnel wall are measured by 10 inclined
manometer.
The wind tunnel is driven by a turbo fan which its rotation can be varied, so its air
velocity.
Theory
When a body is in a fluid stream, the fluid exerts a resultant force on the body. The
components of the resultant force parallel and normal to the direction of the flow are
called respectively drag and lift.
Figure E?.1
The flow pattern around a cylinder in a fluid stream is illustrated in Figure E?.1 for
NRe > 20. The flow separates at points S, about 80 to the front stagnation point.
Vortices are formed in the behind of the cylinder (in the wake region). The drag on
the cylinder results partly from the skin friction and partly from the fact that the
pressure on the rear side is lower than on the front.
The drag resulting from the pressure differences around the surfaces of an object is
called the form drag.
This experiment trying to investigate and calculate the form drag of a cylinder object
by measuring the pressure distribution around the surfaces of a cylinder.
s
s
Wide eddy
wake
u
du
P
d
Figure E?.2
Flow
Page 30 of 54
If the flow is symmetrical and by resolving the force exerted by the pressure in the
direction of the approaching flow, the form drag FD per unit length of cylinder is
given by
} }
= =
t t
u u u u
0 0
cos
2
. cos 2 d P d d
d
P FD
Where P is the pressure around the surface of the cylinder and a function of u.
During the experiment, the manometer does not read the P values, but the differences
between P and P static at the tunnel wall. Therefore the expression for FD becomes
, )
}
=
t
u u
0
cos d P P d FD
s
where P
s
is the static force at the wall tunnel and taken as constant.
The drag coefficient for a body in a fluid is defined as:
) (
2
2
1
area V
drag total
C
D

=
Where
2
2
1
V is the dynamic pressure of the fluid stream, and the area is the projected
area of the body in the direction of the approaching stream. For a circular cylinder,
d V
D
C
D 2
2
1

=
For a form drag of the cylinder, the form drag coefficient can be calculated using the
following relation
, )
}

=
t
u u

0
2
2
1
cos d
V
P P
C
s
D
Applying the Bernoullis theorem between the point at the wall and the 0 point at the
cylinder gives
s
P P V =
0
2
2
1

Finally, the form drag coefficient can be written as
, )
}

=
t
u u
0 0
cos d
P P
P P
C
s
s
D
Experimental Procedure
1. Before starting the flow in the tunnel, connects the pressure tap on the left side of the
manometer to the pressure tap of the cylinder and the other side to the pressure tap on
the tunnel wall. Make sure that all connections are tight!
2. Adjust the scale of the manometer to get the zero reading of the scale match with the
meniscus.
3. Run the turbofan at predetermined RPM, and wait for a while to attain stable air
flow.
4. Rotate the cylinder to the zero position and read the manometer reading. Now, rotate
clockwise in 10 intervals from 0 until 360 and note the manometer readings at
each interval stops.
5. Plot the pressure reading vs. the degree of rotation (u).
Page 31 of 54
6. Measure the temperature of the air leaving the wind tunnel and hence look up for the
kinematics viscosity value of the air.
Analysis: Data
1. Identify the separation point on your plot of (P P
s
) vs. u. In the front part of the
cylinder, the pressure falls rapidly as the fluid accelerates. After the separation point a
wake is formed and the pressure is more or less constant.
2. Find the form drag coefficient by considering the area between the curve and the axis,
taking account of the sign and do not forget to convert degrees to radians. Discuss how
you obtained the error estimate for coefficient.
3. Calculate the Reynolds number. The contribution of skin friction to the total drag
coefficient can be estimated from the correlation
5 . 0
Re 4

=
f
C
Compare the values of the form and skin friction drag coefficient with one another and
compare the total drag coefficients with the values in the textbooks.
4. Comment on the accuracy of the experiment.
Page 32 of 54
9. NATURAL CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
Natural Convection Experiment
OBJECTIVE
Todemonstratethebasicprinciplesofnaturalconvectionheattransferincluding
determinationoftheconvectiveheattransfercoefficient.
INTRODUCTION
Naturalconvectionoccurswhentemperaturegradientwithinafluidinducesits
motion.Ingeneralthedensityofafluiddecreaseswithincreasingtemperatureand
therefore creatingapressuregradienttowardcoolerpartofthefluid.Thispressure
gradientistheresponsiblecause forthefluidmotion.Thehotterfluidmovesupward
andthecoolerfluidmovesdownward.Asthefluidmovesthedragforceson the fluid
willbalancethepressuregradientandsolimitingthefluidvelocity.
Tosustainthe natural motion,heatmustbetransferredtothefluid
continuously.AccordingtoNewtons LawofCooling,therateofheattransfer could
beexpressedas
) (
f s
T T h q =
Where h=heattransfercoefficient, T
s
=hotsurfacetemperature,and T
f
=coldfluid
temperaturefarawayfromthesurface.Tomaketheexpressionusable, h should
knownorcanbepredictedeasily.Sinceanalyticalapproachofpredicting h is
difficult,anexperimentalapproach(orempirical)isoftenchosenthroughtheuseof
dynamicsimilarity.
Itisfoundthatcertainsystemsinfluidmechanicsorheattransferarefoundtohave
similarbehaviorseventhoughthephysicalsituationsmaybequitedifferent.
Inconvectiveheattransferwemayapplydynamicsscalingtomakeatransformation.
Ithasbeendefinedadimensionlessconvectiveheattransfercoefficientcalledthe
Nusseltnumberas
k
L h
Nu
c
= (1)
where
h
c
:convectiveheattransfercoefficient
L:characteristiclength
k:thermalconductivityofthefluid.
L1
L2
L3
Page 33 of 54
Thecharacteristiclengthischosenasthesystemlengththatmostaffectsthefluid
flow.Forflow inapipethecharacteristiclengthisthe pipediameter, D,and the
expressionbecomes
k
D h
Nu
c
= (2)
TheRayleighnumberisindicativeofthebuoyancyforcethatisdrivingtheflowandis
givenby
vo
|
3
) ( L T T g
Ra
f s

