CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Concept used Free Space Optics is a telecommunication technology that uses light propagating in free space to transmit data between two points. It is a line-of-sight (LOS) technology that transmits a modulated beam of visible or infrared light through the atmosphere for broadband communications. The optical source may usually be infrared light, although lowdata-rate communication over a short distance is possible using LEDs. However for large distances, laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) source can be used. In free space optics, an energy beam is collimated by the source and transmitted through space. Distances up to several kilometres are possible, but the distance and the data rate of connection is highly dependent on the atmospheric conditions.

1.2 LASER The LASER (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) was perfected in 1960, by scientist Theodore Maiman at the Hughes Laboratory in Malibu California. Two physicists Charles H. Townes and his Arthur Schawlow were the first to apply for a patent on the laser and they were the first to publish their findings in a scientific journals. The He-Ne laser (red beam) was in commercial use, by 1968. Today different types of lasers exist, for a wide range of applications. It is much intense, directional, coherent & monochromatic.

1.3 Why LASER? A laser beam, unlike wires, also does not require special shielding over longer distances. Lasers offer at least an order of magnitude longer distances compared to infrared LEDs. Although RF transmitters may offer longer distances than line-of-sight lasers, they are subject to interference from other transmitters. Since the laser medium is line-of-sight and the beam being only several millimeters in diameter it is very difficult for the data stream to be tapped. This offers secure
2

communication since any attempts to intercept the laser beam would be detected at the receiver as a loss in data.

1.3.1 Advantages : Quick link setup High transmission security High bit rate Low bit error rate Full duplex transmission Protocol transparency No interference Low dispersion

1.4 Why IR? Security: infrared communication is highly directional and identifies the person with whom you are communicating which is different from wireless communication in which information diffuses which can easily be tapped Effect on human body: no harmful effect on body can be used in crowded place. Data communication speed: compared to wireless communication with max. Speed of 100Mbps .IR has a potential of 1Gbps.it is optimal for when large volume of data such as video must sent at high speed.

1.4.1 Advantages Low power requirements: therefore ideal for laptops, telephones, personal digital assistants Low circuitry costs: $2-$5 for the entire coding/decoding circuitry Simple circuitry: no special or proprietary hardware is required, can be incorporated into the integrated circuit of a product
3

Portable High noise immunity: not as likely to have interference from signals from other devices.

Security: directionality of the beam helps ensure that data isn't leaked or spilled to nearby devices as it's transmitted

CHAPTER 2

COMPONENTS USED

2.1 List of components

S NO. 1. 2.

COMPONENT NAME SK100(TRANSISTOR) MAX232(IC)

3.

BF-810 USB232(cable)

COMPONENT SPECIFICATIONS Polarity-PNP Application general purpose medium power transistor +5V power supply Operate up to 120kbits /sec Two drivers & two receivers. Low supply current ..8mA typical 1-Port RS232 Interface for USB Integrated 2 m USB-A cable, D-Sub 9-Pin connector Standard baud rates up to 230.4 kb/s, 128 B transmit-andreceive FIFOs Fully functional RS232 port, including RTS/CTS hardware handshake lines 47 - 2nos 4.7K - 2 nos 1K - 4 nos 100 - 2 nos 100K - 2 nos 1 - 10 nos 470 - 2 nos 1 nos 1 nos 6 nos 1 nos 1 nos 2 nos

4.

RESISTORS

5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

CAPACITORS Laser Torch IR-LED LED Photodiode LDR RS-232 SERIAL PORT

2.2 MAX232 Serial RS-232 (V.24) communication works with voltages (between -15V to -3V are used to transmit a binary '1' and +3V to +15V to transmit a binary '0') which are not compatible with today's computer logic voltages. On the other hand, classic TTL computer logic operates between 0 V to +5 V. So the maximum RS-232 signal levels are far too high for today's computer logic electronics, and the negative RS-232 voltage can't be used by the computer logic. Therefore, to receive serial data from an RS-232 interface the voltage has to be reduced, and the 0 and 1 voltage levels inverted. In the other direction (sending data from some logic over RS-232) the low logic voltage has to be "bumped up", and a negative voltage has to be generated, too.

