labrlc CuallLy lnspecLlon

1he quallLy of a flnal garmenL depends on Lhe quallLy of a fabrlc when lL ls recelved as a roll Lven
Lhe mosL ouLsLandlng manufacLurlng meLhods cannoL compensaLe for defecLlve maLerlals normally
we lnspecL 10 of Lhe rolls we recelve and evaluaLe Lhem based on a fourpolnL sysLem 1hls way
we can avold fabrlc relaLed quallLy problems before lL ls puL lnLo producLlon
lour olnL SysLem
AmounL Lo selecL lnspecL aL leasL 10 of Lhe LoLal rolls of Lhe shlpmenL
SelecLlon of rolls SelecL aL leasL one roll of each color lf more Lhan one role musL be selecLed Lhen
choose Lhe addlLlonal roles ln proporLlon Lo Lhe LoLal number of roles per color recelved
uefecL ClasslflcaLlon (lour olnL SysLem)
labrlc CuallLy lnspecLlon
1he quallLy of a flnal garmenL depends on Lhe quallLy of a fabrlc when lL ls recelved as a roll Lven
Lhe mosL ouLsLandlng manufacLurlng meLhods cannoL compensaLe for defecLlve maLerlals normally
we lnspecL 10 of Lhe rolls we recelve and evaluaLe Lhem based on a fourpolnL sysLem 1hls way
we can avold fabrlc relaLed quallLy problems before lL ls puL lnLo producLlon
lour olnL SysLem
AmounL Lo selecL lnspecL aL leasL 10 of Lhe LoLal rolls of Lhe shlpmenL
SelecLlon of rolls SelecL aL leasL one roll of each color lf more Lhan one role musL be selecLed Lhen
choose Lhe addlLlonal roles ln proporLlon Lo Lhe LoLal number of roles per color recelved
uefecL ClasslflcaLlon (lour olnL SysLem)

Slze uefecL enalLy

3 lnches or less 1 olnL
Cver 3 lnches buL less Lhan 6 2 olnLs
Cver 6 lnches buL less Lhan 9 3 olnLs
Cver 9 lnches 4 olnLs
1he lengLh of Lhe defecL ls used Lo deLermlne Lhe penalLy polnL Cnly ma[or defecLs are consldered
no penalLy polnLs are asslgned Lo mlnor defecLs (A ma[or defecL ls any defecL LhaL would cause a
flnal garmenL Lo be consldered a second)
Ma[or uefecLs
% Ma[or woven fabrlc defecLs lnclude buL are noL llmlLed Lo slubs holes mlsslng yarns yarn varlaLlon
end ouL solled yarns and wrong yarn
% Ma[or dye or prlnLlng defecLs are ouL of reglsLer dye spoLs machlne sLop color ouL color smear or
shadlng
AccepLance CrlLerla and CalculaLlon
% 40 polnLs per 100 yards ls Lhe accepLable defecL raLe
% # of olnLs per 100 yds # of penalLy polnLs x 100
?ds lnspecLed
lnspecLlon rocedure
% ueLermlne Lhe amounL Lo lnspecL 10)
% SelecL Lhe rolls Lo lnspecL
% uL Lhe rolls on Lhe lnspecLlon machlne or oLher vlewlng devlce
% CuL off a 6 lnch plece across Lhe wldLh off Lhe end of Lhe roll Mark Lhe rlghL and lefL slde of Lhe
sLrlp SLop Lhe lnspecLlon process every 30 yards and use Lhe sLrlp Lo check for any shadlng
problems Also make sure Lo check Lhe end of Lhe role
% lnspecL for vlsual defecLs wlLh Lhe llghL on aL a speed slow enough Lo flnd Lhe defecLs (1he fabrlc
musL be checked aL a slow raLe ln order Lo effecLlvely flnd flaws) SomeLlmes you may have Lo Lurn
Lhe llghL off Lo see how a flaw wlll affecL Lhe appearance of a garmenL
% Check LhaL Lhe roll conLalns Lhe correcL yardage as sLaLed by Lhe plece goods source
% Check for skewed blased and bowed fabrlc
% Mark any defecLs Lo Lhe slde wlLh colored Lape so LhaL Lhey can be easlly found and noLed
% 8ecord any defecLs





1oLal polnLs per 100sq yds1oLal uefecLx36x100 1oLal lengLh ydsWldLh lnch
WhaL ls 10 polnL sysLem ln fabrlc lnspecLlon?
lf you wanL Lo produce hlgh quallLy garmenLs you need hlgh quallLy plece goods When a sewlng
facLory recelves fabrlc from Lhe mlll lL ls dlfflculL Lo conducL a full 100 lnspecLlon of Lhe fabrlc
WhaL ls dlfference beLween Amerlcan 4 polnL sysLem and !apanese 4 polnL sysLem ln fabrlc
lnspecLlon?
8aslc dlfference beLween Amerlcan and !apanese 4 polnL sysLem ls polnLs per dlfecLs !apanese 4
polnL sysLem was lnLroduced earller and Lhls sysLem conLalns some sofL aLlLude for Lhe seller
Amerlcan
WhaL ls knlLLed fabrlc 4polnL lnspecLlon sysLem?
ALLrlbuLe Ad[usLmenL Sampllng lnspecLlon or AnSl/ASC Z14 (MlLS1u 103L) lnspecLlon MeLhod 1
1lme Sampllng lnspecLlon of 8egular lnspecLlon Ceneral lnspecLlon Level l AccepLable CuallLy
Level
8elaLed ads


8ead more
hLLp//wlklanswerscom/C/WhaL_ls_called_Lhe_4_polnL_sysLem_ln_fabrlc_lnspecLlon#lxzz1efCMx!
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hLLp//wlklanswerscom/C/WhaL_ls_called_Lhe_4_polnL_sysLem_ln_fabrlc_lnspecLlon#lxzz1efLxZeu
A



Commercial Knitted Fabric Grading System,
Four Point System
Four Point System is adopted by American Apparel Manufacturers
Association (AAMA) for piece goods knitted fabric. Fabric defects
is penalized by maximum of 4 points.
Fabric Defect Length Penalty Point
Up to 3 inches 1
Over 3 inches to 6 inches 2
Over 6 inches to 9 inches 3
Over 9 inches 4
Commercial Acceptance Level for defect
points
Fabric type (circular, V-bed, fully fashion or warp
knit)
First quality points per
100 linear yards
Tricot not over 40
Basic Circular not over 50
Faced Finish Circular not over 60
Novelty circular not over 70 to 85
Basic Reachel not over 40
Raised Surface Raschel not over 50
Novelty Raschel not over 60
Silver not over 50