= (3)
where
g:accelerationduetogravity
:fluidthermalexpansioncoefficient
T
s
:surfacetemperature
T
f
:fluidtemperature
L:characteristiclength
:fluidkinematicviscosity
:fluidthermaldiffusivity.
Thedimensionlessparameterwhichisusedtorepresenttheaffectoffluidproperties
isthePrandtlnumber
o
v
= Pr (5)
Theinfluenceofgeometrymaybeseeninacoupleofways.First,forthose
configurationsthathavetwolengthdimensions,suchasacylinder, weintroducea
dimensionlessgeometricparameter
(6)
Thesecondwayinwhichweseegeometricalinfluencesisthroughthefunctional
formoftheNusseltnumbercorrelation.Ingeneralwemaywrite
(7)
Forsimplesituationsthesemayoftenbewrittenaspowerlawrelationships
(8)
wheretheconstants a,m,and nwillchangefordifferentgeometries.
Page 34 of 54
10. NATURAL AND FORCED CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
P Pr ri in nc ci ip pl le e
T Th hi is s e ex xp pe er ri im me en nt t i is s d de es si ig gn ne ed d t to o i il ll lu us st tr ra at te e t th he e N Ne ew wt to on n s s l la aw w o of f c co oo ol li in ng g b by y c co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n a an nd d
t to o u un nd de er rs st ta an nd d h ho ow w t th he e h he ea at t t tr ra an ns sf fe er r c co oe ef ff fi ic ci ie en nt t i is s o ob bt ta ai in ne ed d e ex xp pe er ri im me en nt ta al ll ly y. . N Na at tu ur ra al l a an nd d
f fo or rc ce ed d c co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n o ov ve er r a a h he ea at te ed d c cy yl li in nd de er r i is s a an na al ly yz ze ed d a an nd d e ex xp pe er ri im me en nt ta al l r re es su ul lt ts s a ar re e
c co om mp pa ar re ed d w wi it th h s st ta an nd da ar rd d c co or rr re el la at ti io on ns s. .
O Ob bj je ec ct ti iv ve e
D De et te er rm mi in ne e t th he e h he ea at t t tr ra an ns sf fe er r c co oe ef ff fi ic ci ie en nt t f fo or r a a f fl lo ow w a ar ro ou un nd d a a c cy yl li in nd de er r u un nd de er r f fr re ee e a an nd d
f fo or rc ce ed d c co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n. . U Un nd de er rs st ta an nd d t th he e c co or rr re el la at ti io on n b be et tw we ee en n N Nu u, , R Re ey yn no ol ld ds s a an nd d R Ra ay yl le ei ig gh h
n nu um mb be er rs s. . C Co om mp pa ar re e w wi it th h s st ta an nd da ar rd d c co or rr re el la at ti io on n f fr ro om m t te ex xt tb bo oo ok ks s o on n h he ea at t t tr ra an ns sf fe er r. . T Th he e e ef ff fe ec ct t
o of f t th he er rm ma al l r ra ad di ia at ti io on n i is s a al ls so o i in nc cl lu ud de ed d. .
B Ba ac ck kg gr ro ou un nd d
N Ne ew wt to on n s s l la aw w o of f c co oo ol li in ng g
F Fo or r c co on nv ve ec ct ti iv ve e h he ea at t t tr ra an ns sf fe er r, , t th he e r ra at te e e eq qu ua at ti io on n i is s k kn no ow wn n a as s N Ne ew wt to on n s s l la aw w o of f c co oo ol li in ng g a an nd d
i is s e ex xp pr re es ss se ed d a as s: :
) (

=
' '
T T h q
s
W Wh he er re e T Ts s i is s t th he e s su ur rf fa ac ce e t te em mp pe er ra at tu ur re e, , T T t th he e f fl lu ui id d t te em mp pe er ra at tu ur re e, , h h t th he e c co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n h he ea at t
t tr ra an ns sf fe er r c co oe ef ff fi ic ci ie en nt t a an nd d
q ' '
t th he e c co on nv ve ec ct ti iv ve e h he ea at t f fl lu ux x. . T Th he e h he ea at t t tr ra an ns sf fe er r c co oe ef ff fi ic ci ie en nt t h h i is s a a
f fu un nc ct ti io on n o of f t th he e f fl lu ui id d f fl lo ow w, , s so o, , i it t i is s i in nf fl lu ue en nc ce ed d b by y t th he e s su ur rf fa ac ce e g ge eo om me et tr ry y, , t th he e f fl lu ui id d m mo ot ti io on n i in n
t th he e b bo ou un nd da ar ry y l la ay ye er r a an nd d t th he e f fl lu ui id d p pr ro op pe er rt ti ie es s a as s w we el ll l. .
F Fr ro om m t th he e n no or rm ma al li iz ze ed d m mo om me en nt tu um m a an nd d e en ne er rg gy y e eq qu ua at ti io on n i in n t th he e b bo ou un nd da ar ry y l la ay ye er r: :
2
*
* 2
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Re
1
y
U
x
P
y
U
V
x
U
U
L c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
M Mo om me en nt tu um m e eq qu ua at ti io on n
2
*
* 2
*
*
*
*
*
*
Pr Re
1
y
T
y
T
V
x
T
U
L c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
E En ne er rg gy y e eq qu ua at ti io on n
I In nd de ep pe en nd de en nt tl ly y o of f t th he e s so ol lu ut ti io on n o of f t th he es se e e eq qu ua at ti io on ns s f fo or r a a p pa ar rt ti ic cu ul la ar r c ca as se e, , t th he e f fu un nc ct ti io on na al l
f fo or rm m f fo or r U U
* *
a an nd d T T
* *
c ca an n b be e w wr ri it tt te en n a as s: :
Page 35 of 54
U U
* *
= = f f( (x x
* *
, ,y y
* *
, ,R Re e
L L, , d dp p
* *
/ /d dx x
* *
) )
a an nd d
T T
* *
= = f f( (x x
* *
, ,y y
* *
, ,R Re e
L L, , P Pr r, , d dp p
* *
/ /d dx x
* *
) )
H He ea at t t tr ra an ns sf fe er r, , d du ue e t to o t th he e n no o- -s sl li ip p c co on nd di it ti io on n a at t t th he e w wa al ll l s su ur rf fa ac ce e o of f t th he e b bo ou un nd da ar ry y l la ay ye er r, ,
o oc cc cu ur rs s b by y c co on nd du uc ct ti io on n; ;
0 y
f
"
s
y
T
k q
=
c
c
=
B By y c co om mb bi in ni in ng g w wi it th h t th he e N Ne ew wt to on n s s l la aw w o of f c co oo ol li in ng g, , w we e o ob bt ta ai in n: :

