11/21/2011

Lecture 10: CELL NUCLEUS

Controls cell activities Contains the hereditary material of the cell

LECTURE FLOW
1. 2.

INTRODUCTION STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF NUCLEUS

Nuclear Membrane Nucleolus Chromosomes DNA Genes Chromosomes

3.

THE GENETIC MATERIAL

Gene Protein Cellular function Organismal function

4.

GENETIC CASES

1. INTRODUCTION
1. 2.

4.

3.

The CELL is the smallest unit of living matter Cells are the basic and fundamental unit of structure, physiology, and organization of all living organisms. Life depends on the ability of cells to store, retrieve, store, retrieve, and translate the genetic instructions (the hereditary information) information) required to make and maintain a living organism.

5.

6.

The hereditary information is passed on from a cell to its daughter cells at cell division, and from one generation of an organism to the next through the organism's reproductive cells. cells. These instructions are stored within every living cell as its genes, the informationgenes, informationcontaining elements that determine the characteristics of a species as a whole and of the individuals within it. Genes can be divided into two different classes of genes, regulatory genes and effector genes. genes.

11/21/2011

7.

Effector genes encode proteins that carry out some task in the cell that modify the structure or metabolism of the cell leading to a developmental change.
Many effector genes encode enzymes that are required for a particular biochemical pathway.

2. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF NUCLEUS

1.

The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the information and administrative center of the cell.

8.

Regulatory genes encode proteins that function to regulate the expression of other genes (Fosket, 1994) (Fosket,

Yellowtang.org

1.

Nucleus is a spherical-shaped organelle present in sphericalevery eukaryotic cell which accounts to about 10 percent of the cell's volume, and is the most prominent one in comparison to other cell organelles. Nucleus is separated from the rest of the cell or the cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane. The nucleus functions to store the cell's hereditary material (DNA), to coordinate the cell's activities which include intermediary metabolism, growth, protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division) In general, a eukaryotic cell has only one nucleus. Some eukaryotic cells are enucleate cells (without nucleus) such as red blood cells (RBCs), and some others are multinucleate (consists of two or more nuclei) such as slime molds

NUCLEUS STRUCTURE

A cell nucleus consists of

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

2.

3.

nuclear membrane (nuclear envelope) Nucleolus Nuclear pores Chromatin Chromosomes Nucleoplasm Nucleoplasm, Nucleoplasm, also known as karyoplasm, karyoplasm, is the matrix present inside the nucleus.
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plants/nucleus.html

11/21/2011

1.

Nuclear Membrane

2.

Nucleolus

The nuclear membrane is a double-layered structure doublethat encloses the contents of the nucleus The outer layer of the membrane is connected to the endoplasmic reticulum A fluid-filled space (perinuclear space) is present fluid(perinuclear between the two layers of a nuclear membrane The nucleus communicates with the remaining of the cell (cytoplasm) through several openings called nuclear pores. pores. Such nuclear pores are the sites for exchange of large molecules (proteins and RNA) between the nucleus and cytoplasm.

The nucleolus (plural nucleoli) is a dense, sphericalsphericalshaped structure present inside the nucleus Some of the eukaryotic organisms have nucleus that contains up to four nucleoli The nucleolus plays an indirect role in protein synthesis by producing ribosomes. ribosomes. These ribosomes are cell organelles made up of RNA and proteins; they are transported to the cytoplasm, which are then attached to the endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes are the protein-producing organelles of a proteincell. Nucleolus disappears when a cell undergoes division and is reformed after the completion of cell-division. cell-

2.

Chromosomes

NUCLEUS FUNCTIONS
Nucleus controls the hereditary characteristics of an organism and is also responsible for the protein synthesis, cell division, growth, and differentiation.
1.

Chromosomes are present in the form of strings of DNA and histones (protein molecules) called chromatin. chromatin. The chromatin is further classified into heterochromatin and euchromatin based on the functions. Heterochromatin is a highly condensed, transcriptionally inactive form, mostly present in adjacent to the nuclear membrane. Euchromatin is a delicate, less condensed organization of chromatin, which is found abundantly in a transcribing cell.

2. 3. 4. 5.

Storage of hereditary material, the genes in the form of long and thin DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) strands, referred to as chromatins. chromatins. Storage of proteins and RNA (ribonucleic acid) in the nucleolus. Nucleus is a site for transcription in which messenger RNA (mRNA) are produced for the protein synthesis. Exchange of hereditary molecules (DNA and RNA) between the nucleus and rest of the cell. During the cell division, chromatins are arranged into chromosomes in the nucleus.

11/21/2011

6. 7. 8.