Processed Fabric Inspection Under 4 - point system
All fabric inspections conducted by Textile Links and Controls is
according to the four-point
fabric inspection system. The four-point system derives its name
from the basic grading rule that a
maximum of four penalty points can be assessed for any single
defect and that no linear meter can
be assigned more than four points regardless of the number of
defects within that piece.
PENALTY POINT EVALUATION:
Defects in both warp / fill directions will be assigned points under
the following criteria.
Defect Range Points Evaluation
Up to 3 inches 1 Point
> 3 inches < 6 inches 2 Points
> 6 inches < 9 inches 3 Points
> 9 inches 4 Points
WHAT IS A DEFECT?
The length of the defect is used to determine the penalty points.
Only major defects are considered.
A major defect is any defect, if found on a finished product, would
classify the product as a Bgrade.
Any defect of a continuous nature shall be assigned four points
for each meter in which it occurs.
Severe defects are assigned the maximum four points for each
meter in which they occur.
Example: Regardless of size, a hole would be penalized four
points.
Continuing conditions such as barre, side center side shading, roll
to roll shading, narrow or
irregular width, creasing, uneven finish shall be counted four
points for every meter within the
shipment that is found to contain these conditions, provided that
the article that is to be made from
this fabric is classified B-grade due to this fault.
The maximum penalty for any one-meter shall not be more than
four points.
A minor defect is any defect that does not classify the product as
B-grade because of either severity
or location. When inspecting fabric before cutting, it is necessary
to rate questionable defects as
major, since the inspector will not know where the defect may
occur on the item.
Any major defect found to repeat and / or run in a continuous
manner will constitute a running
defect. All major running defects must be assigned four penalty
points to every meter in the roll
where it occurs.
Running Defects:
A full width major defect would cause that meter of fabric to be
assigned four penalty points.
Full Width Defects:
Fabric Width:
Fabric width will be checked minimum of three times during the
inspection of a roll (beginning, middle and end of the roll).
Rolls having width less than the specified are potential problems.
In such cases width deviation of
more than 1% would constitute a major fault.
Overall, fabric width is measured from out side of the selvage to
the outside of the opposite selvage.
Rolls having meters less than that stated on the packing are a
problem. Any roll having more than
1% lesser fabric than that specified is rejected.
Roll Length:
The entire shipment shall be rejected if the total measured
meters in the sample audit are more than
1% short that what is declared on the packing.
Rolls can be composed of several spliced parts. No roll shall be
accepted that contains a splice less
than twenty five ( 25 ) meters in length unless otherwise
expressly accepted. Ensure that the 95% of
the shipment contains 100 meter plus fabric length if the fabric is
being used for made - ups.
Splices:
In case of piece goods, the fabric length and the number of
splices / roll are strictly followed as per
the requirement of the customer.
No roll shall be accepted as first quality that exhibit bow or skew
more than:
Bow & Skew:
The above is subject to change if buyer requires a tighter
tolerance / nature of design / end use of the
fabric.
Tolerance for bowed condition not affecting the full width will be
fractionalized part of the
maximums as stated above according to the area affected by the
bow.
Penalty points will not be assigned for fabrics found to have
conditions of bowing in excess of the
above stated tolerances but shall be noted in the inspection
report. And if any fabric exhibits bow or
skew where its end use becomes doubtful, then that fabric will be
rejected.
No roll shall be accepted that exhibits objectionable odors.
Fabric Odors:
All defects that break the fabric, regardless of size, shall be
penalized a maximum of four points. A
hole consists of two or more broken yarns.
Holes:
Although fabric faults are numerous but some of the common
fabric faults are mentioned below:
Common Fabric Faults:
Abrasion Mark:
Fabric Width Maximum Bow or Skew
A place in the fabric where the surface has been damaged due to
friction or
Design Print/dyes
Deviation
Up to 45 inches 2.0% 2.0%
60 inches 2.0% 2.0%
90 inches and above 2.0% 2.0%abnormally weakened by any
operation through which it has been passed.
Bow: When the filling yarns lye in an arc across the width of the
fabric.
Skew: Distortion in the construction of the fabric i.e. in the yarn
that constitute the fabric.
Crease: A fabric defect across the fabric width usually caused by
a sharp fold.
Oil Stain: Oil mark on the fabric.
Dye Stain: An area of discoloration due to un- even absorption of
colorant.
Hole: A break in the fabric involving more than two yarns.
Mispick: A pick not properly interlaced.
Double Pick: Two yarns running simultaneously, mostly in the
weft.
Misprint: In printed fabrics, either missed, or partially missed, or
incorrectly positioned relative to
each other.
Slub: An abruptly thickened place in a yarn.
Screen Out: The appearance of a colored separation line in a
printed design.
Calendar Line: Sharp pressmark on fabric due to the calendar
during the processing.
Contamination: Colored fibers with the warp or weft fibers.
POINT CALCULATIONS:
The following fabric penalty point grading standards are to be
used when inspecting fabrics.
Individual Roll Points:
All decisions are based on a square meter computation. The
following is used to determine the point
count for each roll.
(Total points * 3937) / (Inspected meters * Fabric width (inches))
= Points per 100 square meter.
Points:
The total point count per contract fabric is calculated by:
Adding the number of meters audited.
Adding the number of points per linear meter.
Then converting the above totals from points per linear meters to
square meters.
(Total linear meter points * 3937) / (Total inspected meters *
Fabric width (inches))
= Shipment points per 100 square meter.The maximum approved
points as per Textile Links & Controls for piece goods / made -
ups fabric
is 15 / 100 square meter. And for greige fabric it is 10 / 100
square meter. Or this could be followed
as per the standards given by the customers.
INSPECTION QUANTITIES:
A minimum 10% quantity of fabric for each color way, design,
fabric width or fabric construction
listed against a particular contract must be inspected.
In case, if any problem arises in any of the above style then it
has to be re-inspected another 10%.
If the problem is still present and the points exceed the
acceptable limit, the fabric lot is to be
rejected.
ROLLS SELECTION PROCEDURE:
The person inspecting the fabric must count the rolls of fabric
against a particular contract & take
out 10% of the fabric randomly in such a way that every color,
design, fabric width & fabric
construction is accounted for.
FABRIC INSPECTION PROCEDURE:
This procedure shows the steps necessary to ensure an effective
fabric inspection quality control
program:
1. Determine the fabric quantity to be inspected.
2. Select the fabric rolls for inspection.
3. Place the fabric roll / bale on inspection frame / table.
4. Cut off a 6-inch piece across the width of the fabric from the
beginning of the roll. Mark this
piece so that the inspector will know the right and left side of the
fabric. Use the strip to
check the shading side-to-side and end-to-end by checking it at
least against the middle of the
roll and once at the end of the roll.
5. Inspect for visual defects at a speed slow enough to find the
defects.
6. Check that the roll contains the meters as stated by the Fabric
Supplier.
7. Check for bowing & skewing in the fabric.
8. Major fabric defects are to be flagged by the Fabric Supplier.
However, if any fault is not flagged
already then it must be marked with a sticker or masking tape
during inspection for its traceability and corrective action at
cutting stage.
9. Record the faults of the fabric on the Fabric Quality Report.
ROLL-TO-ROLL SHADE CHECKING SYSTEM:
Textile Links and Controls suggests to use a format for the
checking of all fabric shade variations
from roll to roll. In this format water falls of different shades
categories of different rolls is
maintained and compared to each other to check the extent of
the shading variation.
If any shade requires special attention / treatment in the cutting,
it is mentioned in the remarks
column.
If any fabric is out of tolerance with respect to the Master Sample
or the shade variation extent
among the rolls is out of tolerance, then the fabric is reject. The
rejected fabric is sent back to Fabric
Supplier for reprocessing / replacement.
TOOLS FOR FABRIC CHECKING:The person who is responsible for
fabric inspection must have the following facilities / equipments
in good working condition.
1. Inspection frame with counter.
2. D - 65 light source (sunlight) / TL - 84 light source at the
inspection frame as per the requirement
of the customer.
3. Measuring tape & pair of scissors.
4. Stickers or masking tape to identify the faults.
5. Pick glass.
6. Digital Camera for taking reference snaps.
7. Master fabric sample or customers reference sample.
8. Textile Links and Controls fabric inspection form.
ELIGIBILITY CRITERA FOR THE QUALITY INSPECTOR:
1. The person must be at least Graduate.
2. He or she must have a minimum of two year experience in the
textile industry