c
c
=
T T
y
T
k
h
s
0 y
f
S Si in nc ce e T T
* *
w wa as s d de ef fi in ne ed d a as s
s
s *
T T
T T
T

h h c ca an n b be e w wr ri it tt te en n i in n t te er rm ms s o of f t th he e d di im me en ns si io on nl le es ss s t te em mp pe er ra at tu ur re e p pr ro of fi il le e T T
* *
0
*
*
0
*
*
* *
) (
) (
= =

c
c
=
c
c

=
y
f
y
s
s f
y
T
L
k
y
T
T T L
T T k
h
T Th hi is s e ex xp pr re es ss si io on n s su ug gg ge es st ts s d de ef fi in ni in ng g a a d di im me en ns si io on nl le es ss s p pa ar ra am me et te er r; ;
0 y
*
*
f
*
y
T
k
hL
Nu
=
c
c
= =
F Fr ro om m t th he e d di im me en ns si io on nl le es ss s t te em mp pe er ra at tu ur re e p pr ro of fi il le es s, , w we e c ca an n i im mp pl ly y a a f fu un nc ct ti io on na al l f fo or rm m f fo or r t th he e
N Nu us ss se el lt t n nu um mb be er r, ,
N Nu u = = f f( (x x
* *
, ,R Re e
L L
* *
, ,P Pr r, ,d dp p
* *
/ /d dx x
* *
) )
T To o c ca al lc cu ul la at te e a an n a av ve er ra ag ge e h he ea at t t tr ra an ns sf fe er r c co oe ef ff fi ic ci ie en nt t, , w we e h ha av ve e t to o i in nt te eg gr ra at te e o ov ve er r x x
* *
, , s so o t th he e
a av ve er ra ag ge e N Nu us ss se el lt t n nu um mb be er r b be ec co om me es s i in nd de ep pe en nd de en nt t o of f x x
* *
. . F Fo or r a a p pr re es sc cr ri ib be ed d g ge eo om me et tr ry y, ,
*
*
dx
dp
i is s
s sp pe ec ci if fi ie ed d a an nd d
Page 36 of 54
Pr) , (Re f Nu
L
L =
T Th hi is s m me ea an ns s t th ha at t t th he e N Nu us ss se el lt t n nu um mb be er r, , f fo or r a a p pr re es sc cr ri ib be ed d g ge eo om me et tr ry y i is s a a u un ni iv ve er rs sa al l f fu un nc ct ti io on n o of f
t th he e R Re ey yn no ol ld ds s a an nd d P Pr ra an nd dt tl l n nu um mb be er rs s. .
D Do oi in ng g a a s si im mi il la ar r a an na al ly ys si is s f fo or r f fr re ee e c co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n, , i it t c ca an n b be e s sh ho ow wn n t th ha at t, ,
Pr) , Gr ( f Nu =
o or r
Pr) , Ra ( f Nu =
W Wh he er re e G Gr r i is s t th he e G Gr ra as sh ho of f n nu um mb be er r a an nd d R Ra a i is s t th he e R Ra ay yl le ei ig gh h n nu um mb be er r. . T Th he e R Ra ay yl le ei ig gh h n nu um mb be er r
i is s s si im mp pl ly y t th he e p pr ro od du uc ct t o of f G Gr ra as sh ho of f a an nd d P Pr ra an nd dt tl l n nu um mb be er rs s ( (R Ra a = = G Gr r P Pr r) )
T Th he en n, , f fo or r f fr re ee e c co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n t th he e N Nu us ss se el lt t n nu um mb be er r i is s a a u un ni iv ve er rs sa al l f fu un nc ct ti io on n o of f t th he e G Gr ra as sh ho of f a an nd d
P Pr ra an nd dt tl l n nu um mb be er rs s o or r R Ra ay yl le ei ig gh h a an nd d P Pr ra an nd dt tl l n nu um mb be er rs s. .
E Ex xp pe er ri im me en nt ta al l s se et tu up p
D De es sc cr ri ip pt ti io on n o of f t th he e C Co om mb bi in ne ed d C Co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n a an nd d R Ra ad di ia at ti io on n H He ea at t T Tr ra an ns sf fe er r E Eq qu ui ip pm me en nt t: :
T Th he e c co om mb bi in ne ed d c co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n a an nd d r ra ad di ia at ti io on n h he ea at t t tr ra an ns sf fe er r e eq qu ui ip pm me en nt t a al ll lo ow ws s i in nv ve es st ti ig ga at te e t th he e
h he ea at t t tr ra an ns sf fe er r o of f a a r ra ad di ia an nt t c cy yl li in nd de er r l lo oc ca at te ed d i in n f fl lo ow w o of f a ai ir r ( (c cr ro os ss s f fl lo ow w) ) a an nd d t th he e e ef ff fe ec ct t o of f
i in nc cr re ea as si in ng g t th he e s su ur rf fa ac ce e t te em mp pe er ra at tu ur re e. . T Th he e u un ni it t a al ll lo ow ws s i in nv ve es st ti ig ga at ti io on n o of f b bo ot th h n na at tu ur ra al l
c co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n w wi it th h r ra ad di ia at ti io on n a an nd d f fo or rc ce ed d c co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n. . T Th he e m mo ou un nt ti in ng g a ar rr ra an ng ge em me en nt t i is s d de es si ig gn ne ed d
s su uc ch h t th ha at t h he ea at t l lo os ss s b by y c co on nd du uc ct ti io on n t th hr ro ou ug gh h t th he e w wa al ll l o of f t th he e d du uc ct t i is s m mi in ni im mi iz ze ed d. . A A
t th he er rm mo oc co ou up pl le e ( (T T
1 10 0) ) i is s a at tt ta ac ch he ed d t to o t th he e s su ur rf fa ac ce e o of f t th he e c cy yl li in nd de er r. . T Th he e s su ur rf fa ac ce e o of f t th he e c cy yl li in nd de er r
