Proceedings of ESDA2006 8th Biennial ASME Conference on Engineering Systems Design and Analysis July 4-7, 2006, Torino,

Italy

ESDA2006-95505

SIMULATION OF CYLINDER VALVES FOR RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

Enzo Giacomelli GE Oil & Gas Global Services Via Felice Matteucci 2, 50127 Florence, Italy Phone +39 055 423 3934 enzo.giacomelli@ge.com

Fabio Falciani GE Oil & Gas Engineering Via Felice Matteucci 2, 50127 Florence, Italy Phone +39 055 423 3313 fabio.falciani@ge.com

Guido Volterrani GE Oil & Gas Engineering Via Felice Matteucci 2, 50127 Florence, Italy Phone +39 055 423 2006 guido.volterrani@ge.com

Riccardo Fani GE Oil & Gas Global Services Via Felice Matteucci 2, 50127 Florence, Italy Phone +39 055 458 6947 riccardo.fani@ge.com

Leonardo Galli GE Oil & Gas Engineering Via Felice Matteucci 2, 50127 Florence, Italy Phone +39 055 423 8509 leonardo.galli@ge.com

ABSTRACT Advanced mathematical models are now used to simulate reciprocating compressors and particularly the cylinder valves. The valves represent the most critical component of these machines and need particular attention from the technology point of view. In addition, the potential variable operating conditions must be properly addressed and investigated. The pulsations generated by the compressor and piping system can have a critical impact on valve behavior. Therefore for complex situations a simulation of the complete system including pressure vessels and piping can be performed. The results of the programs include displacement, pressure drop, compression cycle, and pressure pulsations based on coefficients obtained experimentally and through advanced CFD models. Through simulation an optimum compromise between mechanical valve behavior and minimum energy consumption can be found. NOMENCLATURE A = passage area of the valve with lift h

Ao = passage area of open valve Ap = net area of the piston Av = valve area exposed to the fluid drag of gas c = propagation speed of sound (m/s) Cd = drag coefficient Ce = discharge coefficient cf = speed of sound in the gas at discharge conditions co = speed of sound in the gas at suction conditions CR = coefficient of restitution Cs = damping coefficient d = pipe diameter F = frequency (Hz) FEM = Finite Element Method g = acceleration of gravity h = valve lift at time t ho = maximum valve lift k = cp/cv = ratio of heat capacities K = stiffness of the spring set Ldpe = low density polyethylene MW= molecular weight

p = pressure at time t po = pressure upstream of the suction valve pt = pressure downstream of the discharge valve Po = preload of valve spring R = universal gas constant RPM = revolutions per minute s = piston stroke t = time To = temperature upstream of suction valve Tf = temperature downstream of discharge valve V = instantaneous speed W = valve plate weight z = ratio between the gas volume in front of the piston at the angle and the area Ap, (+ for outer end and for inner end of piston); Z = compressibility factor of the gas = cylinder clearance coefficient = crank radius/connecting rod length ratio = crank angle = density (kg/m3) n = natural undamped frequency of valve- spring system under free conditions = angular velocity of the crank

into a multi-service machine. The secondary or hypercompressor raises the pressure up to the required value of 120350 MPa (15,000-50,000 psi) depending on the polymer to be produced, and generally does so in two stages.

Fig. 1 Booster-primary and hyper-compressor The cylinder valves have a great influence on the performance of reciprocating compressors and on the plant reliability and efficiency. Consequently the design has to be executed with great accuracy, and considering all of the parameters critical to the operation. Based on the geometric and operating characteristics of the machine, the physical properties and the selected valve type, the lift is calculated to ensure an adequate gas velocity. The above parameters are factored into the evaluation of the valve pressure drop and hence the definition of the correct spring load. The spring must be stiff enough to ensure correct valve closure, to limit the ring impact velocity, and be sized for the lift in order to avoid problems during operation. After the spring and lift have been defined, the valve design is verified by simulating the valve behavior to provide more detailed information on the ring displacement and the pressure drop diagram. Advanced computer programs are used for the simulation of the cylinders and valves,assuming a constant pressure in the suction and discharge plenum chambers. Pressure pulsations upstream and downstream of the cylinders strongly affect the behavior of the valves, due to the discontinuity of the flow [2]. In some complex cases involving numerous process parameters such as variable gas density, rpm and other parameters related to capacity control the results may not be reliable. This paper considers the augmentation of the mathematical model with experimentally and theoretically determined coefficients, and the option to include pressure pulsations in order to arrive at the best compromise between reduced energy consumption and the mechanical behavior of the valve.