Woven fabric defects
Broken end: Yarn broken in a warp direction in woven fabric.
Broken pick: Yarn broken in a weft direction in woven fabric.
Burl mark: A slub or knot being removed with a burling tool in a fabric.
Coarse end/pick: A yarn having a large diameter than normal to the fabric.
Colour fly yarn: Waster fibers of different color are woven into the fabric as
contamination.
Double end: Two ends wrongly weaved as one.
Double pick: Two picks wrongly placed in a single shed.
End out: A missing warp yarn.
Hole: Any broken yarns to form a hole.
erk in: An extra weft yarn jerked by the shuttle into the fabric along with a correct pick
of weft yarn.
Knot: Two or more ends of yarn tied together.
Loom Bar: A change in shade across the full width of a fabric.
Mispick: Missing a weft yarn.
Reed mark: A defect resulting from a bent reed wire, characterized by a fine-lined thin
place in the warp directions.
Reed streak: A warp-wise streak caused by a damaged reed in weaving.
Shade bar: A change in shade with in a short duration across the width of the fabric.
Slub: A short abnormal thick place in a yarn.
Soiled filling: A weft yarn soled by dirt or grease.
Stop mark: Inconsistent of yarn tension while a loom is stopped.
Thick place: Where the place of weft yarn greater in diameter than normal to the fabric.
Thin place: Where the place of weft yarn is smaller in diameter than normal to the fabric.
Tight end: A warp yarn in an abnormal restriction than the adjacent normal yarns.
nitted fabric defects
Barre: A noticeable stripes in the direction of the weft-wise. Some of the causes are
uneven yarn and uneven tension.
Birdseye: An unintentional tucked stitches which appear occasionally on the knitted
fabric.
Coarse yarn: A yarn having a large diameter than that normal to the fabric.
Dropped stitches: When a stitch failing to form because of malfunctioning needle.
Fine yarn: A yarn having a smaller diameter than normal to the fabric.
Misdraw (colour): In warp knits, the colored yarns are wrongly drawn through the guide
bars which causes the appearance of the fabric different from the designated pattern.
Missing yarns: A yarn is missing or broken which the machine continuing to run.
Needle line: Wales are distorted caused by a bent needle.
Press-off: A condition in which a knitted fabric fails to knot and as a result, either the
fabric falls off the needle or the design of the fabric is completely destroyed.
Run: A vertical line of unformed stitches caused by damaged needle.
Tucking defect: One or more unwanted tuck stitches appear on the knitted fabric which
are occurred due to the malfunctioning needle or jack.
!rinted fabric defects
Colour out: Some printing pattern not fully printed.
Colour smear: The colour smeared out during printing.
Out of register: The colour printed not in a proper position
during printing.
Scrimp: The printing pattern is broken due to fabric
creased during printing.
Snap: During printing, the doctor blade is held from the
engraved roller by a hard particle which is lodged under the blade. As a result, the colour
escapes from both sides of the particle.
Fabric inspection methods
The inspection of fabric has two primary functions; first to classify the products
according to the different quality based on the demands of the buyer/market or client
and second to provide the information about the quality being produced.
During the inspection the fabric may be found to contain different defects. The defects
depending on the magnitude, frequency of occurrence, position, importance, effect on
the purpose, consequence in the further process etc., shall be classified and graded
under various systems. During the inspection, the occurrence of various defects need to
be examined and graded based on their magnitude and dimension as per the required
system. There are two most common types of systems for grading the defects:
O 4 - Point System
O 10 - Point System.
- point system
It is an inspection method used for the visual checking of fabric quality, faults are scored
with penalty points of 1, 2, 3 and 4 according to the side and significance. The 4-point
system, also called the American Apparel Manufacturers Association (AAMA) point-
grading system for determining fabric quality, is widely sued by producers of apparel
fabrics and by the Department of Defence in the United States and is endorsed by the
AAMA as well as the ASQC.
Highlights of -point system
Normally apply for woven and knitted fabric inspection. Assign no more than a total of 4
points to any one linear yard of fabric regardless of the number or size of the detected
individual defects. A continuous defect running over 9 shall be assigned 4 points for
each yard. Assign 4 points to each full width defect. For holes and openings (largest
dimension) of 1 inch or less should be assigned 2 points and the one which are over 1
inch needs to be assigned 4 points. Total defect points per 100 yd2 are calculated.
Though this inspection method establishes a means of numerical designation which may
be used for assessing the quality of fabric, the acceptance of fabric is depends on the
requirements mutually agreed upon by seller and buyer.
- point system
Under this system, faults are scored with penalty points of 1,3,5 and 10 according to the
size and significance.
Highlights of -point system
Normally apply for woven fabric inspection. Assign no more than a total of 10 points to
any one linear yard of fabric regardless of the number or size of the detected individual
defects. A continuous defect running over 10 shall be assigned 10 points for each yard.
Assign 10 points to each full width defect. A piece is graded as "First Quality if the total
penalty points do not exceed the yardage of the piece. A piece is graded as "Second
Quality if the total penalty points exceed the yardage of the piece. Though this
inspection method establishes a means of numerical designation which may be used for
assessing the quality of fabric, the acceptance of fabric depends on the requirements
mutually agreed upon by seller and buyer.
Acceptability criteria of the flaws in fabric inspection methods
The acceptability level for first quality fabric is usually established by mutual agreement
between the buyer and the seller. The different type of fabrics have different point levels
of acceptability depending upon their end use. Some of the commonly followed
standards for acceptability for the above mentioned systems are as below :
- point system acceptability criteria
Normally products containing upto 40 points per 100 yd2 are acceptable. However,
based on the price line and end product more or less than 40 points per 100 yd2 may be
accepted. For example, a fabric roll 120 yd long and 48 in. wide contains the following
defects :
2 defects upto 3 in 2 x 1 = 2 points
5 defects over 3 in. but less than 6 in 5 x 2 = 10 points
1 defect over 6 in. but less than 9 in 1 x 3 = 3 points
1 defect over 9 in 1 x 4 = 4 points
Total points = 19
Therefore,
Total points scored in the roll x 3600
----------------
Fabric width in inches x Total yard inspected
= 19x3600
-----
48x120
= 11.9 defect points/100 yd2.
So if the acceptance criteria are 40 points/100 yd2, then this roll is acceptable.
Note : The maximum number of defect points to be counted against any one linear yard
is 4 points. Overall, fabric quality is assessed on the basis of the number of defect points
per 100 yd2 of fabric.
- point system acceptability criteria
Fabric is considered "first quality if the number of defect points are less than the
number of yards of fabric inspected. In the case of fabrics wider than 50 in., the fabric is
considered first quality if the total defect points do not exceed the number of yards of
fabric inspected by 10%.
I am sure the above information will be beneficial to you, as the inspection of fabric is
attaining high importance with the increase in the volume of orders from buyers abroad.
Walmart, H & M, GAP are all preparing to outsource larger share of their global
merchandise from India. For these, hi-quality buyers, the inspection of fabric attains all
the more importance. We need to remember that in a garment, fabric is the major
investment. This constitutes 60%-70% of the cost of the garment. And so fabric
becomes our most important resource to be inspected systematically!
Feedback on this article can be sent to manjitss9@hotmail.