i is s c co oa at te ed d w wi it th h a a m ma at tt t b bl la ac ck k f fi in ni is sh he ed d, , w wh hi ic ch h g gi iv ve es s a an n e em mi is ss si iv vi it ty y c cl lo os se e t to o 1 1. .0 0. . T Th he e c cy yl li in nd de er r
m mo ou un nt ti in ng g a al ll lo ow ws s t th he e c cy yl li in nd de er r a an nd d t th he er rm mo oc co ou up pl le e ( (T T1 10 0) ) p po os si it ti io on n t to o b be e t tu ur rn ne ed d 3 36 60 0 a an nd d
l lo oc ck ke ed d i in n a an ny y p po os si it ti io on n u us si in ng g a a s sc cr re ew w. . A An n i in nd de ex x m ma ar rk k o on n t th he e e en nd d o of f t th he e m mo ou un nt ti in ng g a al ll lo ow ws s
t th he e a ac ct tu ua al l p po os si it ti io on n o of f t th he e s su ur rf fa ac ce e t to o b be e d de et te er rm mi in ne ed d. . T Th he e c cy yl li in nd de er r c ca an n r re ea ac ch h i in n e ex xc ce es ss s
6 60 00 0 C C w wh he en n o op pe er ra at te ed d a at t m ma ax xi im mu um m v vo ol lt ta ag ge e a an nd d i in n s st ti il ll l a ai ir r. . H Ho ow we ev ve er r t th he e r re ec co om mm me en nd de ed d
m ma ax xi im mu um m f fo or r t th he e n no or rm ma al l o op pe er ra at ti io on n i is s 5 50 00 0 C C. .
U Us se ef fu ul l D Da at ta a: :
C Cy yl li in nd de er r d di ia am me et te er r D D = = 0 0. .0 01 1 m m
C Cy yl li in nd de er r h he ea at te ed d l le en ng gt th h L L = = 0 0. .0 07 7 m m
Page 37 of 54
E Ef ff fe ec ct ti iv ve e a ai ir r v ve el lo oc ci it ty y l lo oc ca al l t to o c cy yl li in nd de er r d du ue e t to o b bl lo oc ck ka ag ge e e ef ff fe ec ct t U Ue e = = ( (1 1. .2 22 2) ) ( (U Ua a ) )
P Ph hy ys si ic ca al l P Pr ro op pe er rt ti ie es s o of f A Ai ir r a at t A At tm mo os sp ph he er ri ic c P Pr re es ss su ur re e
T T V V k k P Pr r
K K m m
2 2
/ /s s W W/ /m mK K - -
3 30 00 0 1 1. .5 56 68 8E E- -5 5 0 0. .0 02 26 62 24 4 0 0. .7 70 08 8
3 35 50 0 2 2. .0 07 76 6E E- -5 5 0 0. .0 03 30 00 03 3 0 0. .6 69 97 7
4 40 00 0 2 2. .5 59 90 0E E- -5 5 0 0. .0 03 33 36 65 5 0 0. .6 68 89 9
4 45 50 0 2 2. .8 88 86 6E E- -5 5 0 0. .0 03 37 70 07 7 0 0. .6 68 83 3
5 50 00 0 3 3. .7 79 90 0E E- -5 5 0 0. .0 04 40 03 38 8 0 0. .6 68 8
5 55 50 0 4 4. .4 43 34 4E E- -5 5 0 0. .0 04 43 36 60 0 0 0. .6 68 8
6 60 00 0 5 5. .1 13 34 4E E- -5 5 0 0. .0 04 46 65 59 9 0 0. .6 68 8
W Wh he er re e: :
T T i is s t th he e a ab bs so ol lu ut te e t te em mp pe er ra at tu ur re e, , V V i is s t th he e D Dy yn na am mi ic c v vi is sc co os si it ty y o of f a ai ir r, , k k i is s t th he e t th he er rm ma al l
c co on nd du uc ct ti iv vi it ty y a an nd d P Pr r i is s t th he e P Pr ra an nd dt tl l n nu um mb be er r. .
P Pr ro oc ce ed du ur re e
a a) ) C Co on nn ne ec ct t i in ns st tr ru um me en nt ts s t to o t th he e h he ea at t t tr ra an ns sf fe er r u un ni it t
C Co om mb bi in ne ed d C Co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n a an nd d R Ra ad di ia at ti io on n H He ea at t
T Tr ra an ns sf fe er r E Eq qu ui ip pm me en nt t
S Sc ch he em ma at ti ic c D Di ia ag gr ra am m s sh ho ow wi in ng g t th he e C Co om mb bi in ne ed d
C Co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n a an nd d R Ra ad di ia at ti io on n H He ea at t T Tr ra an ns sf fe er r
E Eq qu ui ip pm me en nt t
Page 38 of 54
b b) ) M Me ea as su ur re e t th he e r re ea ad di in ng g f fo or r t th he e s su ur rf fa ac ce e t te em mp pe er ra at tu ur re e o of f t th he e c cy yl li in nd de er r, , t th he e t te em mp pe er ra at tu ur re e
a an nd d v ve el lo oc ci it ty y o of f t th he e a ai ir r f fl lo ow w a an nd d t th he e p po ow we er r s su up pp pl li ie ed d b by y t th he e h he ea at te er r. .
c c) ) R Re ep pe ea at t s st te ep ps s 1 1 a an nd d 2 2 f fo or r d di if ff fe er re en nt t v ve el lo oc ci it ti ie es s t th he e a ai ir r f fl lo ow w a an nd d p po ow we er r i in np pu ut t. .
1 1. . F Fr re ee e c co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n e ex xp pe er ri im me en nt ts s
A An na al ly ys si is s o of f r re es su ul lt ts s
Q Q
i in np pu ut t h h
r r h h
C C1 1t th h h h
C C2 2t th h
S Se et t
W W W W/ /m m
2 2
K K W W/ /m m
2 2
K K W W/ /m m
2 2
K K
1 1 4 4
2 2 8 8
3 3 1 12 2
4 4 1 16 6
T Th he e t to ot ta al l h he ea at t i in np pu ut t i is s: : Q Q
i in np pu ut t = = V V I I
T Th he e h he ea at t t tr ra an ns sf fe er r r ra at te e b by y r ra ad di ia at ti io on n i is s: :
Q Q
r ra ad d = = c c o o A A ( (T T
s s
4 4
T Ta a
4 4
) ) = = h h
r r A A ( (T T
s s T T
a a) )
S So o, ,
a s
a s
r
T T
T T
h