B0 =

Ao Ce co 8 ; k 1 s Ap

Bf =

8 Ao C e c f k 1 s Ap

G=

Cs P C A P ;l = o ; g = J0 = d v o W 2 K K ho n j ho g
Cd Av Pf A h P P ;z = = ; = ;= ; W 2 Ao ho Po Pf n ho g

Jf =

INTRODUCTION Heavy duty reciprocating compressors are applied in refinery, petrochemical , chemical and natural gas applications. The diversity of these applications presents a variety of operating conditions including different molecular weights, small and large capacities, and a wide range of operating pressures. In refinery applications the pressure can be over 20Mpa (3,000 psi) for hydro-cracking, natural gas re-injection requires about 50-60MPa (4,000 psi), and the production of Ldpe pellets (Fig. 1) demands pressures of up to 350MPa (50,000 psi) [3]. In this last case the compression system consists of a booster to collect the plant recovery system gas and a primary compressor for the ethylene feed to reach the recycle pressure of 25-32 MPa. These two compressors are generally combined

CYLINDER VALVE FEATURES Refinery and petrochemical applications Hydrogen rich mixtures have dangerous characteristics as they are light and difficult to seal. The first can create valve fluttering phenomena on rings and springs with the possible risk of failures. The second affects safety, with possible gas leaks from the cylinder and increases the gas back-flow between the cylinder ends, thus causing excessive temperatures.

good practice to apply shot peening to the spring wire in order to substantially improve the endurance limits.

Fig. 3Comparison of plastic rings Materials for valve ring, plate, poppet In general, excluding special operating conditions such as very high pressures or low temperatures, the current trend is to use plastic materials for seals and valve rings [3] In the last few years this technology has made major advances, and experience with plastic rings up to 35 MPa shows higher operating results due to the adaptability of plastic materials to uncontrollable conditions such as dirt or the presence of liquids. Various filler materials can be used to increase tensile strength or resilience on order to meet the challenges of the operating conditions (discharge temperature, P, RPM etc.). When the pressure is above 35 Mpa (5,000 psi), metallic components are used: rings up to 100 MPa poppets up to the highest operating pressures 350MPa (50,000 psi). In this latter case the valves withstand high loads and fatigue conditions, and the use of radial or axial valves (monopoppet or multi-poppet) for the most severe applications must be evaluated in great detail.

Fig. 2 Cylinder valve It is necessary to consider that an isenthalpic expansion of hydrogen does not produce a temperature reduction, as is the case with ethylene and carbon dioxide. To avoid these leaks it is advisable to use ring or disk valves with flat surfaces instead of special profiles (i.e., round or trapezoidal). It is preferable to use single rings made of high strength plastic material, free to expand radially to avoid gas back-flow and stress concentration when the operating temperatures are increasing (Fig. 2, 3). Springs The design of valve springs which are made typically of 17-7 PH, sometimes of Inconel X-750, or less frequently of Elgiloy[3] is also important. They have an important role and a difficult task, and as they are generally made of small wire, the proper material and surface finishing is important. This selection is made based on the environmental conditions, with the aim of meeting the most severe conditions including corrosion. A stainless steel material such as 17-7 PH that guarantees a very high fatigue stress limit is usually applied. In some cases involving high sour gas conditions, Inconel X-750 is used because of its corrosion resistance. When corrosion is not important and fatigue becomes a major issue, special spring steels are applied. In any case, it is a

Gas velocity through the valve For low molecular weight gases the gas velocity through the valves is normally high due to the small lift selected to compensate for the weak drag force that a light gas produces in the rings. A small lift also has the advantage of maintaining the axis of the rings close to the theoretical position (even with dirty gas) reducing the possibility of overstresses caused by

localized, unsymmetrical contact between the seat and counterseat. The velocity also helps to keep the sealing areas clean, reducing sticking which can delay the opening and closing of the rings and cause abnormal accelerations and hammering. This reduces the risk of abrupt arrival of liquid and lube oil slugs in the cylinder chamber.

OPTIMIZATION OF CYLINDER VALVES The evaluation of the performance of the valves and their related influence on the compression cycle is described in detail below.