RS-232 -15V ... -3V

TTL +2V ... +5V

Logic 1

+3V ... +15V

0V ... +0.8V

Table 2.1: RS 232- TTL logic

Fig 2.1: PIN Description of MAX-232 (Courtesy: http://www.epanorama.net/images) 2.3 Laser torch For this project we have removed the laser assembly from a small laser pointer. The Power supply circuit is the green board attached to the brass laser head. It is conveniently marked with a plus and a minus next to two holes in the board. We solder the black negative lead from the battery clip to the hole marked minus. We solder one of the coil leads to the hole marked plus. We solder the red positive lead of the battery clip to the other lead from the coil. This Laser Torch is small, cheap and is easily available in the market.

Fig 2.2: Laser Torch (courtesy: http://www.epanorama.net/images)

2.4 PHOTODIODE A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current overvoltage, depending upon the mode of operation. Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed (to detect vacuum UV or Xrays) or packaged with a window or optical fibre connection to allow light to reach the sensitive part of the device. When a photon of sufficient energy strikes the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a mobile electron and a positively charged electron hole. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the built-in field of the depletion region. Thus holes move toward the anode, and electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced.

Fig 2.3: Photodiode (courtesy: http://www.epanorama.net/images)

CHAPTER 3

10

SERIAL COMMUNICATION

A serial port sends and receives data one bit at a time over one wire. While it takes eight times as long to transfer each byte in comparison to parallel port, only a few wires are required. In fact, two-way (full duplex) communications is possible with only three separate wires - one to send, one to receive, and a common signal ground wire. The serial port on the PC is a full-duplex device meaning that it can send and receive data at the same time. In order to do this, it uses separate lines for transmitting and receiving data. Some types of serial devices support only one-way communications and therefore use only two wires in the cable the transmit line and the signal ground. Once the start bit has been sent, the transmitter sends the actual data bits. There may either be 5, 6, 7, or 8 data bits, depending on the number of bits we have selected. Both receiver and the transmitter must agree on the number of data bits, as well as the baud rate. Almost all devices transmit data using either 7 or 8 data bits.

3.1 DCE and DTE Devices DTE stands for Data Terminal Equipment, and DCE stands for Data Communications Equipment. These terms are used to indicate the pin-out for the connectors on a device and the direction of the signals on the pins. Our computer is a DTE device, while most other devices are usually DCE devices. The RS-232 standard states that DTE devices use a 9-pin male connector, and DCE devices use a 9-pin female connector. We can, therefore connect a DTE device to a DCE using a straight pin-for-pin connection. The listing at the next page shows the connections and signal directions for 9-pin connector:

11

MALE RS232 DB9 PIN NUMBER 1

9 PIN CONNECTION A DTE DEVICE DIRECTION OF A SIGNAL CARRIER DETECT (CD) INCOMING SIGNAL FROM MODEM

RECEIVED DATA (RD) INCOMING DATA FROM A DCE

RANSMITTED DATA (TD) OUTGOING DATA TO DCE

DATA TERMINAL READY (DTR) OUTGOING HANDSHAKING SIGNAL

5 6

SIGNAL GROUND COMMON REFRENCE VOLTAGE DATA SET READY (DSR) INCOMING HANDSHAKING SIGNAL

REQUEST TO SEND (RTS) OUTGOING FLOW CONTROL SIGNAL

CLEAR TO SEND (CTS) INGOING FLOW CONTROL SIGNAL

RING INDICATOR (RI) INCOMING SIGNAL FROM MODEM

Table 3.1: Description of DB-9 (9 pin-connector)

The TD (transmit data) wire is the one through which data from a DTE device is transmitted to a DCE device. This wire is used by a DCE device to receive its data. The TD line is kept in a mark condition by the DTE device when it is idle. The RD (receive data) wire is the one on which data is received by a DTE device, and the DCE device keeps this line in a mark condition when idle. RTS stands for Request To Send. This line and the CTS (Clear To Send) line are used when "hardware flow control" is enabled in both the DTE and DCE devices. The DTE device puts this line in a mark condition to tell the remote device that it is ready and able to receive data.
12