COTTON FIBERS
Updated: April, 2004- Raghavendra R. Hegde, Atul Dahiya, M. G. Kamath
iao Gao and Praveen Kumar 1angala
. INTRODUCTION
Cotton today is the most used textile Iiber in the world. Its current market share is
56 percent Ior all Iibers used Ior apparel and home Iurnishings and sold in
the U.S. |1|. Another contribution is attributed to nonwoven textiles and personal
care items. It is generally recognized that most consumers preIer cotton personal
care items to those containing synthetic Iibers. World textile Iiber consumption in
1998 was approximately 45 million tons. OI this total, cotton represented
approximately 20 million tons. |2|. The earliest evidence oI using cotton is
Irom India and the date assigned to this Iabric is 3000 B.C. There were also
excavations oI cotton Iabrics oI comparable age in Southern America. Cotton
cultivation Iirst spread Irom India to Egypt, China and the South PaciIic. Even
though cotton Iiber had been known already in Southern America, the large-scale
cotton cultivation in Northern America began in the 16th century with the arrival
oI colonists to southern parts oI today's United States. |3| .The largest rise in cotton
production is connected with the invention oI the saw-tooth cotton gin by Eli
Whitney in 1793. |4| With this new technology, it was possible to produce more
cotton Iiber, which resulted in big changes in the spinning and weaving industry,
especially in England.
2. COTTON CONSUMPTION AND PRODUCTION IN MILLION TONS IN
YEAR 2002
The graph bellow shows Production and consumption oI leading cotton producing
countries in Millions oI tones in year 2002 |5|.
COUNTRIES

PRODUCTION CONSUMPTION
US

3.8 1.7
India

2.5 3
Pakistan

1.8 1.9
Turkey

0.9 1.4
Brazil

0.7 0.9
Indonesia

0.4 0.6
China

4.8 5.9


Today, cotton is grown in more than 80 countries worldwide. The Distribution oI
cotton is shown in the bellow Map:


. CHARATERISTICS OF COTTON
Cotton, as a natural cellulosic Iiber, has a lot oI characteristics, such as;
O ComIortable SoIt hand
O ood absorbency
O Color retention
O Prints well
O Machine-washable
O Dry-cleanable
O ood strength
O Drapes well
O Easy to handle and sew
4. END USES OF COTTON:
O Apparel - Wide range oI wearing apparel: blouses, shirts, dresses, childrenswear,
active wear, separates, swimwear, suits, jackets, skirts, pants, sweaters, hosiery,
neckwear.
O ome Fashion - curtains, draperies, bedspreads, comIorters, throws, sheets, towels,
table cloths, table mats, napkins
. STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF COTTON FIBERS
. FIBER STRUCTURE AND FORMATION
The botanical name oI American Upland cotton is Gossypium Hirsutum and has
been developed Irom cottons oI Central America. Upland varieties represent
approximately 97 oI U.S. production |4|.