Fig. 5 FEM calculated stresses on an axial Hypercompressor valve As the actual process gases are not perfect, knowledge of the mixture composition is needed to evaluate the thermodynamic behavior and the size of a machine using sophisticated computer programs that incorporate the results of experimental research. As an example, with natural gas compressors, simulation using the correct gas mixture can reveal the potential formation of liquids so that provisions can be made to avoid seal and valve problems and for safe operation of the various components of the crank-mechanism and cylinder. The calculation of the thermodynamic properties of the hydrocarbon mixture is based on the use of the Redlick, Kwong, Soave equation which gives accurate data up to 70MPa[2].The compressibility factors are obtained using the Benedict, Webb and Rubin equation modified by K.E. Starling. The unsteady gas flow of a reciprocating compressor may generate high pressure pulsation levels, high vibrations, and high noise levels. Reduced performance is also a possible consequence. Therefore the execution of the plant design requires the following analysis: Acoustical -- to avoid resonance and control the pressure pulsation level Mechanical -- to avoid resonance and prevent dangerous vibrations with consequent high stresses. Piping, cylinders, valves, orifices, dampeners, coolers and separators have to be considered in the study. At all significant points the pressure pulsation level, shaking forces acting on the equipment (dampeners, separators, etc.), and piping (bends, change of size, etc.) are calculated and automatically compared with the requested limits. ANALYTICAL STUDY OF THE BEHAVIOR OF VALVES The mathematical model initially used to simulate the cylinder valve behavior in operation was based on Costagliolas

Fig. 4a, b Radial valve and FEM stress of poppet COMPRESSOR VALVE DESIGN AND SIMULATION Specialized computer programs are now available for the detailed thermodynamic design and mechanical evaluation of compressors based on the following analyses: Determination of gas characteristics Pressure pulsations Piping vibration Torsional analysis Component design Optimization cylinder valves Valve design In general the components of reciprocating compressors are subject to fatigue or require optimized geometry to take into account the gas flow particularly on cylinders and related components, including the valves. The design is always based on the most advanced methods, particularly for complex geometries. Now FEM is often used to properly determine stress levels. Using this tool, a special poppet for high pressure has been developed and tested and FEM modeling has been used to extended this poppet shape to other applications (Fig 4b). Also using FEM, the suction/discharge valves of hypercompressors have been analyzed over a range of operating loads, and the stress states (Fig 5) with associated critical points have been determined.

model [1] and later on, Mac Larens model [7], modified to also take into account the damping effect due to the configuration of the type of valves used. The model provided two differential equations (to be solved simultaneously) describing the valve differential pressure and the valve plate motion. Later this mathematical model was improved in order to also consider the presence of the lube oil injected into the cylinder to optimize the lifetime of the sealing components such as piston rings, rider bands, packing seal rings and valve springings. A set of experimental tests was performed to verify the closure delay time of the valve plate only due to the presence of lube oil. Different results (in terms of lift-time at the valve closure) have been experimentally obtained depending on the lube oil viscosity, amount of lubrication oil, and geometry of the valve stop. The experimental results have been introduced into the mathematical model and impact the differential equation describing the valve plate motion, where an additional force acting against the displacement of the plate was considered as a function of the variable parameters mentioned above. The latest improvement of the mathematical model allows the simulation of the valve behavior to take into account gas pressure pulsations acting on the valves (or present between the suction/discharge volume dampeners and the cylinder plenum chambers, where the valves are housed). Therefore variable suction and discharge pressures (instead of nominal stable pressures) are calculated from the compressor parameters and gas duct paths. This improvement was also based on the considerations made by Mac Laren, plus the assumption that temperature fluctuations due to the gas pressure pulsation are negligible. The mathematical model is based on two differential equations related to the suction and discharge valves: gas flow law of motion of the shutter The valve is submitted to the following forces: inertia, spring, and damping forces, (assumed to result from viscosity), and fluid drag of the gas passing through the valve. As drag is due to C d Av P , the two differential equations are linked and must be resolved by simultaneous integration using the step by step technique [10]. The flow (eq.1) and equilibrium force (eq.2 and 2) equations for the suction valve are:
k 1 1 d k s B z 1 k 2 dz = o d 2 z s d

As = t, dt =

d and dividing Eq.2 by K yields:

(2)

qz =

d2 d +G + ( + 1) = J o (1 ) 2 d d

The following system (eq.3, 4) is for the delivery valve.

k 1 1 d ks B k k k 1 + 2 dz = f s d 2z 2 2d d +G + ( + 1) = J f ( 1) q 2 d d

(3) (4)

At the boundary limits the motion is also subjected to the impact forces against the valve stop. This occurs when there is valve flutter due to incorrect sizing of the moving parts. It is necessary to proceed with the integration of Eq. (2) or (4) up to the impact and to begin successive integration with the boundary condition that the rebound velocity is a quota CR (coefficient of restitution) of the impact velocity, that is: For h = ho

dh dh = CR d rebound d impact

and proceed with the integration until a new impact occurs. Parameters and characteristics of valves The input data are: Properties of gas (molecular weight, Cp/Cv ratio) Pressure in suction and discharge spaces Suction and discharge temperature RPM of compressor and crank / conrod ratio Cylinder geometry (bore, clearance volume, stroke, number of valves) Valve interval of integration (usually assumed 0.05) The characteristics are the following: Weight Lift Area exposed to drag force Passage area Spring preload Spring stiffness Damping coefficient Delay coefficient due to the presence of a liquid Discharge coefficient Drag coefficient Coefficient of restitution

(1)

W d 2h dh + Cs + ( Kh + Po ) = Cd Av ( Po p ) (2) 2 g dt dt

Damping, drag and discharge coefficients, are a function of the lift h, but they are assumed constant during the valve opening phase, with an average value. Assumptions and modeling with pulsations A digital program can account for the fluctuations in suction and discharge pressures, considering the part of the plant between the cylinders and dampeners (volume bottle, single-double chamber) [2]. The remaining part is modeled as an endless pipe, i.e, a pipe of the same size but with infinite length, connected to the dampener, including upstream and downstream devices, and orifices (Fig. 6).

These equations, also used for the steady calculations, are solved by the Runge-Kutta integration method of the IV order and give the movement of the plate and the trend of the pressure into the cylinder. The system of equations for the suction and discharge piping, describing the unsteady, one-dimensional motion of a compressible fluid, is solved by the finite difference method. A second order method is used for points inside the piping (LaxWendroff or Leap-Frog) and a first order method (Characteristics method) on the boundary conditions [9]. Orifices are modeled with a quadratic pressure/flow rate law. The system of equations that models suction and discharge requires the knowledge of the solutions of the piping equations and vice-versa. Therefore during valve opening, for each integration step the program uses an iterative method that gives solutions of equations for the cylinder-valve assembly, estimating the values for the piping involved. From the solutions thus obtained, the piping equations are solved (limited to the connecting point with the cylinder) and the results are compared with the initial estimates. The process iterates until the estimates are within the adopted tolerances. At this point the program proceeds with the solution of the equations for the entire piping system. Output Typically the program gives the results indicated below: Plate movement Pressure loss through the valve Compression cycle Power loss at the valve Total power absorbed by the compressor Pressure pulsations in plenum chambers, nozzles, dampeners and piping. The results are obtainable for suction and discharge for systems considering the following features (Fig. 6): Identical cylinders in parallel (in phase or not) Single dampener Common manifold SIMULATION OF CYLINDER VALVES Knowledge of the dynamic behavior of valves under the operating conditions is necessary during the design phase to reach the performance and availability target requested for the system and compressor, although the presence of dirt and liquids can influence the actual operation [3]. The simulation optimizes the project parameters that affect the correct operation, the machine performance, and the reliability and the life of the valves, through the determination of the following factors: gas velocity through the valves, valve lift and spring stiffness and pre-load, that balances the lowest power loss with correct mechanical operation of all the components. The valve opens when the pressure inside the cylinder is slightly lower than that in the suction pipes. After the impact with the counter seat, the maximum lift is maintained until the

Fig. 6 - Idealized plant for valve design with pulsation effects This is accurate as at the beginning the plant is not completely defined and the pulsation level downstream of the vessels will be limited per API or Customer requirements. In the piping pulsation analysis, the valves will be considered to be open or closed. The complete simulation is not needed as the high frequency pulsations will be filtered by the dampeners and therefore will not appreciably influence the behavior of the piping. The program related to the valves is capable of simulating the complete behavior of the valve including the pulsation effects on the ring movement, on the cycle, and in general on the performance, as the pulsations could cause reverse flow through the valve during the opening phase. The program simulates suction, compression, discharge expansion, and the cycle is repeated until a steady state is reached for the pressure pulsation in the piping. The model adopts systems of equations describing the complex physical context of the operation of valves [7]. During compression and expansion the system is modeled as a polytropic process.