=
) (
4 4
co
T Th he e h he ea at t t tr ra an ns sf fe er r r ra at te e b by y c co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n i is s: :
Q Q
c co on nv v = = Q Q
i in np pu ut t - - Q Q
r ra ad d
F Fr ro om m N Ne ew wt to on n s s l la aw w o of f c co oo ol li in ng g
) (
a s c conv
T T A h Q =
A An nd d
) (
a s
conv
c
T T A
Q
h

=
Page 39 of 54
C Co om mp pa ar ri is so on n t to o t th he eo or re et ti ic ca al l c co or rr re el la at ti io on ns s
F Fo or r a an n i is so ot th he er rm ma al l l lo on ng g h ho or ri iz zo on nt ta al l c cy yl li in nd de er r, , M Mo or rg ga an n s su ug gg ge es st ts s a a c co or rr re el la at ti io on n o of f t th he e f fo or rm m, ,
n
D D
cRa
k
D h
Nu = =
( (1 1) )
c c a an nd d n n a ar re e c co oe ef ff fi ic ci ie en nt ts s t th ha at t d de ep pe en nd d o on n t th he e R Ra ay yl le ei ig gh h n nu um mb be er r
R Ra ay yl le ei ig gh h n nu um mb be er r c c n n
1 10 0
- -1 10 0
1 10 0
- -2 2
0 0. .6 67 75 5 0 0. .0 05 58 8
1 10 0
- -2 2
1 10 0
2 2
1 1. .0 02 2 0 0. .1 14 48 8
1 10 0
2 2
1 10 0
4 4
0 0. .8 85 50 0 0 0. .1 18 88 8
1 10 0
4 4
1 10 0
7 7
0 0. .4 48 80 0 0 0. .2 25 50 0
1 10 0
7 7
1 10 0
1 12 2
0 0. .1 12 25 5 0 0. .3 33 33 3
T Th he e R Ra ay yl le ei ig gh h n nu um mb be er r i is s c ca al lc cu ul la at te ed d f fr ro om m, ,
Pr
D ) T T ( g
Ra
2
3
a s
u
|
=
w wh he er re e
film
T
1
= |
a an nd d
2
T T
T
a s
film
+
=
C Ch hu ur rc ch hi il ll l a an nd d C Ch hu u r re ec co om mm me en nd d a a s si in ng gl le e c co or rr re el la at ti io on n f fo or r a a w wi id de e r ra an ng ge e o of f R Ra ay yl le ei ig gh h n nu um mb be er r, ,

2
27 / 8
16 / 9
6 / 1
D
Pr) / 559 . 0 ( 1
Ra 387 . 0
60 . 0 Nu

+
+ =
12
10 Ra s
( (2 2) )
F Fr ro om m c co or rr re el la at ti io on n ( (1 1) ) a an nd d ( (2 2) ) w we e c ca an n d de et te er rm mi in ne e h h
C C1 1t th h a an nd d h h
C C2 2t th h a an nd d c co om mp pa ar re e w wi it th h h h
c c
o ob bt ta ai in ne ed d f fr ro om m t th he e e ex xp pe er ri im me en nt t. .
Page 40 of 54
F Fo or rc ce ed d c co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n
A An na al ly ys si is s o of f r re es su ul lt ts s
Q Q
i in np pu ut t h h
r r h h
C C R Re e N Nu u
1 1 N Nu u
2 2 h h
C C1 1t th h h h
C C2 2t th h
S Se et t
W W W W/ /m m
2 2
K K W W/ /m m
2 2
K K - - - - - - - - - -
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
T Th he e t to ot ta al l h he ea at t i in np pu ut t i is s: :
Q Q
i in np pu ut t = = V V I I
T Th he e h he ea at t t tr ra an ns sf fe er r r ra at te e b by y r ra ad di ia at ti io on n i is s: :
Q Q
r ra ad d = = c c o o A A ( (T T
s s
4 4
T Ta a
4 4
) ) = = h h
r r A A ( (T T
s s T T
a a) )
S So o, ,
a s
a s
r
T T
T T
h

=
) (
4 4
co
T Th he e h he ea at t t tr ra an ns sf fe er r r ra at te e b by y c co on nv ve ec ct ti io on n i is s: :
Q Q
c co on nv v = = Q Q
i in np pu ut t - - Q Q
r ra ad d
F Fr ro om m N Ne ew wt to on n s s l la aw w o of f c co oo ol li in ng g
) (
a s c conv
T T A h Q =
a an nd d
) T T ( A
Q
h
a s
conv
c

=
C Co om mp pa ar ri is so on n w wi it th h t th he eo or re et ti ic ca al l c co or rr re el la at ti io on ns s
F Fo or r a an n i is so ot th he er rm ma al l l lo on ng g h ho or ri iz zo on nt ta al l c cy yl li in nd de er r, , H Hi il lp pe er r s su ug gg ge es st ts s, ,
3 / 1 m
D
D Pr Re C
k
D h
Nu = =
( (3 3) )
Page 41 of 54
w wh he er re e C C a an nd d m m a ar re e c co oe ef ff fi ic ci ie en nt t t th ha at t d de ep pe en nd d o on n t th he e R Re ey yn no ol ld ds s n nu um mb be er r: :
R Re e
D D C C m m
0 0. .4 4- -4 4 0 0. .9 98 89 9 0 0. .3 33 30 0
4 4- -4 40 0 0 0. .9 91 11 1 0 0. .3 38 85 5
4 40 0- -4 40 00 00 0 0 0. .6 68 83 3 0 0. .4 46 66 6
4 40 00 00 0- -4 40 00 00 00 00 0 0 0. .1 19 93 3 0 0. .6 61 18 8
4 40 00 00 00 0- -4 40 00 00 00 00 0 0 0. .0 02 27 7 0 0. .8 80 05 5
A Al ll l p pr ro op pe er rt ti ie es s a ar re e e ev va al lu ua at te ed d a at t t th he e f fi il lm m t te em mp pe er ra at tu ur re e
2
T T
T
a s
film
+
=
C Ch hu ur rc ch hi il ll l a an nd d B Be er rn ns st te ei in n p pr ro op po os se ed d t th he e f fo ol ll lo ow wi in ng g c co or rr re el la at ti io on n f fo or r R Re e P Pr r> >0 0. .2 2
5 / 4
8 / 5
D
4 / 1
3 / 2
3 / 1 2 / 1
D
282000
Re
1
Pr
4 . 0
1
Pr Re 62 . 0
3 . 0 Nu
(
(