If the DTE device is not able to receive data (typically because its receive buffer is almost full), it will put this line in the space condition as a signal to the DCE to stop sending data. When the DTE device is ready to receive more data (i.e. after data has been removed from its receive buffer), it will place this line back in the mark condition. The complement of the RTS wire is CTS, which stands for Clear To Send. The DCE device puts this line in a mark condition to tell the DTE device that it is ready to receive the data. Likewise, if the DCE device is unable to receive data, it will place this line in the space condition. Together, these two lines make up what is called RTS/CTS or "hardware" flow control. DTR stands for Data Terminal Ready. Its intended function is very similar to the RTS line. DSR (Data Set Ready) is the companion to DTR in the same way that CTS is to RTS. Some serial devices use DTR and DSR as signals to simply confirm that a device is connected and is turned on. The Software Wedge sets DTR to the mark state when the serial port is opened and leaves it in that state until the port is closed. The DTR and DSR lines were originally designed to provide an alternate method of hardware handshaking. It would be pointless to use both RTS/CTS and DTR/DSR for flow control signals at the same time. Because of this, DTR and DSR are rarely used for flow control. CD stands for Carrier Detect. Carrier Detect is used by a modem to signal that it has a made a connection with another modem, or has detected a carrier tone. The last remaining line is RI or Ring Indicator. A modem toggles the state of this line when an incoming call rings the phone. The Carrier Detect (CD) and the Ring Indicator (RI) lines are only available in connections to a modem. Because most modems transmit status information to a PC when either a carrier signal is detected (i.e. when a connection is made to another modem) or when the line is ringing, these two lines are rarely used.

3.2 RS-232 In telecommunications, RS-232 is a standard for serial binary data signals connecting between a DTE (Data terminal equipment) and a DCE (Data Circuit-terminating Equipment). It is commonly used in computer serial ports. In RS-232, data is sent as a time-series of bits. Both synchronous and asynchronous transmissions are supported by the standard. In addition to the data circuits, the standard defines a number of control circuits used to manage the
13

connection between the DTE and DCE. Each data or control circuit only operates in one direction that is, signalling from a DTE to the attached DCE 23 or the reverse. Since transmit data and receive data are separate circuits, the interface can operate in a full duplex manner, supporting concurrent data flow in both directions. The standard does not define character framing within the data stream, or character encoding.

3.3 Baud Rate The baud rate of a data communications system is the number of symbols per second transferred. A symbol may have more than two states, so it may represent more than one binary bit (a binary bit always represents exactly two states). Therefore the baud rate may not equal the bit rate, especially in the case of recent modems, which can have (for example) up to nine bits per symbol. As an illustration, consider the serial transmission of a terminal whose transfer rate is 10 characters per second. Each transmitted character consists of a start bit, eight information bits, and two stop bits, for a total of 11 bits. Thus, each character takes 0.1 s for transmission. Therefore, for 11 characters, the bit time is 9.09 ms. Ten characters per second with an 11-bit format has a transfer rate of 110 baud.

14

CHAPTER 4

15

Project Design

A serial port sends and receives data one bit at a time over one wire. While it takes eight times as long to transfer each byte of data this way, only a few wires are required. In fact, two-way (full duplex) communications is possible with only three separate wires - one to send, one to receive, and a common signal ground wire. The serial port on the PC is a fullduplex device meaning that it can send and receive data at the same time. In order to be able to do this, it uses separate lines for transmitting and receiving data. Some types of serial devices support only one-way communications and therefore use only two wires in the cable the transmit line and the signal ground. There are two sections in our project. One is the transmitter section and the other being the receiver section.