spring force exceeds that of the gas and valve drag. Then closing begins before reaching the bottom dead center, with a little rebound which does not significantly effect the pressure inside the cylinder .

effect of pressure pulsation on related systems upstream and downstream of the cylinder (Fig. 7a,b) [3]. EXPERIMENTAL DATA The formulas used for the valve calculations include coefficients obtained from wind tunnel experimental measurements on the various geometries and profiles of valves. The simulation requires experimental coefficients such as flow, sticking and drag coefficients on rings when the machine is lubricated, or when dragged liquid is present. Coefficients such as discharge, drag and stiction coefficients have been experimentally obtained [4]. Flow coefficients For high pressure compressors, poppets valve are used. In order to adequately investigate the optimum profiles and geometries, many fluid-dynamic tests have been carried out to define the flow coefficients to be used in the simulations(Fig.8)

Fig. 7a, b - Lift , pressure drop and suction valve cycle with pressure pulsation effect Incorrect behavior can be due to fluttering where the closing of the rings occurs prematurely due to excessively high spring stiffness and valve lift. In fluttering, usually the valve opens correctly when the pressure inside the cylinder is lower than that in the suction pipes, and the impact with the counter seat is predictable and normal. However, sometimes the rings do not reach the counterseat and oscillations occur. This generates a vary large number of spring cycles causing incorrect operating conditions resulting in energy loss and the danger of premature fatigue failure. In case of late closing a back-flow of suction gas in the suction pipe is generated causing a decrease in the volumetric efficiency. Moreover, a higher impact speed can damage springs and rings. In complex cases, it is important to also consider the interaction between suction and discharge valves, and the

Fig. 8 Experimentally evaluated Ks vs lift for different poppet types Extensive use of wind tunnel measurements has been made for different types of valves in order to achieve consistency between calculated and observed valve performance results. Stiction effect Another parameter has been introduced to simulate a possible delay in valve opening, due to excess oil or other liquids in the gas, or any other material that could tend to cause the valve to stick to the seat or counter-seat[4]. For instance the presence of high viscosity oils sometimes specified for booster primary compressors has caused this behavior with disk valves and to a lesser extent with ring valves.

This phenomenon is observed in particular in disk valves compared to single ring valves and has also been reported in high pressure compressors (e.g., booster primary machines) when high viscosity oils are used for process reasons. In addition, comparisons have been made with real valves on operating compressors in order to confirm the proper selection of the coefficients applied. Measurements have also been made including pressure pulsations at the plenum chambers upstream and downstream of the valves and in the piping system[2]. The ability to periodically check the performance of valves, as indicated below, provides further opportunities to verify the agreement of simulations with actual operating cases. CFD Applications Nowadays it is also possible to use advanced fluid dynamics for evaluation of the flow coefficients. This has been done for different geometries (Fig. 10). A high flow coefficient (Ks) corresponds to lower power consumption. CFD evaluation has been performed to evaluate drag force (i.e., drag coefficient) and valve fluid-dynamic efficiency.. This is a very useful method that allows the time for the evaluation of critical coefficients to be reduced.

Fig. 9a, b. c - Delay due to oil stiction vs time, rpm and spring load The same problems could also arise in high pressure applications where high viscosity oils are specified to reduce the excessive oil dilution due to the gas. Tests have been carried out on different arrangement of valves and rings considering the effect of the spring holes under the rings. The results (Fig. 9c) indicate that the stiction depends on the oil quantity. The model makes provision for four possible lubrication conditions: no lubrication, minilube ,normal or excess lubricant. The effect is also a function of the RPM of the machine and particular care has to be taken for high speed compressors that can run at up to 1800 RPM.

Fig. 10a, b Ks function of different poppet types

Fig. 11 Fluid dynamic analysis of an axial valve COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTAL AND THEORETICAL DATA FOR PRESSURE PULSATIONS Calculations carried out with the new system have been compared with pressure pulsation measurements performed on the compression cycle, on the plenum chambers and in the connected piping downstream of the pressure vessels. The good agreement between the theoretical and the experimental results of the pressure drop through the valves and the valve lift (Fig. 12) provides an example.