Each cotton Iiber is composed oI concentric layers. The cuticle layer on the Iiber
itselI is separable Irom the Iiber and consists oI wax and pectin materials. The
primary wall, the most peripheral layer oI the Iiber, is composed oI cellulosic
crystalline Iibrils. |9| The secondary wall oI the Iiber consists oI three distinct
layers. All three layers oI the secondary wall include closely packed parallel Iibrils
with spiral winding oI 25-35
o
and represent the majority oI cellulose within the
Iiber. The innermost part oI cotton Iiber- the lumen- is composed oI the remains oI
the cell contents. BeIore boll opening, the lumen is Iilled with liquid containing the
cell nucleus and protoplasm. The twists and convolutions oI the dried Iiber are due
to the removal oI this liquid. The cross section oI the Iiber is bean-shaped, swelling
almost round when moisture absorption takes place.
The overall contents are broken down into the Iollowing components.
.2 RAW COTTON COMPONENTS:
80-90 Cellulose
6-8 Water
0.5 - 1 Waxes and Iats
0 - 1.5 Proteins
4 - 6 emicelluloses and pectin`s
1 - 1.8 Ash

During scouring (treatment oI the Iiber with caustic soda), natural waxes and Iats
in the Iiber are saponiIied and pectin`s and other non-cellulose materials are
released, so that the impurities can be removed by just rinsing away. AIter
scouring, a bleaching solution (consisting oI a stabilized oxidizing agent) interacts
with the Iiber and the natural color is removed. Bleaching takes place at elevated
temperature Ior a Iixed period oI time |1|. Mercerization is another process oI
improving sorption properties oI cotton. Cotton Iiber is immersed into 18- 25
solution oI sodium hydroxide oIten under tension |9|. The Iiber obtains better
luster and sorption during mercerization.
AIter scouring and bleaching, the Iiber is 99 cellulose. Cellulose is a polymer
consisting oI anhydroglucose units connected with 1,4 oxygen bridges in the beta
position. The hydroxyl groups on the cellulose units enable hydrogen bonding
between two adjacent polymer chains. The degree oI polymerization oI cotton is
9,000-15,000 |1|. Cellulose shows approximately 66 crystallinity, which can be
determined by X-ray diIIraction, inIrared spectroscopy and density methods.
Each crystal unit consists oI Iive chains oI anhydroglucose units, parallel to the
Iibril axis. One chain is located at each oI the corners oI the cell and one runs
through the center oI the cell. The dimensions oI the cell are a 0.835nm, b 1.03
nm and c 0.79 nm. The angle between ab and BC planes is 84 Ior normal
cellulose, i.e., Cellulose I |8|.
. REPEAT UNIT OF CELLULOSE
The current consensus regarding cellulose crystallinity (X-ray diIIraction) is that
Iibers are essentially 100 crystalline and that very small crystalline units
imperIectly packed together cause the observed disorder.
The density method used to determine cellulose crystallinity is based on the
density gradient column, where two solvents oI diIIerent densities are partially
mixed. Degree oI Crystallinity is, then, determined Irom the density oI the sample,
while densities oI crystalline and amorphous cellulose Iorms are known (1.505 and
1.556 respectively). Orientation oI untreated cotton Iiber is poor because the
crystallites are contained in the micro Iibrils oI the secondary wall, oriented in the
steep spiral (25-30
o
) to the Iiber axis.

. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COTTON

. FIBER LENGTH
Fiber length is described |7| as "the average length oI the longer one-halI oI the
Iibers (upper halI mean length)" This measure is taken by scanning a "beard " oI
parallel Iibers through a sensing region. The beard is Iormed Irom the Iibers taken
Irom the sample, clasped in a holding clamp and combed to align the Iibers.
Typical lengths oI Upland cottons might range Irom 0.79 to 1.36in.
Cottons come Irom the cotton plant; the longer strand types such as Pima
or Sea Island produce the Iinest types oI cotton Iabrics |18|.
.2 LENGTH UNIFORMITY
Length uniIormity or uniIormity ratio is determined as " a ratio between the mean
length and the upper halI mean length oI the Iibers and is expressed as a
percentage"|7|. Typical comparisons are illustrated below.
LENGTH UNIFORMITY UNIFORMITY INDE ]
Very igh ~85
igh 83-85
Intermediate 80-82
Low 77-79
Very Low 77
Low uniIormity index shows that there might be a high content oI short Iibers,
which lowers the quality oI the Iuture textile product.
. FIBER STRENGTH
Fiber strength is measured in grams per denier. It is determined as the Iorce
necessary to break the beard oI Iibers, clamped in two sets oI jaws, (1/8 inch apart)
|7|. Typical tensile levels are illustrated. The breaking strength oI cotton is about
3.0~4.9 g/denier, and the breaking elongation is about 8~10. |20|
DEGREE OF STRENGTH FIBER STRENGTH g/tex]
Very Strong ~31
Strong 29-30
Average 26-28
Intermediate 24-25
Weak 23