4.1 TRANSMITTER SECTION Data signals transmitted through Pin 3 of 9 pin D connector of RS-232 COM port are sent to Pin 8 of MAX232 IC and it converts these +/- 9V to 0/5V TTL levels. The output pin line of MAX232 IC drives the PNP transistor SK100 and powers the IR LED. The output Pin 9 also drives an LED indicator during the positive output at its Pin 9. At logic 0 output at Pin 9, LED2 goes off, but drives the PNP transistor through a bias resistor of 1 kilo-ohm, to switch on IRLED1 and IRLED2 and also a visible LED3. Since very low drive current is used, use of high- efficiency visible LEDs, which light up at 1mA, are needed. The electrical pulses sent by the COM port are now converted into corresponding modulated pulses of IR light.

4.2 RECEIVER SECTION: The IR signals are detected by a photodiode (D1). The detected TTL level (0/5 V) signals are coupled to pin 10 of MAX232 IC. These TTL levels are converted to +/- 9V levels internally and output at Pin 7. A visible LED1 at Pin 7 of MAX232 IC indicates that the signals are being received. Pin 7 is also connected to Pin 2 of 9 pin D connector used for serial port in the PC, so that the data may be read. The optical signals received by the photodiodes are
16

converted to electrical pulses and both PC think that there is a null modem cable connected between them. In some PCs, the serial port is terminated into 9 Pin D connector . An USB-to-Serial Connector BF-810 is used to connect the computer to the transmitter as well as the receiver. This adapter is designed for ideal connections to Cellular Phone, Digital Camera, Modems or ISDN terminal adapter with over 120k bps data transfer rate. The circuit diagram at both the transmitter and the receiver is the same for full-duplex communication and for half-duplex communication with a minor change. For half-duplex, there is no transmitting laser at one end and no receiving photodiode at the other end. The power supply for the Laser source can be supplied from a standard 5V supply, also available at the market.

4.3 Software Used The software used for this purpose is X-CTU. It can be downloaded from the internet. Before using the software, the following settings has to be made: 1. Select COM port in section : "PC Settings" 2. Select Baud Rate 3. Flow Control : NONE 4. Data Bits : 8 5. Parity : NONE 6. Stop Bits : 1 7. Enable API : Uncheck 8. Click Test / Query After the initial settings, a window will appear that will prompt for the data. We can send data in ASCII, Hexadecimal as well as Text Data.

17

4.4 Circuit Diagram:

18

CHAPTER 5

19

OTHER MODES OF COMMUNICATION

5.1 Fibre Optic Communication

Fig 5.1 : Model of simple fibre optic data link

It contains a Transmitter-Receiver pair and a fibre optical cable which constitutes the transmission Medium. The connectors provide the interface of the Transmitter to the Transmission Medium and the Transmission Medium to the Receiver.

5.1.1 Transmitter The Transmitter serves two functions. First, it acts as the source of the light coupled into the fibre optic cable. Secondly, it modulates this light so as to represent the binary data that it is receiving from the Source. The Source provides the data to the Transmitter as some digital electrical signal. The Transmitter can then be thought of as Electro-Optical (EO) transducer. Within the context of a fibre optic data link the modulating signal, the information, assumes only the values of '0' and '1.' The demodulation function in the Receiver looks for the presence or absence of energy during a bit time interval.

20

5.1.2 Receiver The Receiver serves two functions. First, it detects the light coupled out of the fibre optic cable and convert the light into an electrical signal. Secondly, it demodulates this light to determine the identity of the binary data that it represents. The light detection is carried out by a photodiode. This senses light and converts it into an electrical current. The data communication can be both half-duplex and full-duplex. It is cheaper than the wireless medium and is prone to less loss than the wireless medium. It also offers large bandwidth and high speeds. The economy of this mode of communication decreases with the increase in distance because of the increase in the cost of fibre optical wire.

5.2 Infrared Communication Infrared technology allows computing devices to communicate via short-range wireless signals. With infrared, computers can transfer files and other digital data bidirectional. The infrared transmission technology used in computers is similar to that used in consumer product remote control units. infrared radiation is the region of the electromagnetic spectrum between microwaves and visible light.