\
|
+
(
(

\
|
+
+ =
( (4 4) )
w wh he er re e a al ll l p pr ro op pe er rt ti ie es s a ar re e e ev va al lu ua at te ed d a at t t th he e f fi il lm m t te em mp pe er ra at tu ur re e. .
F Fr ro om m c co or rr re el la at ti io on n ( (3 3) ) a an nd d ( (4 4) ) w we e c ca an n d de et te er rm mi in ne e h h
C C1 1t th h a an nd d h h
C C2 2t th h a an nd d c co om mp pa ar re e w wi it th h h h
c c
o ob bt ta ai in ne ed d f fr ro om m t th he e e ex xp pe er ri im me en nt t. .
D Di is sc cu us ss si io on n
Page 42 of 54
10. DOUBLE PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER
OBJECTIVES
The objective of this experiment is to investigate the effect of Reynolds number on the
individual heat transfer coefficients and the performances of co-current and counter-current
flow heat transfer in a double pipe heat exchanger.
INTRODUCTION
Double pipe heat exchanger consists of outer tube and inner tube. Fluids flow through inner
tube and annulus.
The amount of heat transferred in the hot stream and in the cold stream are
Applying overall energy balance at steady state and rearranging gives
RATE OF HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT FLUX: The rate of heat transfer per unit area is called the heat flux. In a heat-transfer
equipment which the transfer surfaces are constructed from tubes or pipe, heat fluxes may
then be based on either the inside area or the outside area of the tubes. Although the choice is
arbitrary, it must be clearly stated, because the numerical magnitude of the heat fluxes will
not be the same for both.
OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT: The heat flux depends on the local
temperatures different between the hot side and the cold side and the local heat transfer
coefficient. In practise, it is easier to work with the average of all the local temperature
differents and the local heat transfer coefficient. The heat trasfer rate from the hot stream to
the cold stream can then be written as
where
T
hc T
hh
T
cc
T
ch
Page 43 of 54
The LMTD is not always the correct mean temperature difference to use. It should not be
used when U changes appreciably or when AT is not a linear function of q. As an example,
consider an exchanger used to cool and condense a superheated vapor.
INDIVIDUAL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT: Overall heat transfer coefficient consists
of many parts. Graphically it can be shown as
The rate of heat transfer based on the outside area and the individual heat transfer coefficient
can be calculated from the following realtion.
And for the inside area
PRELIMINARY WORK
Study the equipment and familiarize yourself with its operation. Draw a detailed diagram of
the equipment.
The data about the dimensions of the exchanger are as follows:
Number of double pipes: ?
Length of each pipe: ? m
Inner pipe dimensions: ? Sch. 40 steel pipe
Outer pipe dimensions: ? Sch. 40 steel pipe
Prepare a data sheet to record the data acquired during the experiment.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Perform at least four separate runs for each of the co-current and counter-current flow
configurations. During the runs vary the flow rate of the cold stream in the turbulent
region and keep the flow rates hot stream constant.
T
hot
T
cold
hot fluid
cold fluid
metal wall
T
wc
T
wh
Page 44 of 54
2. Take readings for both rotameter during each run at suitable time intervals. Record the
mass flowrates for the streams.
3. Wait for the attainment of steady state conditions during each runtime after changing the
flow rate of the cold stream. Check the steady-state conditions by recording the streams
temperatures at suitable time intervals.
CALCULATIONS
1. Plot the temperature of each stream vs. the length of the heat exchanger for each run.
Indicate the ranges and approaches.
2. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficients based on the cold water stream. Plot the
overall heat transfer coefficients of cold stream vs. corresponding Reynolds numbers.
3. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficients based on the hot water stream. Plot the
overall heat transfer coefficients of hot stream vs. corresponding Reynolds numbers.
4. Calculate the heat fluxes to cold stream once using the overall heat transfer coefficients
and log-mean temperature differences; and once using the flow rate and temperature data
of the cold stream.
5. Determine the heat fluxes to the surroundings by difference in heat fluxes obtained using
the data for cold and hot streams. Calculate the percentage of heat loss to surroundings.
6. Make an energy balance.
DISCUSSIONS
1. The effect of Reynolds number on the individual heat transfer coefficients.
2. Performance of the co-current flow heat exchanger vs. the counter-current flow heat
exchanger.
3. Possible causes of deviations, if any, between the results of heat fluxes obtained by the
two different calculation procedures, for the same run.
4. Make recommendations to increase the heat transfer rate to the cold stream, and for the
better control of variables to obtain more accurate experiment results.
5. Explain how you can calculate the heat transfer coefficient on the annular side of the
inner pipe in double pipe heat exchanger.
6. Under which conditions would you recommend to have hot fluid flowing in the inner pipe
of a double pipe heat exchanger.
7. Where and when do you use double pipe heat exchangers? What is the most reasonable
advantage of a double pipe exchanger when compared with shell-and-tube exchangers?
8. Explain, with respect to the fluids involved, the following terms used in the heat transfer
terminology: Exchanger, heater (or steam heater); cooler; condenser; reboiler; vaporizer;
waste-heat Boiler.
9. What is the main difference between a 1-2 shell-and-tube exchanger and a U-tube
exchanger?
Page 45 of 54
Suggested Reading
1. Mc Cabe, W.L., J.C. Smith, and P. Harriott, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering,
6th ed., Mc Graw Hill, N.Y. (2001) Chapter 11, Principles of Heat Flow in Fluids.
2. Holman, J.P., Heat Transfer, 7th ed., Mc Graw Hill, N.Y. (1990).
3. Perry, R.H. and D. Green, Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7th ed., Mc Graw
Hill, N.Y. (1997) Section 10, Heat Transmission.
4. Foust, A.S., et al, Principles of Unit Operations, 3rd ed., John Wiley and Sons, N.Y.
Page 46 of 54
11. SHELL AND TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER
OBJECTIVE of this experiment is to measure the two inlet temperatures and the mass flows
through the shell and tubes, in order to predict the two outlet temperatures using the NTUmethod
andcomparethesepredictedvalueswithactual measuredoutlet temperatures.