. MICRONAIRE
Micronaire measurements reIlect Iiber Iineness and maturity. A constant mass
(2.34 grams) oI cotton Iibers is compressed into a space oI known volume and air
permeability measurements oI this compressed sample are taken. These, when
converted to appropriate number, denote Micronaire values.
COTTON RANGE MICRONAIRE READING
Premium 3.7-4.2
Base Range 4.3-4.9
Discount Range ~5.0
.4 COLOR
The color oI cotton samples is determined Irom two parameters: degree oI
reIlectance (Rd) and yellowness (b). Degree oI reIlectance shows the brightness
oI the sample and yellowness depicts the degree oI cotton pigmentation. A deIined
area located in a Nickerson-unter cotton colorimeter diagram represents each
color code. The color oI the Iibers is aIIected by climatic conditions, impact oI
insects and Iungi, type oI soil, storage conditions etc. There is Iive recognized
groups oI color: white, gray, spotted, tinged, and yellow stained. As the color oI
cotton deteriorates, the process ability oI the Iibers decreases.
Work at the University oI Tennessee has led to color measurement using both a
spectrometer CIE-based average color measurement and a color uniIormity
measurement using image analysis to improve the accuracy and provide additional
measurement Ior color grading |19|. Later the investigators developed two color
grading systems using expert system and neural networks.
. TRASH
A trash measurement describes the amount oI non-lint materials (such as parts oI
cotton plant) in the Iiber. Trash content is assessed Irom scanning the cotton
sample surIace with a video camera and calculating the percentage oI the surIace
area occupied by trash particles. The values oI trash content should be within the
range Irom 0 to 1.6. Trash content is highly correlated to leaI grade oI the
sample.
. LEAF GRADE
LeaI grade is provided visually as the amount oI cotton plant particles within the
sample. There are seven leaI grades (#1-#7) and one below grade (#8).
.7 PREPARATION
Preparation is the classer's interpretation oI Iiber process ability in terms oI degree
oI roughness or smoothness oI ginned cotton.
.8 ETRANEOUS MATTER
Extraneous matter is all the material in the sample other than Iiber and leaI. The
classer either as 'light or 'heavy determines the degree oI extraneous matter.
.9 NEPS
A nep is a small tangled Iiber knot oIten caused by processing. Neps can be
measured by the AFIS nep tester and reported as the total number oI neps per 0.5
grams oI the Iiber and average size in millimeters. Nep Iormation reIlects the
mechanical processing stage, especially Irom the point oI view oI the quality and
condition oI the machinery used.
7. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF COTTON
Cotton swells in a high humidity environment, in water and in concentrated
solutions oI certain acids, salts and bases. The swelling eIIect is usually attributed
to the sorption oI highly hydrated ions. The moisture regain Ior cotton is about
7.1~8.5 and the moisture absorption is 7~8. |20|
Cotton is attacked by hot dilute or cold concentrated acid solutions. Acid
hydrolysis oI cellulose produces hydro-celluloses. Cold weak acids do not aIIect it.
The Iibers show excellent resistance to alkalis. There are a Iew other solvents that
will dissolve cotton completely. One oI them is a copper complex oI cupramonium
hydroxide and cupriethylene diamine (Schweitzer's reagent |11|)
Cotton degradation is usually attributed to oxidation, hydrolysis or both. Oxidation
oI cellulose can lead to two types oI so-called oxy-cellulose |12|, depending on the
environment, in which the oxidation takes place.
7. INSERT FORMULA OR EQUATION: OY-CELLULOSE
Also, cotton can degrade by exposure to visible and ultraviolet light, especially in
the presence oI high temperatures around 250~397G C |20| and humidity. Cotton
Iibers are extremely susceptible to any biological degradation (microorganisms,
Iungi etc.)
7.2 OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF COTTON
Cotton Iibers show double reIraction when observed in polarized light. Even
though various eIIects can be observed, second order yellow and second order blue
is characteristic colors oI cellulosic Iibers. |10| A typical bireIringence value as
shown in the table oI physical properties, is 0.047.
7. COTTON CLASSIFICATION
Cotton classiIication is used to determine the quality oI the cotton Iiber in terms oI
grade, length and Micronaire |1|. USDA |7| classiIication speciIically identiIies
the characteristics oI Iiber length, length uniIormity, strength, Micronaire, color,
preparation, leaI and extraneous matter. In the past, these qualities were classiIied
just by hand-and-eye oI an experienced classer. Since 1991, all classiIication has
been carried out with a set oI up-to-date instruments, called "VI"(igh Volume
Instrumentation) classiIication |1|. owever, measuring techniques oI other
qualities oI cotton Iiber, such as Iiber maturity and short Iiber content, are also
being developed.
7.4. COTTON IN NON-WOVENS
Cotton is the most important apparel Iiber throughout the world. It is a Iiber that
was used Iairly extensively during the early, developmental period oI the
Nonwovens business primarily because the emerging dry-laid producers came
Irom the textile industry and had an intimate knowledge oI cotton and its
processing characteristics |25|.It was in the early part oI 20th Century that a Iew
cotton mills in the US wanted to Iind ways to upgrade the waste cotton Iibers into
saleable products. The Iirst method used was bonding the short cotton Iibers (Iiber
waste) with latex and resin. These products were used mainly as industrial wipes.
AIter World War II, products like draperies, tablecloths, napkins and wiping
towels were developed. It was realized that woven Iabrics have much better
properties than Nonwovens; so, the approach was to claim the market where
superior qualities oI woven or knit Iabrics were not essential but where qualities
better than those oI paper were needed. As the quality requirements Ior nonwoven
Iabrics increased and particularly as the need Ior white, clean Iabric emerged; the
use oI raw cotton became unacceptable and was abandoned by the industry except
Ior a Iew isolated product areas. Within the last decade, bleached cotton Iiber
suitable Ior processing on conventional nonwoven equipment has become available
and has substantially increased interest in this Iiber. This is particularly true in
medical and healthcare applications, wiping and wiper markets, and some apparel
markets. The raw cotton consists oI about 96 cellulose and 4 oI waxes, pectin,
and other pertinacious and plant material. These minor constituents that must be
removed in the scouring and bleaching process to give the soIt, clean, white,
absorbent Iiber that is satisIactory Ior the nonwovens industry aIter the application
oI an appropriate Iinishing oil. The Iiber length oI cotton is important, particularly
as to its process ability. Longer staple cotton (0.75 in. to 1.25 in.) is satisIactory Ior
nonwoven production. The Iiber has excellent absorbency and Ieels comIortable
against the skin. It has Iairly good strength both wet and dry, and has moderate
dimensional stability and elastic recovery. But the resilience oI cotton is relatively
low, unless it is cross-linked by a chemical treatment. In nonwoven applications,
the purity and absorbency oI bleached cotton are utilized in growing medical and
healthcare applications. The spun lace process usually produces such Iabrics. For
similar reasons, cotton spun lace Iabrics are well accepted in personal and related
wipes, especially in Japan and the ASIAN region. In a sense, bleached cotton Iiber
Ior nonwoven application is a relatively new Iiber. It is a comparatively expensive
Iiber and available Irom only a Iew sources. Consequently, its use still is restricted
to specialized applications. This situation is likely to change in the Iuture as the
price is Iurther reduced and availability increased.
8. FIBER PROCESSING
About 30 oI world cotton machines harvest
production. Australia, Israel and USA are the only countries where all cottons are
picked by machines. FiIteen percent oI world cotton production is ginned on roller
gins and almost all rest oI cotton is saw ginned in most countries |14|.Cotton Iibers
in non-wovens are generally used in their bleached Iorm. A lot oI research and
development has taken place Ior the eIIicient production oI bleached Iibers. The
Kier bleaching process produces most oI the bleached cotton Iibers. Since cotton oI
lesser grades is useIul Ior non-wovens, a conventional cleaning system does not
suIIice. This might include a coarse wire carding, called Cotton Master Cleaners,
Ior cleaning the cotton.
O The conventional bleaching method Ior cottons meant Ior non-wovens is a 9 step
process are:
a) Fiber opening and cleaning
b) Alkali scouring application
c) Alkali reaction stage
d) Rinsing
e) Bleach application
I) Bleach reaction stage
g) Rinsing
h) Finish application
i) Drying
A continuous textile processing system and method have been disclosed recently
Ior producing a nonwoven web containing bleached cotton Iibers in a single line
system which includes a supply oI Iibers such as a bale opening device, The Iinal
nonwoven web consisting oI bleached cotton Iibers may be made into highly
puriIied and absorbent wipes, pads, and other articles Ior medical, industrial, or
domestic use |17|.
Finally, there is opening and bale Iormation.
O Cotton Incorporated patented a processing line, which promised better
productivity and quality. It consists oI:
a) Fiber opening and Cleaning
b) Formation oI web
c) Steam purging and Alkali impregnation onto the sandwiched
cotton web between 2 porous conveyors.
d) AIter reaction, a pressure squeezing operation.
e) Similar processes Ior bleaching and then Iinishing.
O The recent system Ior scouring a bleaching oI cotton Iiber is the Continuous
Wet Finishing Technique' patented by Lawrence irard and Walter E Meyer
and assigned to reenville Machinery Corporation. It consists oI:
a. Opening and Cleaning
b. Conversion oI Iibers into a bat, weighing 10-30 ounces/sq. yard, by Needle punching
or Air-lay technique.
c. Scouring
d. Bleaching
e. Finishing
I. Washing
g. Drying
h. Fiber opening
Advantages oI Continuous Finishing Techniques are:
a) UniIormity oI scouring and bleaching
b) UniIormity oI Iinish application
c) Shorter time in process Ior the materials
d) Lower water consumption and less eIIluent Ior treatment
e) The ability to provide additional chemical treatments to the cotton.
8.. COST OF PRODUCING COTTON
The international cotton advisory committee (ICAC) undertakes a survey oI the
cost oI the production oI cotton every three years based on the data Irom 31
countries. |16| Several Iactors are considered, such as land rent, Iertilizers, insect
control, irrigation, harvesting and ginning. The cost oI seed cotton is more than
$500 in USA to produce one hectare oI seed cotton. The net cost oI producing lint
Irom one hectare (the value oI seed and land rent were excluded Irom the total
cost) is highest in Australia (US$1,056) Iollowed by
the USA (US$889), Pakistan (US$814), Zimbabwe (US$426)
and China (US$416). It is most expensive to produce a kilogram oI lint in
the USA (US$1.20), Australia (US$0.75) and china (US$0.48).
8.2. WEB PROCESSING WITH COTTON
Cotton Iibers are used in the manuIacture oI nonwovens either alone or in a blend.
The various processes Ior the manuIacture oI non-wovens are:
8.. HYDROENTANGLEMENT:
This method oI bonding provides strength to the Nonwovens, comparable to
woven Iabric oI the same basis weight. This method yields high strength without
interIering with the absorbency, tensile strength and aesthetic properties oI cotton.
This type oI nonwovens can be wet processed like the conventional woven textiles
Ior bleaching, dyeing and Iinishing. To manuIacture soIt loose nonwovens,
partially entangled webs are produced by subjecting cotton webs to low water jet
pressures (approx. 300-500 psi). These types oI webs can be wet processed in a
pad/batch state. The limitations oI this process are that production has been limited
to Iiber blends because oI problems in recycling water and the quality oI bleached
cotton.
8.4. NEEDLE PUNCHING:
Needle punched cotton provides highly eIIicient Iilter media based on the irregular
Iiber shape and absorption properties. Increased tenacity in the wet condition can
be an important advantage Ior cotton Iilters. To build strength, scrim materials can
be used as in bed blankets and industrial Iabrics. Needles oI 36-42 gauges have
been Iound appropriate Ior the production oI cotton needle punched nonwovens.
For very heavy Iabrics, use is made oI gauge 32 and Ior Iiner Iabrics 40-42 gauge
needles are being used.
8.. THERMAL BONDING
In this process cotton webs with blends oI thermoplastic Iibers are passed between
2 hot rollers (Calendar rollers). The thermoplastic Iiber soItens/melts and bonds the
web. The initial work was done with polyester as the thermoplastic Iiber. Later
polypropylene was extended Ior the study because oI economics, density and
melting temperature considerations. This was mainly to study the application as a
diaper lining material. Substantial work is still being done to develop this type oI
nonwovens.
8.. OTHER BONDING SYSTEMS:
a. Impregnating the web with a resin or other adhesive material.
b. Stripping oII oI the web with adhesive, which bonds the Iibers together at regular
intervals.
c. Stitch bonding: cotton web is stitched like in sewing and the product perIormance
depends on web weight, stitch/inch and type oI sewing thread.
9. APPLICATIONS AND MANUFACTURERS OF COTTON NON-
WOVENS
Cotton nonwovens are used as swabs, puIIs, wipes, Iilters, weddings, personal care
products like in diapers & Ieminine hygiene products, semi-durable segments like
bedding, household Iurnishing, pillow Iillers, etc.
9..MANUFACTURERS OF COTTON
O BARARDT MANUFACTURIN
O BBA NONWOVENS VERATEC
O BRANNOC FIBERS Ltd.
O COTTON INCORPORATED
O ISAN SONS (PVT) LIMITED
O LEI FIBERS
O TEXTILES AND NONWOVENS DIRECTORY
0. RECENT RESEARCH
O New instrumentation to measure cotton contamination |21|.
O Cotton linters to replace the traditional 100 wood pulp Iibers Ior producing
absorbent cores Ior disposable diapers and Iamine pads |22|
O New quality measurements oI small sample cotton are being developed |26
O Cotton is being blended with kenaI Iibers to improve the soItness and hand |27|
O Buckeye Technologies has developed 100 natural cotton Ior tampon manuIacture
|29
O Clustering analysis is developed Ior cotton trash classiIication |30|
O New method to improve the dyeability oI cotton with reactive dyes. |31|
0. RECENT DOVELOPMENTS IN COTTON
0.. COLORED COTTON