5.2.1 Installation and Usage Computer infrared network adapters both transmit and receive data through ports on the rear or side of a device. Infrared adapters are installed in many laptops and handheld personal devices. In Microsoft Windows, infrared connections can be created through the same method as other local area network connections. Infrared networks were designed to support direct two-computer connections only, created temporarily as the need arises. However, extensions to infrared technology also support more than two computers and semi-permanent networks.

21

5.2.2 Range Infrared communications span very short distances. Place two infrared devices within a few feet (no more than 5 meters) of each other when networking them. Unlike Wi-Fi and Bluetooth technologies, infrared network signals cannot penetrate walls or other obstructions and work only in the direct "line of sight." These devices usually conform to standards published by IrDA, the Infrared Data Association. Remote controls and IrDA devices use infrared light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to emit infrared radiation which is focused by a plastic lens into a narrow beam. The beam is modulated, i.e. switched on and off, to encode the data. The receiver uses a silicon photodiode to convert the infrared radiation to an electric current. It responds only to the rapidly pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and filters out slowly changing infrared radiation from ambient light. Infrared communications are useful for indoor use in areas of high population density. IR does not penetrate walls and so does not interfere with other devices in adjoining rooms. Infrared is the most common way for remote controls to command appliances. Infrared remote control protocols like RC-5, SIRC, are used to communicate with infrared.

5.2.3 Disadvantages Line of sight: transmitters and receivers must be almost directly aligned (i.e. able to see each other) to communicate. Blocked by common materials: people, walls, plants, etc. can block transmission. Short range: performance drops off with longer distances. Light, weather sensitive: direct sunlight, rain, fog, dust, pollution can affect transmission. Speed: data rate transmission is lower than typical wired transmission.

22

CHAPTER 6

23

Discussion

6.1 Difficulties Faced The major difficulties faced in the design stage are the calibration of proper circuit parameters at which the LASER starts transmitting the data. The transmitter as well as the receiver is highly sensitive to the surrounding environmental conditions. As a remedy, we have used a plastic to cover the source. One major difficulty that arose during the implementation is that data transmitted from the source was not effectively received at the receiver junction. Much efforts have been put to remove this error. Photo-transistors can be used because it is highly sensitive and gives the desired baud rate.

6.2 Future Prospects For better implementation of hardware, the same can be realised on a PCB (peripheral circuit board). The circuit can be further extended by using microcontrollers so that data transmission can be stopped if there is an indication of loss of data at the receiver. The model can be implemented using Radio Frequency (RF) waves medium. Because radio waves are not affected by any obstruction limitations. This can be also extended to communication between multiple computers and over a wide area. Also, Encrypting algorithm can be used for ultra high security purpose.

24

Conclusion

Data Communications and Networking are one of the fastest growing segments in todays world. The major reason for this growth is the dramatic increase in networked offices, PC based products and software. One of the major difficulties in such computer networking is the loss of data between the sender and the receiver and the security problems that can come with such communication. The end result of this hardware project is a communication model which can be effectively used to transfer data between two computers. Laser communication is not as effective as the optical fibres and IR communication. Several methods as has been discussed earlier, such as using a photo-transistor, can be introduced for effective data reception. The success of this model also depends on the LASER source that is used as the source at the transmitter side. The reception for LASER at the receiving end is also not much effective with the current devices because of their low response time. The focus of this project is to propose a model by which communication can be established in an effective and secured manner.

25

References

[1] MAX 232 Datasheet, Maxim Integrated Products 2003. [2] BF-810 USB to Serial Adapter User Manual. [3] SK100 Datasheet, TEAMASIA LAKHI SEMICONDUCTORS LTD. [4] ST 5001 Data Communication Trainer User Manual, ScienTECH Technology. [5] Morris Mano, Computer System Architecture, Third Edition, Prentice Hall India, 1993. [6] Tammy Noergaard, Embedded Systems Architecture, Elsevier Inc. 2005. [7] National Instruments, www.digital.ni.com, for DCE and DTE devices.

26