IMPORTANT
When using the Heat Exchanger Performance Test Bench,
there are some important items to remember for your
safety and the safety of others.
1. Make sure the proper inlet and outlet valves are open
before the heat exchanger is operated. Failure to do this
will pressurize the system and rupture the heat exchanger
seams. As a rule of thumb, do not close any of the outlet
ball valves more than half way. In particular, make sure the
outlet valves that allow the water to go to the drain are
open prior to turning on water.
2. For meaningful data, bleed taps will need to be opened and
closed to allow air to escape while the experiment is going
on. Outlet valves may be closed SLIGHTLY to help keep the
heat exchanger full.
INTRODUCTIONMany engineering applications involve a process of heat exchange between
two fluids. Heat exchangers are devices used to promote the heat transferred between two fluids;
e.g., a car radiator and the condenser units on air conditioning systems. Space heating, air
conditioning, power production, and chemical processing are typical areas of application.
There are many heat exchanger designs. The laboratory setup for this experiment contains three
heat exchanger types: a shell-and-tube exchanger, a concentric tube exchanger, and a tube bank
exchanger in cross flow. This particular experiment employs the shell-and-tube type heat exchanger
(see Figure 1). A shell-and-tube heat exchanger is constructed of tubes that are attached on each
end by a plate, called the tube sheet, through which the tubes pass. One fluid streams into the inlet
of the heat exchanger, flows through the tubes, and exits through the tube sheet at the opposite end
of the heat exchanger.
Figure 1Schematic of shell-and-tube exchanger
A shell encloses the internal volume where the tubes are housed. Another, fluid flows through
the shell and heat is exchanged between the tube-side fluid and the shell-side fluid. In a power
plant, most heat exchangers are of the shell-and-tube design. The number of passes commonly
Page 47 of 54
presents a further description of a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. A single pass means the fluid
flows straight through the entire heat exchanger without changing direction and so, in this design,
the fluid moves past the length of the heat exchanger only a single time. In a two-pass heat
exchanger the fluid in the tubes goes in one end, flows to the other end, reverses direction then
flows back to the same end that the fluid entered through a second set of tubes. Thus, the fluid
travels the full length of the heat exchanger twice. Similarly, multiple pass heat exchangers are so
named because they make many passes. This experiment employs a shell-and-tube heat exchanger
consisting of two tube passes and one shell pass.
THEORY: HEAT EXCHANGER ANALYSIS
Thermodynamics and the First Law dictate the overall energy transfer in a heat exchanger. There
are two widely used methods of heat exchanger analysis, the NTU-Effectiveness method and the
Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference (LMTD) method. These are briefly discussed below.
Log-Mean-Temperature-Difference (LMTD) Method
For a heat exchanger between two fluids with given inlet and outlet temperatures, there are three
equations for the rate of heat transfer, Q,
(11)
(12)
(13)
Where
and . These temperature differences are called
temperature approaches, .
U = overall heat transfer coefficient, W/(m
2
K)
A = area of surface across heat transfer occurs, m
2
= mass flow rate of fluid j, kg/s
= specific heat of fluid j, J/(kgK)
For known specific heats, U, A, and entering temperatures, the three equations above can be solved
for three unknownsT
1,out
, T
2,out
, and Q by successive substitution of one of the equations for Q
onto another. It is a simple matter to use the log-mean-temperature-difference method of heat
exchanger analysis when the fluid inlet temperatures are known and the outlet temperatures are
specified or readily determined from the energy balance expressions. The value of AT
lmtd
for the
exchanger may then be determined. However, if only the inlet temperatures are known, use of the
LMTD method requires an iterative procedure.
T
1,in
T
1,out
T
2,in
T
2,out
Page 48 of 54
NTU-Effectiveness Method
This method was developed to avoid the iterative calculation of LMTD method when only
the temperatures of inlet streams are known. Number of (heat) transfer unit is defined as
(14)
where
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
NTU is a function of geometric and material properties, and the mass flow rates. It does not include
any fluid temperatures.
Heat exchanger effectiveness is defined as the ratio of the actual heat that can be transferred by the
equipment and the maximum heat that possibly can be given or be received by the least stream
capacity (C
min
) at infinite area.
(19)
Effectiveness of heat exchanger equipment depends on many factors such as type, geometric
arrangement, etc. The following table presents the effectiveness of various cases.
The outlet temperatures can be easily calculated from Q
actual
and equation (1) and (2).
Page 49 of 54
LABORATORY PROCEDURE
1. Verify the dimensions and features of Figure 2.
2. Generally, small flow rates will generate better results but may take longer to reach steady
state. Also, do not let the air that comes out of entrainment accumulate in shell. Use bleed
taps as needed.
3. For a hot water flow of about 15% of the maximum reading and a cold water flow of about
30%, take inlet and outlet temperatures of both flows until no further changes in
temperature are noted. This is the steady-state conditionuse only the associated flow
rates and temperatures for calculations.
Figure 2Experimental apparatus with dimensional data
DETAILED COMPUTATIONAL PROCEDURE
The NTU method will be described for a shell-and-tube heat exchange using only one tube; but
it could represent an entire tube bundle.
1. a. Determine cold and hot water flow rates, _ m
H
_ m
H
and _ m
C
_ m
C
, and their specific
heats,
H
p
c and
C
p
c (look for average c
p
values). [ALWAYS CHECK UNITS!!]
b. Calculate a temperature specific energy flow known as the heat capacity rate, C, for both the
cold and hot flows
Distance between Tube Sheets, 16-1/8
(inside face to inside face)
30 Tubes, each 0.25 diameter
neglect wall thickness
Cold water
inlet
thermometer
Hot water inlet thermometer
Cold water
outlet
thermometer
Hot water
outlet
thermometer
Shell: 5 OD
4.5 ID
5 Baffles, 1.2 thick. Equally spaced to form 6
chamber. 23 tube penetrations per baffle.
The width of the
flow course
varies & thus the
average velocity
SL = 0.475
ST = 0.548
SD = 0.548
SL
ST
SD
Page 50 of 54