Cotton Iiber is dyed with chemical dyes in order to get wide range oI colors. These
chemical dyes and their Iinishing demands large amount oI water in turn when
these water is disposed they cause soil and water pollution. Many dyes are oI
chemical origin; particularly the azure ones and these are not environment Iriendly.
ence many countries, including India, have prohibited use oI these dyes.
The negative eIIects oI dyeing can be reduced by naturally colored cotton. This
colored cotton is developed by gene transplantation. Crossing the genes Irom wild
cotton varieties with the cultivated white ones develops this colored cotton. The
research is being conducted at The University oI Agricultural Sciences (UAS),
Dharwad Karnataka India, to promote the cultivation oI natural colored cotton. The
colors that have been developed are White, Orange, Red, Yellow, reen, Purple,
Brown, Blue, And Black. These negative eIIects oI dyeing can be avoided by
extensive research and growth oI colored cotton. (33).
0..2. BT COTTON
Cotton requires severe pesticide in order to combat numerous pests aIter some
years oI use oI pesticide by Iarmers these pests develop resistance to Particular
pesticide. This resistance Iorce Iarmers to use more amounts oI pesticides. BT
Cotton is developed by transgenic technique oI implanting Bacillus Thuringiens
bacterial gene in to cottonseeds, which makes the cotton plant and seeds resistant
to majority oI pests including bollworm (A. Lepidoptera), Tobacco budworm
(eliothis virescens). Bt cotton is now one oI the most widely used transgenic
crops. It is currently grown throughout the United States. More than 2 million acres
oI Bt cotton are grown in the United States alone. Other countries include China,
India, and Australia. (34) According to Dept. oI Agricultural and Resource
Economics, University oI Arizona. t cotton planted Irom 1996 to 1998 is
estimated to have yielded 5 more on average than iI traditional and decreased the
quantity oI Ioliar spray |35|.
0.. COTTON`S FUTURE TRENDS
The world's cotton Iiber production is approximately 89 million bales |6|. In 1997,
a production Iorecast |6| shows that the U.S. is the largest cotton producer (18.4
million bales), Iollowed by China (17.5 million bales), India (12.8 million bales),
Pakistan (8.0 million bales) and the Iormer U. S. S. R. republics (7.7 million bales).
Other important cotton producers are Australia, Egypt, Turkey, Brazil, Argentina,
Paraguay, reece and Mexico. The highest cotton consumption is attributed to
China (21.2 million bales), India (12.9 million bales) and U.S. (11.3 million bales).
SUPPLIES: The world production will increase a little bit. The 1998 U.S cotton
crop is best described as a disaster due to cool wet spring in the west and
inadequate rainIall in the southeast |24|.
CONSUMPTION: World cotton consumption is lagging a bit behind production.
AIter a surge in the mid-1980s, world cotton consumption has been rather Ilat. But
the long term potential Ior cotton demand remains large |23|.
All cotton plantings Ior 1999 are expected to total 14.6 million acres, 9 percent
above 1998, and 5 percent greater than 1997. Upland cotton is expected to total
14.2 million acres, up 9 percent Irom last year. rowers planted 318,200 acres oI
American-Pima cotton. This is a 3 decrease Irom last year's number, but 27
higher than the acreage oI 2 years ago. Planting in eorgia started extremely slow
due to a severely dry spring, but by June 1 was nearly on pace with average.
Conversely, Texas experienced a near normal planting season although some
replanting was necessary due to wind and hail damage |15|.