Production of ribosomes (protein factories) in the nucleolus. Selective transportation of regulatory factors and energy molecules through nuclear pores. As the nucleus regulates the integrity of genes and gene expression, it is also referred to as the control center of a cell

3. THE GENETIC MATERIAL

The nucleus is the cell organelle that houses the genetic material (DNA) in eukaryotic organism such as plants The nucleus is the control center of a eukaryotic cell, responsible for the coordination of genes and gene expression that regulate all cell activity. activity.

What is the genetic material in the cell nucleus?

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic material stored in the cell nucleus DNA is an alpha double helix of two polynucleotide strands.

http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/basics/dna

11/21/2011

DNA - Directs RNA synthesis - Directs protein synthesis through RNA

DNA is made up of four bases (abbreviated A, T, C, and G) that are repeated over and over in pairs. The sugar group forms the backbone of DNA. The phosphate groups are responsible for linking one nucleotide to another. The nitrogenous bases of nucleotides face each other and form Hydrogen bonds with their complimentary bases.

Double stranded DNA formed by complementary Base Pairing

Nucleic acids exist as polymers called polynucleotides Each polynucleotide consists of monomers called nucleotides connected to each other by a phosphodiester linkages

GC A=T

A GC bond is thermally more stable than an A=T bond.

11/21/2011

What are Genes?

The genetic code is the sequence of bases on one of the strands. strands. A gene is a specific sequence of bases which has the information for a particular protein.

Genes are the tiny, basic units

of inheritance found in DNA (short regions of the DNA) that hold the information needed to build and maintain the body.
-

Genes have fixed locations: each gene is in a particular place on a particular chromosome

- Genes determine color, size, and make-up for every living species. - Each equine species receives half of their genes from their sire (father) and half from their dam (mother). - Physically, genes are linked together like a strand of pearls to form a chromosome.

Genes, a long strand of DNA (RNA in some viruses), contains a promoter which controls the activity of a gene, and a coding sequence which determines what the gene produces. In most eukaryotic genes, coding regions (exons) are interrupted by noncoding exons) regions (introns) introns) During transcription, the entire gene is copied into a pre-mRNA, which includes preexons and introns. introns.

During the process of RNA splicing, introns are removed and exons joined to form a contiguous coding sequence. This "mature" mRNA is ready for translation

11/21/2011

Gene Expression
DNA
+ Regulatory 1 Elements AT G Stop Codon TAA, TAG, TGA AT G Coding Sequence= ORF Protein B Cistron 2 Terminato r sequence Stop Codon TAA, TAG, TGA

DNA

Coding Sequence= ORF Protein A Cistron 1

Promoter & Operator

Regulatory Sequences

Structural or Coding Sequences

Regulatory and Coding Sequence Unit = Operon

Functioning of proteins within living cells influences an organisms traits.

What are Chromosomes?

Chromosomes are long pieces of DNA with supporting proteins, and made up of genes.

Each chromosome was initially created through fertilization, where genetic information from the sire (father) was united with genetic information from the dam (mother).

11/21/2011

Number of Chromosomes
Organism Adders-tongue (Ophioglossum reticulatum) Human (Homo sapiens) Maize (Zea mays) Mango (Mangifera indica) Mosquito (Aedes aegypti) Rice (Oryza sativa) Soybean (Glyne Max L.) Jack jumper ant (Myrmecia pilosula)
2n 1200 or 1260 46 20 40 6 24 40 2 2 for females, males are haploid and thus have 1; smallest number possible. Other ant species have more chromosomes.[18] Notes This fern has the highest known chromosome number. 44 autosomal and 2 sex

GENETIC CASES
HUMAN CHROMOSOMES We have 46 chromosomes, or 23 pairs. 44 of them are called autosomes (No. 1-22). No. 23 are sex chromosomes Chromosome 1 is the longest, 22 is the shortest.

The 2n=6 chromosome number is conserved in the entire family Culicidae, except in Chagasia bathana which has 2n=8.

The sex chromosomes: the X chromosome and the Y chromosome. Males have and X and a Y; XY Females have 2 Xs ; XX.

11/21/2011

Sex Determination
An egg contributes an X chromosome A sperm contributes either an X or a Y chromosome A gene on the Y chromosome (SRY) determines sex

Sex Determination

About 4 weeks after fertilization

an embryo that contains the SRY gene develops testes, the primary male sex organ The testes secrete the hormone testosterone that signals the other cells of the embryo to develop in the male pattern. If the embryo does not have the SRY gene, it develops ovaries instead, which secrete estrogen and causes development in the female pattern.