=
=
smaller the and
is these of larger The
min
max
C
C
c m C
c m C
hot
cold
p hot hot
p cold cold

.
c. Calculate the heat capacity rate ratio, c = C
min
/C
max
.
2. Calculate the heat transfer coefficients at the inside and outside surfaces of the tubes, h
inside
and
h
outside
. These are used to compute the overall heat transfer coefficient, U. (See Figure 3)
Figure3Heat transfercoefficientsat insideandoutsidetubesurfaces
a. Flow Inside Tubes: Even though there are many tubes in the bundle and there are parallel
and counter flows in this two-pass exchanger, the calculation may be performed by
considering the flow in just one of the tubes, but one must account for the direction of the
flow. That is, half of the tubes are associated with parallel flow and half the tubes are
associated with counterflow. Thus, the mass flow in the equivalent tubes is
tube inside
flow side tube total
m
N
m
1
-
2

=
where, N = total number of tubes.
From simple flow relations, it is known that the velocity inside a single tube is
A
m
V
inside
inside

=
where, A = cross sectional area of one tube.
Given this velocity, a Reynolds number ( ) can be computed to indicate
whether the inside flow is laminar or turbulent. This will most likely be fully-developed,
laminar flow. For such with constant surface temperature, T
s
, and :
where fluid properties are based on the mean (or bulk) temperature, .
If the flow is fully developed turbulent (Re > 10,000),
.
Tube-side fluid properties should be evaluated at the average of the mean temperatures,.
b. Shell Flow (Outside of Tubes): For the staggered tube arrangement of the experiment
shown in Figure 4, use the following expression for the average Nusselt number
outside
h
inside
h
Page 51 of 54
Use Table 1 to determine m and C
1
. Note in the report which values of m and C
1
were
used. This relation applies when there are more than 10 tubes in a bundle (NL > 10), 2000 <
Re
D,max
< 40,000 where Re
D,max
is defined below, and Pr > 0.7. Average mean temperature
of the fluid, , as defined above.
Figure 4Staggered tube arrangement
S
T
/D
1.25 1.5 2.0 3.0
S
L
/D C
1
m C
1
m C
1
m C
1
m
0.600 0.213 0.636
0.900 0.446 0.571 0.401 0.518
1.000 0.497 0.558
1.125 0.478 0.565 0.518 0.560
1.250 0.518 0.556 0.505 0.554 0.519 0.556 0.522 0.562
1.500 0.451 0.568 0.460 0.562 0.452 0.568 0.488 0.568
2.000 0.404 0.572 0.416 0.568 0.482 0.556 0.449 0.570
3.000 0.310 0.592 0.356 0.580 0.440 0.562 0.428 0.574
Table 1Constants of for airflow over a staggered tube bank
is defined for the maximum velocity occurring within the tube bank,
V
max
, which occurs at one of two locationseither in way of A
1
or A
2
(see Figure 4). The
maximum velocity is calculated as follows.
The factor of 2 results from the bifurcation experienced by the fluid moving form the A
1
to
the A
2
planes.
The average velocity of flow over the tube is not constant as the shell is not wall-sided but
circular. Thus, an average free-stream velocity must be determined based on an average
width of the shell, w
avg
.
2
A
1
A
L
S
D
T
S
D
S
V
avg
, T

Page 52 of 54
Multiplying this with the distance between baffles gives an average cross-sectional area,
A
avg
, for the flow. The average velocity, V
avg
, can be determined from
3. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient, U, by assuming the tube wall thickness is thin
and very conductive
Then calculate
(dimensionless)
For one shell pass and two tube passes the heat exchanger effectiveness is
Finally, use equations (1), (2), and (9) to get the actual heat transferred and the outlet
temperatures.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIESBoth hot fluid and cold fluid are water at essentially atmospheric
pressure. At low pressure, one may assume that density and internal energy are approximately
equal to their saturated liquid values at the same temperature; i.e., (T, p) ~ f(T) and u(T, p) ~
uf(T). Thus, density can be defined.
Enthalpy is, h(T, p) ~ hf(T) + [p psat(T)]/f(T). At a room temperature of, say, 21C, psat =
0.02487bar. Compared to atmospheric pressure of 1.01325bar, this is small and negligible. Thus,
h(T, p) ~ hf(T) + p/f(T). At the temperature assumed, the density of water is 998kg/m3. At
small pressures, say 2atm = 2.02bar, p/f(T) = 0.202 kJ/kg while hf(T) = 88.14 kJ/kg. Thus, a
fair approximation of enthalpy is h(T, p) ~ hf(T).
Finally, the definition of specific heat is Ah = c(T) AT; thus, C (T, p) ~ C f(T).
FOR THE REPORT
1. For every pair of inlet temperatures (the hot inlet and the cold inlet) estimate the
corresponding outlet temperatures. Be sure to clearly state/show the calculations along
with any assumptions made on the worksheet in the order appearing on the grading sheet.
Of course, you may have other intermediate calculations.
2. Indicate sources of error in equations as they apply to the shell-and-tube heat exchanger in
the lab, as well as sources of error in the measurements.
3. Discuss how good is the NTU method.
Page 53 of 54
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Discuss how good is the NTU method.
Indicate sources of error in equations as they apply to the shell-and-tube heat exchanger in
the lab, as well as sources of error in the measurements
CONCLUSIONS
APPENDIX ADATA SHEET FOR SHELL-AND-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER LAB
Time/Date: ___________________________
Lab Partners:___________________________ ___________________________
___________________________ ___________________________
Verify supplied dimensions given in Figure 2. Is anything else needed?
Is the hot flow on the tube side or shell side? ______________
Hot fluid max flow rate: ________________
Run
Cold
Volumet
ric Flow
Rate,
Hot
Volumet
ric Flow
Rate,
Hot Outlet
Temperature
,
o H
T
,
(C)
Hot Inlet
Temperature
,
i H
T
,
(C)
Cold Outlet
Temperature,
o C
T
,
(C)
Cold Inlet
Temperature,
i C
T
,
(C)
1
2
3
4
5
Page 54 of 54
12. CONDENSING VAPOR HEAT TRANSFER
13. LIQUID-LIQUID MIXING
14. SOLID-SOLID MIXING
15. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH CONSTANT AREA CONDUIT
16. COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT NOZZLE