.Graph of World cotton area/World cotton yields/World cotton
production/World cotton consumption] Graph of Cotton Prices

2. CONCLUSION
Cotton nonwovens can be recycled, re-used or disposed oII by natural degradation
conditions. Cotton is a readily renewable resource with long-term supply
assurance. Extensive research works is improving bleached Iiber quality and
quantity. Nonwoven industries are producing various types oI nonwovens with
diIIerent manuIacturing techniques, Ior better production. Cotton share oI the
textile Iiber market has been steadily increasing and will continue to increase as
cotton-containing items is preIerred by the consumers.
REFERENCES:
1. otton for Nonwovens`: A Technical uide, Cotton Incorporated.
2. Lawrence . Shaw; " ottons Importance in the Textile Industry",
Symposium, Lima, Peru, May 12, 1998
3. Tortora, P.., Collier, B.J 'Understanding Textiles`, 5th edition,
Prentice-all, 1997
4. Kadolph, S.J., LangIold, A.J.: Textiles, 8th edition, Prentice-all, 1998
5. www.Ireedoniagroup.com
6. U.S. cotton Market, Monthly Economic Letter, Cotton Incorporated, Market
Research, Sep 15th, 1997
7. 'The lassification of otton`, USDA Agricultural Marketing Service,
cotton Division, Agricultural andbook 566, September 1995,br~
8. Shaw, C., Eckersley, and F.: " cotton", Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons Ltd.,
London, 1967
9. Duckett, K.E.: "$urface Properties of otton Fibers", SurIace
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$eries, Marcel Dekker, Inc. 1975, p 67,br~
10. Matthew's 'Textile Fibers, Their Physical, Microscopic and hemical
Properties`, edited by erbert R. Mauersberger, 6th edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1954
11. Webster's Third New International Dictionary, edited by Phillip Babcock
Dove, . & C. Merriam Company, 1963.
12. ordon Cook, J.: ' Handbook of Textile Fibers, Part I Natural Fibers,
Merrow Publishing Co. Ltd., 1968
13. Lawrence , Shaw: "ottons future trend ", 28
th
Annual Congress oI the
Commercial Cotton rowers oI Zimbabwe, June 5, 1996
14. M. RaIiq chaudhry: "Harvesting and ginning of cotton in the world",
Technical inIormation section, International Cotton Advisory Committee,
Washington, D. C. 1997
15. National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), Agricultural Statistics
Board, U.S.Department oI
Agriculture. http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/reports/nassr/Iield/pcp-
bba/acrg0699.txt Released June 30, 1999
16. 16.M RaIig Chaudhry: "ost of Producing a Kilogram of cotton", Technical
inIormation section, International Cotton Advisory Committee, Washington,
D. C. 1997
17. US Patent5634243, Ripley; W. . June 3, 1997
18. http://www.mini-magic.com/mini/Iabric.htm
19. Kermit E. duckett: "olor grading of cotton-measurement", Beltwide cotton
conIerence, Orlando, Jan. 5-8, 1999
20. J. Brandrup; E. . Immergut; "Polymer Handbook", 1989
21. M. Dean Ethridge, 57
th
Plenary Meeting oI International Cotton Advisory
Committee, Santa Cruz, Bolivia, Oct. 12-16, 1998
22. . Charles Allen, Jr.; "otton in Absorbent ores", Nonwovens World,
August-septembet, 1999, 71-78
23. Mark D. Lange, "otton Markets in the rystal all, Textile Month, June,
1998, 37-40
24. ATI Special report, "Outlook Ior U.S cotton 1999", ATI, May 1999, 140-
156
25. Cotton
Fibers: http://www.nonwovens.com/Iacts/technology/Iibers/cotton.html
26. Judith M. Bradow, etc; ""uality Measurements", The Journal oI Cotton
Science, 1:48-60, (1997)
27. P. Bel-beiger, etc; "Textile Technology, otton/Kenaf Fabrics: A Viable
Natural Fabrics", the Journal oI Cotton Science, 3:60-70, (1999)
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29. "#eaders $ervice, Natural otton Fiber", Nonwoven Industry, Jan. 1999,
74
30. B. Xu and C. Iang; "lustering Analysis For otton Trash lassification",
Textile Research Journal, 69(9), 656-662, 1999
31. Y. Cai, etc; "A New Method for Improving the Dyeability of cotton with
reactive Dyes", Textile Research Journal, 69(6), 440-446, 1999
32.http://www.cottoninc.com
33.http://www.hindu.com
34.http://www.sciencenews.org
35.http://www.bt.ucsd.edu

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