Fig. 13 Measured cycle and pressure pulsation compared to theoretical results

Fig. 12 Comparison of theoretical and experimental results of pressure drop and valve lift. Similar confirmation has also been obtained with acoustic emission measurements to demonstrate the proper opening and closing of the valves. MONITORING AND DIAGNOSTIC ASPECT A recent development is the ability to check the performance of valves using the temperature of the covers or the plenum chamber (Fig. 14). An increase can indicate a problem.

Fig. 14 Temperature measurement of valve cover Acoustic emissions can also be used for similar analyses. With a sonic system the opening and closing time of the plates can be determined and abnormalities such as the initiation of leaks can be revealed in advance (Fig. 15). This method can also be applied to standard valves and cylinders. This diagnostic approach is particularly important for Ldpe applications where identification of an incipient failure can reduce downtime and increase availability (Fig. 15a). To use this procedure on Ldpe machines, a special probe is installed in the cylinder head (Fig. 15b). The measurements in Fig. 15b indicate abnormal situations that have to be analyzed to determine the necessary actions, and particularly those related to maintenance of the valves.

REFERENCES [1] Costagliola M.,1950,The xxx of Spring Loaded Valves for Reciprocating Compressors, Journal of Applied Mechanics,Dec. [2] Giacomelli E., Falciani F., Manetti S., 1988, A New System to Simulate the Influence of Pressure Pulsation on Reciprocating Compressor Valve Behaviour, Quaderni Pignone N. 46 [3] Giacomelli E., Falciani F., Dini R., Giusti A. 2001, Design and Service Engineering to Improve Reliability of Reciprocating Compressors, NPRA 2001, Clean Fuels Challenge, Aug.28-29, Houston TX, USA, National Petrochemical & Refiners Association, CFC-01-211 [4] Giacomelli E., Giorgetti M.1974, Investigation on oil stiction in ring valves, Purdue Compressor technology conference, West Lafayette (Indiana) [5] Giacomelli E., Passeri M., Giusti S., Zagli F., Generosi S., 2004, Modeling of Pressure Pulsations for Reciprocating Compressors and Interaction with Mechanical System, Proceedings of ESDA, Engineering System Design and Analysis, 19-22 July, Manchester, UK, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. [6] Giacomelli E., Traversari A., 2001, Very high pressure compressors (over 100 Mpa [14.500 psi]) Compressors Handbook, P.C. Hanlon ed, Mc-Graw-Hill, NY. chapter 7. [7] Mac Laren J.F.T., Tramscheck A.B., Sanjines A., Pastrana O.F. A comparison of numerical solutions of the unsteady flow equations applied to reciprocating compressor systems, Journal of mechanical engineering science 1975. [8] Mac Laren J.F.T., Tramscheck A.B., Pastrana O.F. A study of boundary conditions encountered in reciprocating compressor systems, Proc. Compressor technology conference. University of Purdue, 1976. [9] Thorley A.R.D. Unsteady one dimensional flows in complex networks and pressurized vessels, Von Karman Institute for fluid dynamics, Lecture series 1980-1, n7/8 [10] Traversari A, Lacitignola P, Use and calculation of ring type valves for reciprocatine compressors, Quaderni Pignone N. 16 [11] Watters G.Z. Modern analysis and control of unsteady flow in pipelines, Ann Arbor Science, Publisher Inc., USA 1979.

Fig. 15a, b Acoustic emission of valves for hypercompressors

CONCLUSIONS The fluid dynamics of gas in piping systems is very important. Pressure and flow pulsations generate acoustic energy that interacts with the cylinder fluid-dynamics and performance, and with the plant mechanical systems, causing mechanical vibrations and valve problems. An evolution of a digital program for the dynamic simulation of valve behavior that takes into account pressure pulsations allows the development of an optimum design based on plate displacement, pressure drop and dissipated power, and indicates the influence of valves and the external system on compressor performance throughout the compressor cycle, and on the total absorbed power and the capacity. The simulation is highly effective for design optimization, giving the best compromise between energy savings and the mechanical behavior of the valves. This becomes essential when a wide range of operating conditions are involved. The determination of the coefficients requires experimentation, testing, and new evaluation systems. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors wish to thank GE Oil & Gas for permission to publish the information reported in this paper.

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